Geography Revision

Natural hazards are extreme natural events that can cause loss of life, extreme damage to
property and disrupt human activities.
some hazards need climatic or tectonic conditions to occur, for example tropical storms or
volcanic eruptions.

Tectonic hazards occur when the Earth's crust moves. For example, when the plates move,
friction can cause them to become stuck. Tension builds until the plates release, which leads
to an earthquake.
Climatic hazards occur when a region has certain weather conditions, for example heavy
rainfall can lead to flooding.

Hazards can have economic, social and environmental consequences. For each hazard
event the risks, or probability, of a particular consequence occurring can vary greatly.

This depends on certain factors. For example, in a developing country, the death toll tends to
be high but the short-term economic costs are often relatively low, whereas in a developed
country, the death toll tends to be low but the short-term economic costs can be extremely
high.

The crust is the outer layer of the Earth. It is a thin layer between 0 - 60 km thick. The crust is
the solid rock layer upon which we live. It is either continental or oceanic. The earth's crust
is broken into plates. It was once believed that convection currents in the mantle slowly
moved the crust around.

The earth's surface is made up of two types of crust:

 Oceanic crust - found underneath the oceans. It is denser than continental crust and
can be subducted.
 Continental crust - found under land masses or continents. It is generally older than
oceanic crust and is less often destroyed.

Earthquakes are found along all types of plate margins. Volcanoes however, only occur at
constructive and destructive plate margins.
A lot of volcanic activity occurs in the 'ring of fire'. The 'ring of fire' is a group of volcanoes
that are located along the plate margin of the Pacific plate.

Destructive, constructive and conservative plate margins

Destructive plate margins
A destructive plate margin usually involves an oceanic plate and a continental plate. The
plates move towards one another and this movement can cause earthquakes.

Subduction is when one crustal plate is forced beneath the other.

When the plate sinks into the mantle it melts to form magma. The pressure of the magma
builds up beneath the Earth's surface. The magma escapes through weaknesses in the rock
and rises up through a composite volcano.
If two continental plates collide, neither can sink and so the land buckles upwards to form
fold mountains. This is called a collision margin. Earthquakes can occur at collision
margins.

Constructive plate margin

At a constructive plate margin the plates move apart from one
another. When this happens the magma from the mantle rises up
to make (or construct) new land in the form of a shield volcano.
The movement of the plates over the mantle can cause
earthquakes.

Conservative plate margins

At a conservative plate
margin, the plates move past each other or are side
by side moving at different speeds. As the plates
move, friction occurs and plates become stuck.
Pressure builds up because the plates are still
trying to move. When the pressure is released, it
sends out huge amounts of energy, causing an
earthquake. The earthquakes at a conservative
plate boundary can be very destructive as they
occur close to the Earth's surface. There are no volcanoes at a conservative plate margin.

Earthquakes are the sudden violent shaking of the ground. This happens because the Earth's
plates are constantly moving. Sometimes, because of friction, plates try to move and become
stuck. Pressure builds up because the plates are still trying to move. When the pressure is
released, it sends out huge amounts of energy causing the Earth's surface to shake violently.

The point inside the Earth's crust where the earthquake originates from is known as the focus.
The earthquake's energy is released in seismic waves and they spread out from the focus.
The seismic waves are most powerful at the epicentre. The epicentre is the point on the
Earth's surface directly above the focus.

Earthquakes are found at all three plate boundaries: constructive, destructive and
conservative plate boundaries.

The effects of an earthquake can vary depending on:

  Level of development - whether it occurs in a rich or a poor country. Richer countries
will be more likely to be able to predict, protect and prepare themselves from the
effects of an earthquake.
 Population density - the more people living in an area, the more likely that more
deaths and casualties may arise.
We can classify the effects of an earthquake into the following categories:

 primary effects - things that happen immediately as a result of an earthquake

 secondary effects - things that happen in the hours, days and weeks after the initial
earthquake
Responses
 Short-term or immediate - a response in the days and weeks immediately after a
disaster has happened. Short-term responses mainly involve search and rescue and
helping the injured.
 Long-term - responses that go on for months and years after a disaster. It involves
rebuilding destroyed houses, schools, hospitals, etc. It also involves kick-starting
the local economy.
Primary and secondary effects of tropical storms.
Primary effects of tropical storms are:
 The strong winds (upwards of 125 mph) can cause widespread damage to buildings,
infrastructure (power lines, roads, and airports), trees and crops.
 Storm surges, with the low air pressure sea levels are very high, along with strong on-
shore winds huge waves are created causing extensive coastal flooding.
 Heavy rainfall can cause widespread flooding.  Sometimes there are localised
tornadoes.

Secondary effects of tropical storms are:

 There may be landslides and mudslides as unstable slopes become saturated by the
heavy rain.
 Polluted water supplies can cause diseases and further deaths.
 People may be forced to make make-shift shelters due to the damage to their homes.
 Basic services affected as infrastructure awaits repair.

Immediate and long-term responses to tropical storms.

Immediate responses - When a tropical storm hits an area, the population and government
need to respond immediately e.g. putting the emergency services on alert, evacuating the
area, rescuing and treating victims of the storm. In HICs detailed plans, forecasting and
efficient communication means that damage and loss of life will be kept to a minimum. The
population will be alerted through the media. The police and army will ensure that people
evacuate from the area. However, in LICs infrastructure e.g. decent roads and poor
communication make it difficult to alert people to the dangers. Help from friendly
governments will provide help.
Long term responses – When the danger is over rebuilding damaged housing and
infrastructure and improving protection systems e.g. levees. In HICs there is often less
damage and where there is damage governments respond quickly to make sure bridges and
roads are repaired quickly. In LICs it may be months if not years before things return to
normal. Normally there are long term health concerns with increasing incidence of diseases
such as cholera, typhoid and malaria

Typhoon Haiyan
Immediate responses
 International aid agencies responded quickly with food, water and temporary
shelters.
 The Philippines Red Cross delivered basic food aid e.g. rice & canned food.  Over
1200 evacuation centres set up for the homeless. UK sent shelter kits to provide
emergency shelter for a family.
 The French, Belgian and Israeli set up field hospitals to help the injured.

Long-term responses
 The UN donated financial aid, supplies and medical support.
 Rebuilding of the airport, ports, roads and bridges.
 “Cash for Work” schemes where locals were paid money to clear debris.
 Oxfam helped finance replacement of fishing boats.
 More cyclone shelters have been made away from coastal areas

The global climate has been changing since time began and will continue to change
into the future. However, since around 1950 there has been a dramatic increase in
global temperatures. This increase is known as global warming.

Scientists often use ice cores to detect changes in temperatures.

Human factors increasing global warming

Some human activities increase the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere:
 Burning fossil fuels, eg coal, gas and oil - these release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
 Deforestation - trees absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. If they are cut
down, there will be higher amounts of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 Dumping waste in landfill - when the waste decomposes it produces methane.
 Agriculture - agricultural practices lead to the release of nitrogen oxides into the
atmosphere.


Natural factors increasing global warming

There are also natural factors which contribute to increased global warming:

 Orbital changes - the Earth has natural warming and cooling periods caused
by Milankovitch cycles or variations in the tilt and/or orbit of the Earth around the
Sun (Wobble, roll and stretch theory).
 Volcanic activity - during a volcanic eruption carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere.
 Solar output - there can be fluctuations in the amount of radiation from the sun. If
there is high amount emitted there will be an increase in Earth's temperatures.

Impacts of climate change in the UK

 sea levels could rise, covering low lying areas, in particular east England
 droughts and floods become more likely as extreme weather increases
 increased demand for water in hotter summers puts pressure on water
supplies
 Industry may be impacted, eg Scottish ski resorts may have to close due to
lack of snow
Impacts of climate change around the world

 sea level rise will affect 80 million people

 tropical storms will increase in magnitude (strength)
 species in affected areas (eg Arctic) may become extinct
 diseases such as malaria increase, an additional 280 million people may be
affected

Mitigation strategies

Mitigation means to reduce or prevent the effects of something from

happening. Mitigation strategies include:
 Alternative energy - using alternative energy such as solar, wind or tidal
can reduce the use of fossil fuels. This will reduce the amount of carbon
dioxide released into the atmosphere.
 Carbon capture - this is the removal of carbon dioxide from waste gases
from power stations and then storing it in old oil and gas fields or coal mines
underground. This reduces the amount of emissions into the atmosphere.
 Planting trees - encouraging afforestation, means that there will be more
trees to absorb the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere during the process of
photosynthesis.
 International agreements - in 2005 the Kyoto Protocol became
international law. The countries that signed up to the treaty pledged to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. In 2016, the Paris
Agreement united all the world's nations in a single agreement on tackling
climate change. 

Tropical rainforests have distinct characteristics that support a wide variety of

different species. This means that they have a high biodiversity. The biotic or living
components of the ecosystem and the abiotic or non-living components of the
ecosystem depend on one another - a change in one leads to a change in the other.

Climate

 Very wet with over 2,000 mm of rainfall per year.

 Very warm with an average daily temperature of 28°C. The temperature never drops below
20°C and rarely exceeds 35°C.

Soil

 Most of the soil is not very fertile.

 A thin layer of fertile soil is found at the surface where the dead leaves decompose.
 It is red in colour because it is rich in iron.
 Due to heavy rainfall the nutrients are quickly washed out of the soil.
Plants and animals

 The warm and very wet climate provides perfect conditions for plant growth.
 The wide range of plant species supports many different animals, birds and insects.
 Species have adapted to the conditions of the rainforest, eg trees and plants have shallow-
reaching roots to absorb nutrients from the thin fertile layer in the soil.
Structure of a tropical rainforest
A tropical rainforest is made up of the following layers:
 ground level
 shrub layer
 under canopy
 (main) canopy
 Emergents

Plant adaptations

The following adaptations allow plants to survive in the conditions of the rainforest.

 Lianas - these are woody vines that have roots in the ground but climb up the
trees to reach the sunlight. Their leaves and flowers grow in the canopy.
 Tree trunks - these are tall and thin to allow trees to reach the sunlight. The bark
on these trees is smooth to allow water to flow down to the roots easily.
Drip tips - plants have leaves with pointy tips. This allows water to run off the leaves
quickly without damaging or breaking them.

Animal adaptations

Many animals have adapted to the unique conditions of the tropical rainforests.

The sloth uses camouflage and moves very slowly to make it difficult

for predators to spot.

The spider monkey has long, strong limbs to help it to climb through the rainforest
trees.

The flying frog has fully webbed hands and feet, and a flap of loose skin that
stretches between its limbs, which allows it to glide from plant to plant.

Loss of biodiversity

Many different species of plants and animals die because of deforestation. As plants
and animals are closely connected through the food web, deforestation this reduces
the biodiversity, or variety of species found in the tropical rainforest.

Cold environments characteristics

Cold environments (both polar and tundra) are found in high latitude areas and

mountainous regions of the world. They have an extreme climate and unique
characteristics such as the soil type and the plants and animals found there.
 The biodiversity in cold environments is relatively low because very few species
survive there.

Polar

Characteristics of polar areas include:

 Climate - long cold winters, with annual temperatures mostly below freezing. Polar
areas are often windy, with very little precipitation. Permanent ice caps cover polar
landscapes.
 Soil - the soil is covered in ice throughout the year.
 Plants - hundreds of species of moss, algae and lichen survive the harsh
conditions of the Polar biome. Few other plants can survive.
Tundra

Characteristics of the tundra include:

 Climate - cold, windy and little rainfall. Snow covers the ground for much of the
year. Average temperature in the Arctic tundra is between -12°C and -6°C. The
summer season lasts for 50-60 days each year during which there is permanent
daylight.
 Soil - this is high in organic material because it is too cold for
dead organisms to decompose.
 Plants - trees do not grow in the tundra. When the snow melts, small plants
flower. In mountainous areas, cushion plants grow between the rocks.

In order for plants to survive in cold environments they have had to adapt to the
extreme conditions found there. These unique adaptations include:

 Cushion plants - these are compact, low growing plants. These characteristics
help them to survive in cold and windy conditions. They trap airborne dust and use
it as a source of nutrients.
 Arctic poppy - this has a hairy stem to retain heat. The flower can track the sun in
the sky to maximise the amount of sunlight it receives so that it can
increase photosynthesis.
 Lichen - this organism does not need soil to grow. It grows very slowly, can
withstand very cold temperatures and survives beneath snow.

Physical landscapes in the UK - glaciers, rivers and relief

Relief refers to the way the landscape changes in height. Upland areas are high
above sea level. They are often, but not always, mountainous. Lowland areas are
 not very high above sea level. They are often flat. The shape of the landscape is
largely determined by:

 glaciation
 rivers

Upland areas are mainly found in:

 Scotland - The Northwest Highlands, the Cairngorm Mountains, the Grampian

Mountains and the Southern Uplands.
 England - The Pennines, Lake District, Dartmoor and Exmoor.
 Wales - Snowdonia and the Brecon Beacons.

 Lowland areas can be found in the following places:

 Lincolnshire
 the Midlands
 the London Basin
 the Vale of York

Types of erosion

Erosion is the process that wears away the river bed and banks. Erosion also breaks
up the rocks that are carried by the river.

There are four types of erosion:

 Hydraulic action - This is the sheer power of the water as it smashes against the
river banks. Air becomes trapped in the cracks of the river bank and bed, and
causes the rock to break apart.
 Abrasion - When pebbles grind along the river bank and bed in a sand-papering
effect.
 Attrition - When rocks that the river is carrying knock against each other. They
break apart to become smaller and more rounded.
 Solution - When the water dissolves certain types of rocks, eg limestone.

Types of transportation

The river picks up sediment and carries it downstream in different ways.

There are four types of transportation:

 Traction - large, heavy pebbles are rolled along the river bed. This is most
common near the source of a river, as here the load is larger.
 Saltation - pebbles are bounced along the river bed, most commonly near
the source.
 Suspension - lighter sediment is suspended (carried) within the water, most
commonly near the mouth of the river.
 Solution - the transport of dissolved chemicals. This varies along the river
depending on the presence of soluble rocks.

Deposition

When the river loses energy, it drops any of the material it has been carrying. This is
known as deposition.

Factors leading to deposition:

 shallow water
 at the end of the river's journey, at the river's mouth
 when the volume of the water decreases

Flood risk factors

Flooding occurs when a river bursts its banks and overflows onto the surrounding
land. There are many factors which can cause a flood - often the natural landscape
can influence flooding and also human interactions can increase the risk.

Causes of flooding

 Prolonged rainfall - if it rains for a long time, the land around a river can
become saturated (it's holding as much water or moisture as can be absorbed). If
there is more rainfall it cannot be soaked up, so it runs along the surface - this is
known as surface run-off.
 Heavy rainfall - if there is heavy rainfall there is less chance of it being soaked up
by the soil (infiltration) so it runs off into the river. The faster the water reaches the
river, the more likely it will flood.
 Relief - a steep valley is more likely to flood than a flatter valley because the
rainfall will run off into the river more quickly.
 Geology - permeable rocks allow water to pass through pores and cracks,
whereas impermeable rocks do not. If a valley is made up of impermeable rocks,
there is a higher chance of flooding as there is an increase in surface run-off.

A hydrograph shows how a river responds to a period of rainfall.

Hard engineering involves building artificial structures which try to control rivers.
They tend to be more expensive. Each hard engineering strategy has its advantages
and disadvantages.

advantages Disadvantages

Dams and reservoirs  Can be used to produce  Very expensive.

The dam traps water,
which builds up behind it,
forming a reservoir. Water
 Reservoirs can attract
can be released in a
controlled way.
electricity by passing the  Dams trap sediment
water through a turbine which means the
within the dam. reservoir can hold less
water.
tourists.
 Habitats are flooded
often leading to rotting
vegetation. This
releases methane which
is a greenhouse gas.
Settlements are lost
leading to the
displacement of people.

River straightening and  More water can be held  Dredging needs to be

dredging in the channel. done frequently.
 It can be used to reduce  Speeding up the river
Straightening the river
flood risk in built-up increases flood risk
speeds up the water so
areas. downstream.
high volumes of water can
pass through an area
quickly. Dredging makes
the river deeper so it can
hold more water.

Embankments  Cheap with a one-off  Looks unnatural.

cost  Water speeds up and
Raising the banks of a
 Allows for flood water to can increase flood risk
river means that it can
be contained within the downstream.
hold more water
river.

Soft engineering does not involve building artificial structures, but takes a more
sustainable and natural approach to managing the potential for river flooding. Each
approach has its advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages Disadvantages

Flood warnings and  People have time to  Some people may not
preparation protect their properties, be able to access the
The environmental agency eg with sandbags. warnings.
monitors rivers and issues  Many possessions can  Flash floods may
warnings via newspapers, be saved, resulting in happen too quickly for a
TV, radio and the internet fewer insurance claims. warning to be effective.
when they are likely to
flood so people can people that a flood is likely
prepare.

Floodplain zoning  More expensive  Not always possible to

buildings and land uses change existing land
Allowing only certain land are further away from uses.
uses on the floodplain the river, so have a  Planners have to decide
reduces the risk of reduced flood risk. what type of flood to
flooding to houses and
 Less damage is caused, plan for.
important buildings
leading to fewer
insurance claims.

Wave types
Waves can be constructive or destructive.

When a wave breaks, water is washed up the beach. This is called the swash. Then
the water runs back down the beach, which is called the backwash. With a
constructive wave, the swash is stronger than the backwash. With a destructive
wave, the backwash is stronger than the swash.

The table below outlines the key differences between the two types of wave.

Characteristic Constructive Destructive

Energy Low High

Swash Strong Weak

Backwash Weak Strong

Wave height Low High

Beach shape caused by this type of wave Wide and flat Steep and narrow

Frequency Low (6-8 per minute) High (10-14 per minute)

The coastal zone: key processes

 Three key processes take place in the coastal zone:

 Erosion - waves can erode the coastline in a similar way to the water in rivers.
This usually occurs when the sea takes lots of energy from the power
of destructive waves.
 Transportation - the movement of eroded material up and down, and along the
coast.
 Deposition - when the sea loses energy, it drops the sand, rock particles and
pebbles that it has been carrying, depositing them.

Four key factors affect the erosion of the coastline:

 Rock type - chalks and limestone can form steep cliffs, whereas clays and softer
rock form large bays.
 Rock structure - a discordant coastline, where rocks are at an angle to the edge
of the coastline, will erode at different rates.

 The shape of the coastline - headlands of a coastline are exposed to the full
force of destructive waves. Bays are more sheltered from the wave energy
because of wave refraction, so erosion is slower.

Types of weathering
Exposed rocks along the coastline can be broken down by the processes of
weathering.

Freeze-thaw weathering

Freeze-thaw weathering occurs when rocks are porous (contain holes)

or permeable (allow water to pass through).

1. Water enters cracks in the rock.

2. When temperatures drop, the water freezes and expands causing the crack to
widen.
3. The ice melts and water makes its way deeper into the cracks.
4. The process repeats itself until the rock splits entirely.
Biological weathering

Plants and animals can also have an effect on rocks. Roots burrow down, weakening
the structure of the rock until it breaks away.

1. Plant roots can get into small cracks in the rock.

2. As the roots grow, the cracks become larger.
3. This causes small pieces of rock to break away.
Chemical weathering
 Rainwater and seawater can be a weak acid. If a coastline is made up of rocks such
as limestone or chalk, over time they can become dissolved by the acid in the water.

Types of mass movements

Another way material can be moved on the coastline is through mass movement.
Mass movement is the downhill movement of sediment that moves because of
gravity. There are four different types of mass movement.

Rockfall

Bits of rock fall off the cliff face, usually due to freeze-thaw weathering.

Mudflow

Saturated soil (soil filled with water) flows down a slope.

Landslide

Large blocks of rock slide downhill.

Rotational slip

Saturated soil slump down a curved surface.

Coastal deposition
When the sea loses energy, it drops the sand, rock particles and pebbles it has been
carrying. This is called deposition. Deposition happens when the swash is stronger
than the backwash and is associated with constructive waves.

The key factors which affect coastlines are:

 The rock type/geology (see map below). Hard rock types are less likely to erode.
 The fetch of the wave and the strength of the wind. Powerful winds and a long
fetch create the most damaging (erosive) waves.
 The angle of the slope – steep slopes erode more violently and frequently.
 Weather conditions – freezing temperatures and heavy rain increase weathering
and the rate of erosion.
 The amount of vegetation – the presence of vegetation helps stabilise slopes but
also increases the occurrence of biological weathering.
The process of erosion can create different landforms along the
coastline.

Headlands and bays

Cliffs along the coastline do not erode at the same pace. When a stretch of coastline
is formed from different types of rock, headlands and bays can form.

Cliffs and wave-cut platforms

Cliffs are shaped through erosion and weathering. Soft rock erodes quickly and
forms gentle sloping cliffs, whereas hard rock is more resistant and forms steep
cliffs. A wave-cut platform is a wide gently-sloping surface found at the foot of a cliff.

Caves, arches, stacks and stumps

Caves, arches, stacks and stumps are erosional features that are commonly found
on a headland.

1. Cracks are widened in the headland through the erosional processes of

hydraulic action and abrasion.
2. As the waves continue to grind away at the crack, it begins to open up to form
a cave.
3. The cave becomes larger and eventually breaks through the headland to form
an arch.
4. The base of the arch continually becomes wider through further erosion, until its
roof becomes too heavy and collapses into the sea. This leaves a stack (an
isolated column of rock).
5. The stack is undercut at the base until it collapses to form a stump.

Depositional landforms
When water loses its energy, any sediment it is carrying is deposited. The build-up of
deposited sediment can form different features along the coast.

Beaches

Beaches are made up from eroded material that has been transported from
elsewhere and then deposited by the sea. For this to occur, waves must have limited
energy, so beaches often form in sheltered areas like bays. Constructive waves build
up beaches as they have a strong swash and a weak backwash.

Spits
A spit is an extended stretch of sand or shingle jutting out into the sea from the land.
Spits occur when there is a change in the shape of the landscape or there is a river
mouth.

This is how spits are formed:

1. Sediment is carried by longshore drift.

2. When there is a change in the shape of the coastline, deposition occurs. A long
thin ridge of material is deposited. This is the spit.
3. A hooked end can form if there is a change in wind direction.
4. Waves cannot get past a spit, therefore the water behind a spit is very
sheltered. Silts are deposited here to form salt marshes or mud flats.

Bars
Sometimes a spit can grow across a bay, and joins two headlands together. This
landform is known as a bar. They can trap shallow lakes behind the bar, these are
known as lagoons. Lagoons do not last forever and may be filled up with sediment.