Natural Hazards:

• Geophysical Hazards: These include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis.

• Meteorological Hazards: Such as hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and storms.
• Hydrological Hazards: Including avalanches, landslides, and flash floods.
• Climatological Hazards: Such as extreme temperatures, droughts, and wildfires.
• Biological Hazards: Such as pandemics, epidemics, and disease outbreaks.

Human-Made Hazards:
• Technological Hazards: Arise from industrial or technological processes, including chemical
spills, nuclear accidents, and industrial explosions.
• Anthropogenic Environmental Hazards: Such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change
caused by human activities.

Complex Hazards:
• Some hazards can be a combination of natural and human-made factors, creating complex sit-
uations.
For example, human activities contributing to climate change may influence the frequency and
intensity of natural hazards like hurricanes or wildfires

Severity and Frequency:

• Hazards can vary in their severity and frequency. Some occur frequently but with low intensity,
while others are rare but can have catastrophic consequences.

Physical and Environmental Processes:

• Hazards often result from physical and environmental processes that have the potential to
cause harm. Understanding the underlying processes is essential for assessing and mitigating
the associated risks.

Location-Specific:
• Hazards are often location-specific.
Certain regions are more prone to particular hazards due to their geographical, geological, or
climatic characteristics. For example, earthquake-prone areas are often located near tectonic
plate boundaries.

Temporal Aspect:
• Hazards may have temporal dimensions, occurring suddenly or developing over an extended
period. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are examples of sudden-onset hazards, while cli-
mate change represents a hazard with a gradual onset.
Risk Interaction:
• Hazards can interact with vulnerabilities and exposures in a given area, leading to the concept
of disaster risk. Risk is a function of the hazard, exposure of elements at risk, and their vulnera-
bility.

What is Vulnerability?

In the context of disasters, vulnerability refers to how susceptible a person, community, asset, or system
is to experiencing harm. It's a complex concept influenced by these factors:

 Exposure: The degree to which a person or place is physically located within a hazard-prone
area (e.g., flood zone, earthquake fault line).
 Sensitivity: How likely something is to be negatively affected by the hazard (e.g., flimsy struc-
tures vs. reinforced buildings).
 Capacity to cope and adapt: The resources and abilities a person, community, or system has to
prepare for, respond to, and recover from a disaster.

Types of Vulnerability

 Physical: Susceptibility to harm due to location, building materials, infrastructure, age of a popu-
lation (very young, elderly), limited mobility due to disabilities.
 Economic: Poverty, lack of financial resources, dependence on a single income source, and a
fragile economy make individuals and communities more vulnerable to the financial impacts of
disasters.
 Social: Discrimination, marginalization, lack of social support networks, lack of access to health
care, and limited education can all increase vulnerability to disasters.
 Environmental: Environmental degradation, deforestation, and climate change can exacerbate
the impact of natural hazards, making communities more vulnerable.

Vulnerability in the Philippines

The Philippines is highly vulnerable to natural disasters due to:

 Geography: Located in the Pacific Ring of Fire (earthquake and volcano zone) and the typhoon
belt.
 High Exposure: Many people live in coastal areas susceptible to flooding and storm surges, or in
mountainous areas prone to landslides.
 Poverty: Significant portions of the population live in poverty, limiting their ability to build disas-
ter-resistant homes and to recover from losses.
 Informal Settlements: Many urban areas have densely-populated informal settlements where
housing is often inadequate and located in hazardous zones.
 Environmental Issues: Deforestation and unsustainable land practices increase soil erosion and
flood risks.
Reducing Vulnerability

To build resilience and reduce vulnerability in the Philippines and similar locations, these efforts are cru-
cial:

 Hazard Mapping: Identifying and understanding hazard-prone areas for informed land-use plan-
ning and relocation efforts.
 Early Warning Systems: Investing in technology to provide advance notice to communities
about impending disasters.
 Building codes and Reinforcement: Enforcing building standards and retrofitting existing struc-
tures to be more disaster-resistant.
 Social Safety Nets: Ensuring strong social welfare programs to support the most vulnerable peo-
ple before, during, and after disasters.
 Community-based preparedness: Empowering communities to develop disaster plans and build
capacity for response.
 Environmental Protection: Tackling deforestation, managing watersheds, and promoting sus-
tainable practices to bolster natural defenses.

Lesson 1: Ground Shaking

The Cause: Seismic Waves

Imagine tossing a pebble into a pond. Ripples spread outward in all directions, right? Earth-
quakes trigger similar waves traveling through the Earth's interior (body waves) and along the
surface (surface waves). These seismic waves cause the ground to shake.

 Body Waves: There are two main types:

o Primary waves (P-waves) - They travel fastest, like pushing and pulling the
ground back and forth. Imagine a slinky being stretched and compressed.
o Secondary waves (S-waves) - These cause side-to-side shaking and are more
damaging to structures. Think of shaking a jump rope side-to-side.
 Surface Waves: These waves travel slower but cause more intense shaking, especially
on soft ground.
o Rayleigh waves - Imagine waves rolling along the ground like an ocean wave,
but shaking the ground vertically and horizontally.
o Love waves - These waves shake the ground from side to side, similar to S-
waves but only travel along the surface.

Intensity of Ground Shaking

The severity of shaking depends on several factors:

 Earthquake Magnitude: This measures the total energy released by the earthquake.
Higher magnitude generally translates to stronger shaking.
 Distance from Epicenter: The shaking weakens as the waves travel outward from the
earthquake's source (epicenter).
 Local Geology: Soft, unconsolidated ground shakes more violently than solid rock.
Impact of Ground Shaking

Ground shaking is the most destructive force of earthquakes. It can cause:

 Building Damage: Cracks, collapsed walls, and even complete building failure can oc-
cur depending on the shaking intensity and building construction quality.
 Landslides: Shaking can dislodge rocks and soil on slopes, triggering landslides that
can bury structures and roads.
 Tsunamis: Powerful underwater earthquakes can generate large waves that travel to-
wards coastlines, causing tsunamis.

Preparing for Ground Shaking

Living in earthquake-prone areas necessitates preparedness:

 Earthquake-resistant construction: Building codes in these areas mandate earth-

quake-resistant features to minimize damage during shaking.
 Securing your home: Bolt furniture to walls, secure cabinets, and strap down appli-
ances to prevent them from becoming projectiles during shaking.
 Having an earthquake plan: Discuss and practice a plan with your family for what to do
during and after an earthquake, including drop, cover, and hold procedures.
 Emergency supplies: Prepare an emergency kit with food, water, first aid supplies, a
battery-powered radio, and other essentials to survive for several days after an earth-
quake.

Ground Rupture

Ground rupture, also known as surface faulting, is a dramatic consequence of earthquakes

where the Earth's crust tears open along a fault line. Here's a deeper look into this phenome-
non:

The Cause: Fault Movement

The Earth's crust is made up of tectonic plates that are constantly moving. Faults are zones of
weakness where these plates grind past each other. During an earthquake, the sudden release
of energy can cause the rock along a fault to break and shift, creating a visible crack on the sur-
face.

Characteristics of Ground Rupture:

 Displacement: The ground on either side of the fault can be displaced vertically (up or
down) or horizontally (sideways), or a combination of both. The amount of displacement
can vary greatly depending on the earthquake's magnitude and the specific fault zone.
 Size: Ground ruptures can range in size from a few centimeters to several meters wide
and can extend for many kilometers in length, depending on the size of the earthquake
and the length of the fault that ruptures.
 Scarps: The displaced ground can create a steep cliff-like feature called a scarp.
Impact of Ground Rupture

While less widespread than ground shaking, ground rupture can be incredibly destructive to in-
frastructure and buildings built directly on top of a fault line. Here's how it can cause damage:

 Severed Infrastructure: Ruptures can tear apart roads, pipelines, power lines, and
other buried utilities.
 Building Damage: Structures built across a fault line can be split in two, experience se-
vere foundation damage, or collapse entirely depending on the severity of the rupture.
 Landslides: Ground ruptures can trigger landslides, especially on slopes, causing addi-
tional damage and hazards.

Predicting and Mitigating Ground Rupture

Unfortunately, predicting exactly where a ground rupture will occur is challenging. However, ge-
ologists can map fault zones and identify areas with a higher risk of experiencing ruptures. This
information is then used to:

 Land-use planning: Avoid constructing critical infrastructure or buildings directly on

known active fault lines.
 Earthquake-resistant construction: In some cases, special building codes and engi-
neering techniques can be used to make structures more resistant to the effects of
ground rupture

Earthquake- Induced Ground Subsidence

Earthquake-induced ground subsidence, also known as land subsidence, refers to the settling
or sinking of the ground surface triggered by an earthquake. This phenomenon can have signifi-
cant consequences, impacting infrastructure, buildings, and landscapes.

Here's a deeper dive into how earthquakes cause subsidence and the resulting effects:

Mechanisms of Earthquake-Induced Subsidence

There are two main mechanisms by which earthquakes can cause subsidence:

 Liquefaction: As discussed earlier, liquefaction occurs when saturated, loose soils lose
their strength due to strong ground shaking. This can lead to the ground settling as the
liquefied soil compacts.
 Fault Movement: During large earthquakes, the movement of tectonic plates along a
fault line can cause the ground on one side to subside vertically. This can create a step-
like feature on the Earth's surface.

Factors Affecting Subsidence Severity

The severity of earthquake-induced subsidence depends on several factors:

  Earthquake Magnitude: Stronger earthquakes are more likely to trigger liquefaction and
cause greater ground movement, leading to more significant subsidence.
 Ground Conditions: Areas with loose, saturated soils are more prone to liquefaction
and subsequent subsidence.
 Underlying Geology: The presence of soft sediments or clays can amplify subsidence
caused by fault movement.
 Water Table Level: A higher water table increases the risk of liquefaction and subsi-
dence.

Impact of Earthquake-Induced Subsidence

Earthquake-induced subsidence can have several negative consequences:

 Damage to Infrastructure: Roads, bridges, railways, and other infrastructure can be

cracked, uneven, or misaligned due to subsidence. This can disrupt transportation and
utility services.
 Building Damage: Buildings can experience foundation problems, uneven settlement,
and structural cracks due to subsidence. In severe cases, buildings may become unin-
habitable.
 Landslides: Subsidence can trigger landslides, especially on slopes where the ground
loses stability.
 Coastal Flooding: In coastal areas, subsidence can cause land to sink below sea level,
increasing the risk of flooding.

Examples of Earthquake-Induced Subsidence

Several historical earthquakes have caused significant ground subsidence:

 The 1964 Niigata earthquake in Japan caused widespread liquefaction and subsidence,
leading to extensive damage to buildings and infrastructure.
 The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California triggered liquefaction and subsidence in
some areas, damaging buildings and roads.
 The 2011 Tohoku earthquake in Japan caused extensive subsidence along the coast
due to fault movement, displacing many communities.

Mitigating Subsidence Risks

Similar to liquefaction, mitigating earthquake-induced subsidence involves understanding the

risks and taking preventative measures:

 Land-use planning: Avoiding construction of critical structures in areas with high subsi-
dence risk.
  Ground improvement techniques: In some cases, ground can be treated to improve
its stability and reduce liquefaction susceptibility.
 Building codes and design: Earthquake-resistant building codes and foundation de-
signs can help minimize damage from subsidence.

TSUNAMI

Tsunamis are giant waves caused by a sudden displacement of a large volume of water, typi-
cally in the ocean. They are often mistakenly referred to as tidal waves, but tides are caused by
the gravitational forces of the moon and sun, whereas tsunamis are a much more powerful phe-
nomenon.

Here's a comprehensive look at tsunamis:

Causes of Tsunamis:

 Earthquakes: The most common cause of tsunamis is underwater earthquakes. When

a large earthquake occurs on the ocean floor, it can abruptly displace a massive amount
of water, generating a tsunami wave.
 Underwater volcanic eruptions: Explosive volcanic eruptions underwater can also dis-
place water and trigger tsunamis.
 Landslides: Large landslides entering the ocean can displace water and cause local-
ized tsunamis.
 Near-Earth objects: While less frequent, impacts from asteroids or comets in the ocean
could potentially generate tsunamis.

Characteristics of Tsunamis:

 Long Wavelengths: Unlike wind-generated waves that have short wavelengths,

tsunamis have very long wavelengths, meaning the distance between wave crests is
vast. This allows them to travel across entire ocean basins with minimal decrease in en-
ergy.
 Increased Height Inland: Tsunami waves may appear unremarkable in deep water, but
as they approach the coast and enter shallower water, they slow down and their height
increases dramatically. This is why the danger of tsunamis is often realized only when
the wave reaches land.
 Series of Waves: A tsunami is not a single wave, but rather a series of waves, with peri-
ods (time between wave crests) ranging from minutes to hours. The first wave may not
be the largest, and subsequent waves can be even more destructive.

Impacts of Tsunamis:
  Coastal Flooding: Tsunamis can inundate coastal areas with devastating conse-
quences. The force of the water can demolish buildings, infrastructure, and entire com-
munities.
 Loss of Life: Tsunamis can cause tragic loss of life due to drowning, blunt force trauma,
and injuries from debris.
 Contamination: Tsunamis can contaminate freshwater sources with saltwater intrusion
and spread debris that can create hazardous waste.
 Economic Damage: The destruction of infrastructure, buildings, and property can cause
significant economic losses in tsunami-affected areas.

Warning Signs of a Tsunami:

 Strong earthquake: A strong earthquake, especially one centered near the coast or un-
derwater, is a significant warning sign of a potential tsunami.
 Rapid sea level recession: If the water recedes rapidly from the shore, exposing the
seabed much further than usual, this is a strong indicator of an incoming tsunami.
 Unusual roaring sound: A loud roaring sound from the ocean can sometimes precede
a tsunami wave.

Tsunami Preparedness:

Living in a tsunami-prone area necessitates preparedness:

 Know your evacuation zone: Familiarize yourself with tsunami evacuation zones and
have a plan to reach higher ground quickly in case of a warning.
 Practice evacuation drills: Participate in community tsunami drills to ensure everyone
knows what to do in an emergency.
 Have a tsunami preparedness kit: Assemble an emergency kit with essential supplies
like food, water, first aid supplies, and a battery-powered radio to sustain you for several
days after a tsunami.
 Stay informed: Pay attention to tsunami warnings and instructions from local authorities
during an event.