Geological Hazards:: Earthquake, Tsunami, and Volcanic Eruption

2nd semester
3rd Quarter
GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS:
Week 3 EARTHQUAKE, TSUNAMI, AND VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Module 3
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS: Read the specific directions carefully before answering the exercises and activities. For
online consultations, please refer to the given schedule.
ESSENTIAL LEARNING PURPOSES: At the end of these lessons, I am expected to:
A. Identify various potential earthquake hazards and its effects

A. Recognize the impeding signs of tsunami and its effects.
M. Explain various volcano-related hazards and its effects.
T. Develop a family emergency preparedness plan to guide them what to do before, during and after
What do I a geological hazard (they may choose 1 among the geological hazards presented)
need to T. Apply mitigation strategies to prevent loss of lives and properties.
know?
Before going further, let us see if you can answer this exercise. I know you can do it! This will
help you to determine your prior knowledge about this topic. Good luck!
ACTIVITY: DO WHAT IS ASKED
What I know?
REVIEW 1. What have we been experiencing these past few days?
2. What do you think is the reason about that?
3. What is geological Hazard?
GEOLOGICAL HAZARD
Our country is under a continuing threat of natural hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis,
tropical cyclones, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions storm surges, and extreme
atmospheric phenomena. In addition, this traditional threat is becoming more serious with
the increase of risk brought by increasing population. Increasing size of the population
and their assets to risk, as they forced to live in disaster-prone areas.
The Philippine archipelago, by ill fortune, is one of these “areas of the world more prone
to damage and disruption” because of natural hazards. This section (lesson 3) is about
geological hazards affecting the country.
EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is a vibration of the ground produced by a sudden release of energy due to the
disturbance of the stability of the rock masses beneath the Earth’s surface.
When there is a fault “displacements of strata of the same rock have clearly taken place, either vertically or
horizontally” according B.A Bolt (1978). He further wrote that faults indicate that at some time in the past, there
had been movements along the fault line. He concluded that the movement can either be slow slip which does not
produce any ground vibration, or the rupture is sudden which results into perceptible vibrations called
earthquake.
EARTHQUAKE THEORIES
HOLY TRINITY COLLEGE OF GENERAL SANTOS CITY | SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL PROGRAM 1
MODULE IN DISASTER RISK RDUCTION AND RECOVERY| STEM & ABM
PREPARED BY: KESHIA JANE P. PABILONA, LPT
 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
The theory pf plate tectonic is generally accepted as the explanation why earthquake occur. According to
this theory, the earths outer layer, called the lithosphere, is broken into large and small plates that are
floating in a hot and plastic asthenosphere
These plates fits together closely although in many places their boundaries are not clearly visible at
ground level. The plates believed to be set into motion by enormous convection currents operating in the
asthenosphere.
Diverging boundaries
A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other. Along these boundaries,
earthquakes are common and magma (molten rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle to the surface, solidifying to
create new oceanic crust. Divergent boundaries within continents produce rifts, which eventually become rift
valleys.
Converging Boundaries
When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The impact of the colliding plates can
cause the edges of one or both plates to buckle up into a mountain ranges or one of the plates may bend down
into a deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often forms parallel to convergent plate boundaries and
powerful earthquakes are common along these boundaries.
At convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crust is often forced down into the mantle where it begins to melt.
Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into granite, the rock that makes up the continents.
Thus, at convergent boundaries, continental crust is created and oceanic crust is destroyed.
Continental to Continental
At a convergent boundary, two plates
come together. The colliding continental
plates have the same density; thus neither
will sink. They push against each and they
may fuse into single, larger continent. The
crust at the boundary is crumpled and
pushed upward to form mountain ranges.
Oceanic to Continental
When an oceanic plate collided with a

continental plate, the heavier and denser
oceanic plate sub ducts or sinks beneath the
continental plate. At the subduction zone, a
very deep sea trench forms in the subduction
plate. On the continental and parallel to the
trench, there forms a mountain range with a
chain of volcanoes known as volcanic arc.
Friction between dominant and subducted
plate melt huge amount of rock.
A trench is a type of excavation or

depression in the ground that is generally
deeper than it is wide, and narrow compared
with its length. In geology, trenches are
created as a result of erosion by rivers or by
geological movement of tectonic plates.
Oceanic to Oceanic
Two colliding oceanic plates, on the other hand. Have the same material it is the older oceanic plate that sinks.
An older oceanic plate is cooler and, therefore, denser. As one oceanic plate sinks, friction produces large
volumes of melted rock which rises and erupts at the seafloor in many spots. Repeated eruptions eventually raise
the volcanoes above the surface.
A chain of island volcanoes is called island arc.
Transform Plate Boundary
Transform boundaries are places where

plates slide sideways past each other.
At transform boundaries, lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed.
Many transform boundaries are found on the sea floor, where they connect segments of diverging mid-ocean
ridges. California's San Andreas fault is a transform boundary.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes may be classified according to their mode of generation:
 Tectonic earthquake
Ground vibrations produced by energy released after a sudden dislocation of a pre-existing fault or a
rupture at a weak point within or below the Earth’s crust because of large deforming (tectonic forces
operating on the rocks. Tectonic earthquakes are of great social concern because of the great disasters
they cause.
 Volcanic earthquakes
Ground vibrations associated with volcanic activity. Before an eruption, very hot viscous magma under
great pressure toward the surface of the earth through conduits and hot dikes.
This types of earthquakes are confined in the vicinity of volcanoes and are of weaker magnitude and
intensity than those of tectonic earthquakes.
 Explosion earthquakes
Man-made 9technological) earthquakes produced by detonation of high explosives like nuclear bombs.
When a nuclear bomb is detonated underground, a significant amount of energy is released.
THE SEVERITY OF AN EARTHQUAKE
The severity of an earthquake can be measured in terms of intensity and magnitude.

Intensity is based on the observed effects of the shaking of the ground on human beings, buildings,
hanging objects, and natural structures.
The effects of ground shaking on people and their properties, civil structures and environment vary from
one place to another inside the region where the earthquake is felt. Intensity depends on:
 The distance of the affected persons, buildings, hanging objects, and natural structures, from the
earthquake source.
 The geological condition where these people and their properties, civil structures, and environment are
situated.
 The distances of the people and objects from the source of the earthquake.
 The quality in terms of strength of civil structures; and ages and health conditions of people.
In the Philippines, PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale used for measuring and reporting to the public the
intensities observed after perceptible earthquake events.
The scale has ten intensity levels graduated from Roman numeral I, the level of the least perceptible ground
vibrations, to Roman Numeral X, the level of the most severe ground vibrations resulting in widespread death
and destruction.
Magnitude on the other hand, is a qualitative measurement of the energy release at the focus (hypocenter) of
the earthquake. Magnitude represents a single quantity of energy released. The Richer Magnitude scale,
developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richer of the California Institute of Technology, does not tell directly the
extent of damage wrought by an earthquake.
An earthquake of a certain magnitude, originating at a shallow depth, may result in death and destruction, but
an earthquake of the same magnitude, originating at a depth more than 500 Kilometers, may not have the
same effects as the shallow earthquake.
Shallow tectonic earthquakes of large magnitude are extremely violent and very destructive although the
frequency of their occurrences is not high. Small earthquakes occur very frequently in the Philippine,
particularly in the eastern part of Mindanao.
A very severe earthquake is usually associated with many shocks that can take place before or after the main
earthquake event. The associated shocks are called foreshocks
( those occurring before the main shock ), and the aftershocks ( those occurring after the main shock ). The
occurrence of foreshocks and aftershocks happen at an irregular intervals over an indefinite period.
GENERAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
The effects of severe earthquakes are almost always experienced over a large region causing destruction of
houses, buildings, and other structures with consequences of killing and injuring people livestock:
 String ground motions can cause partial or total damage to infrastructures like houses, buildings, roads,
bridges, dams, power plants, ports, communication towers, and water supply lines.
 Fires may occur due to electrical short-circuiting, ignited gas or kerosene that might have leaked out from
broken stoves, gas pipes, gas tanks, or lamps.
 The sudden vibration of the ground can shear and crush building frames, break window glasses, topple
towers or spires, and sometimes jerk people and loose objects out of their positions.
 Strong ground motion may trigger landslides.
 Liquefaction.
 Contamination of water supply
 Mental anguish or trauma

NOTE: The actual trembling of the ground is not the direct cause of injury or death. Earthquake-
related deaths and injuries are caused by:
 Debris or structural parts of damaged buildings and other structures falling on people.
 Severe cuts due to flying glasses from broken windows or neon light signs
 Over-turning of shelves, fixtures, cabinets; and tall appliances hitting victims
 Severe burns due to fires from broken gas pipes or hoses, or electrical short circuits
 Serious/fatal injuries due to stampeding crowd in the movie houses, auditoriums or similar public
places.
SIGNS AND WARNINGS
Earthquake occurs without a warning. Until this day, seismologist are unable to predict earthquakes with
remarkable precision. There are however, a number of phenomena observed before the occurrence of many
earthquakes that believed to be precursory signs. Some of these are:
 Rumbling sounds
 P waves and S waves
 Unusual behavior of some animals
 Preliminary swelling of rock masses caused by cracking before eventually breaking.
 Increase in the electrical conductivity of rock masses
 Micro-earthquake swarms
 Geomagnetic vibration
 Ponds and irrigation canals sometimes becoming muddy and giving of unusual odors
 Shy sometimes glow eerie
TSUNAMI
A series of waves generated when an oceanic body of water is rapidly distributed because of an underwater
earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide or underwater explosion.
In a tsunami event, its first sign could be a sudden retreat of the water to a point that a large tract of seabed is
exposed, or a sudden rise of the sea level. The first of the series of waves usually is not the biggest. The third or
fourth wave could be the biggest.
GENERAL ADVERSE EFFECTS
 People and animals caught along the paths of sweeping flash floods are either killed or injure. More death
and harm done when flash floods carry solid debris like logs.
 Destruction of houses, buildings, roads, bridges, roads, and critical facilities.
 Trees, like coconuts and other kinds, are uprooted.
 Salt-water contamination of crops, soil, and water supplies
 Alteration of the configuration of the shoreline
 Food shortages, if it will take some time to replace damaged crops in the encroached by flash floods.
Debris of damaged houses in one of the coastal villages at the Moro Gulf Region, Mindanao left I the aftermath
of tsunami event generated by the magnitude 7.8 Moro Gulf Earthquake on August 17, 1976.
NOTE: A great percentage of the more than 6 000 persons killed and several millions of pesos worth of
property and crops destroyed by the 1976 Moro Gulf (Mindanao) Earthquake was due to the tsunami
generated by the earthquake.
VOLCANOES AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
The term volcano signifies a mountain, hill or simply a vent, through which molten or hot pieces of rocks and
gaseous materials ejected from a reservoir below the surface of the earth.
Volcanoes vary in sizes and shapes depending on the nature of their eruptions. Some volcanoes are small, low-
lying depressions like the crater lakes in San Pablo, Laguna, which created by a single-explosion eruption.
Others are large towering earth structures like Mayon Volcano and Mt. Apo in Davao which were formed by the
deposition of ejected materials around their vents or craters over a period of historic eruptions.
HAZADRS ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANOES
 Lava flows
 Pyroclastic flows
 Tephra
 Volcanic gases
 Fissuring
 Tsunami and seiche
GENERAL ADVERSE EFFECTS
 Extremely hot lava and pyroclastic flows burn or bury almost everything that lies along their path.
 The impact of volcanic bombs can severely damage houses and other structures.
 Lahars sweep and carry debris as they roll down the volcano slope
 Eruption activity may take days.
 Volcanic ashes cause respiratory problems.
SIGNS AND WARNINGS
 Volcanic earthquakes
 Increase steam emission
 Rumbling sounds coming from the from the direction of the volcano
 Drying up of vegetation
 Unusual change of water level at a crater lake
 Unusual behavior of some species of animals approximately the volcano.
The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) observes, records, and studies volcanic
activities in the Philippines. Aside from observing signs perceptible through human senses, scientist also conduct
observation of other features associated with volcanic activity using precision scientific instruments.
Short Quiz
WHAT IS MORE?
Before going further, let us see if you can answer this exercise. I know you can do it! This will help you to
determine your prior knowledge about this topic.
Quiz: Do what ask.
TEST I. True or False
1. Strong ground motion may trigger landslides in many places. Landslides oftentimes disrupt transport
system, which in turn creates shortages of food and other commodities that are isolated.
2. The actual trembling of the ground is the direct cause of injury or death
3. Develop a high degree of public awareness on volcanic eruptions and associated hazards.
4. Prepare respirators to protect yourselves from inhaling fine ashes. This is the least important thing to do.
5. When evacuating, do not burden yourself with personal effects, which can only delay your movement. It
is better to pay attention the members of your family to ensure that all of them are moving with you to
the evacuation site.
Explorer! Let us now test what you have learned in our adventure! I know you can answer
these questions! Good luck!
Do what is asked.
WHAT I CAN
DO?
General Instruction: among the given geological hazards (earthquake, tsunami, volcanic eruption)
provide each of the following these General counter-disaster measures.
MITIGATION/PREVENTION
Community action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Individual action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PREPAREDNESS
Community action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Individual action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RESPONSE
Community action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Individual action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RECOVERY
Community action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Individual action
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Explorer! Let us now test what you have learned in our adventure! I know you can answer these
questions! Good luck!
Do the given task. Use Rubric provided.
ASSESMEN
T General Instruction: Research and choose ONE (1) Geological Hazard that occurred in the
Philippines from year 2015-2021. Create a creative digital portfolio about the chosen geological
Hazard.
Contents of the digital portfolio:
1. A short description of the chosen geological hazard (Where, when, what, how, why,
which)
2. Before and after pictures.
3. General counter-measures applied
4. Realization from the event
Save it in a PDF FORMAT. Make it as creative as you can.
Idea / Reasoning
25 If all supportive details are presented. All evidences and examples are specific and
points relevant, and supports are provided in logical order.
20 If almost all supportive details are clearly presented. Almost evidences and examples
points are specific and relevant, and supports are provided in a fairly logical order.
15 If most supportive details are clearly presented. At least one of the evidences or
points examples is specific and relevant, and a few of the support details are not in logical
order.
10 If most supportive details are inaccurately presented, evidences and examples are
points not relevant and/or not explained, and many of the support details are not in logical
order.
5 If almost all supportive details are inaccurately presented; errors and vagueness of
points ideas are serious and numerous.
Explorer! Please take time to watch the following videos attached in this section before you
proceed to the next lesson. For now, you may take your break.
ENRICHMENT
Video Links: For online class, watch the video/s linked below.
1. https://youtu.be/7EF_gkvHMtA
NEXT LESSON: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARD
For Book Reference/s:
1. Disaster Risk Reduction for the Youth: Science based Disaster Readiness and Risk
Reduction
(Amadore, L., Valenzuela, R.)
REFERENCES

Geological Hazards:: Earthquake, Tsunami, and Volcanic Eruption

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Geological Hazards:: Earthquake, Tsunami, and Volcanic Eruption

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2nd semester

ESSENTIAL LEARNING PURPOSES: At the end of these lessons, I am expected to:

A. Identify various potential earthquake hazards and its effects

ACTIVITY: DO WHAT IS ASKED

When an oceanic plate collided with a

A trench is a type of excavation or

A chain of island volcanoes is called island arc.

Transform Plate Boundary

Transform boundaries are places where

Earthquakes may be classified according to their mode of generation:

THE SEVERITY OF AN EARTHQUAKE

The severity of an earthquake can be measured in terms of intensity and magnitude.

GENERAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE

SIGNS AND WARNINGS

GENERAL ADVERSE EFFECTS

 Destruction of houses, buildings, roads, bridges, roads, and critical facilities.

 Trees, like coconuts and other kinds, are uprooted.

 Salt-water contamination of crops, soil, and water supplies

 Alteration of the configuration of the shoreline

HAZADRS ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANOES

GENERAL ADVERSE EFFECTS

SIGNS AND WARNINGS

Quiz: Do what ask.

TEST I. True or False

Do the given task. Use Rubric provided.

Contents of the digital portfolio:

Save it in a PDF FORMAT. Make it as creative as you can.

NEXT LESSON: HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARD

For Book Reference/s:

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