EARTHQUAKE

Seismic Waves - vibration generated by an earthquake, explosion, or similar energetic source and propagated within the Earth or
along its surface. These are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are the
energy that travels through the earth and recorded on seismographs using the seismogram.
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
1. Body waves – waves that travel from the Earth’s interior. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.
a. P – wave - (primary wave, compression wave, longitudinal waves or pressure waves) is first to be detected by a
seismograph. Moves through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the rock of the earth's
surface.
b. S – wave - (secondary wave, transverse wave or shear wave) travels slower than P- waves and can only move through
solid rock. This wave moves rock up and down, or side-to-side.
2. Surface waves (S waves) – are of lower frequency than body waves, can only travel through the surface of the Earth. They arrive
after the main P and S waves and are confined to the outer layers of the Earth.
a. L – wave - The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave. The speeds vary depending on the material, rock or soil,
forming the surface. This wave causes the surface to side-to-side horizontal motion. This wave causes more damage to the buildings
and their structures during an earthquake.
b. R – wave- A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave roll across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves
the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is
due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

Seismometers- instruments that detect seismic waves.

Seismographs - Record intensity, height and amplitude of seismic waves.
Magnitude - Related to energy released. Richter or Moment Scale (the scale use to describe the total amount of energy that is
released by an earthquake at its source) of Dr. Charles Richter (Hindu-Arabic Numerals
Intensity - How strong or weak the shaking is. Determined by observing the effects of the earthquake in different places.
Depends on (Distance, Geology, Type of Building, and Observer). Mercalli Scale of Giuseppe Mercalli (Roman Numerals)
Active Fault - known to have recently generated earthquakes within the last 10,000 years and may still ‘continue’ to generate
earthquakes. Scientists use different ways to find out if a fault is active: by checking the country’s historical records, by
studying the vibrations, past and present, that come from faults and by observing the surroundings. For example, a fault may cross
a road and because of that, the road is displaced.
Inactive Fault - do not show signs of generated earthquakes in the last 10,000 years but may ‘possibly’ still generate an
earthquake in the future.

CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE

EARTHQUAKE CAUSES: Ground motion, Duration of Shaking, Surface Rupture, & Poor building design
EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE: Ground Failure, Fires, Landslides, Liquefaction, Tsunami
 A tsunami is a sea wave caused by an underwater earthquake or landslide. It is usually triggered by an earthquake, and
results in displacing the ocean water, throwing it ashore and into the land. Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater
landslides or volcanic eruptions.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS BEFORE AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Know the earthquake hazards in your area. Strengthen the structural designs of your house.
2. Help prepare your homes and schools to keep them safe.
a. Ask your parents to strap or bolt heavy furniture to the wall to prevent it from falling down during an earthquake.
b. Check if hanging objects inside your home, like ceiling fans and chandeliers, are stable.
c. Store fragile items, harmful chemical and flammable materials in a secured place.
3. Familiarize yourself with the exit routes and the location of the fire extinguishers and first aid kits in your area.
4. Prepare for a handy emergency kit that contains canned goods, bottled water, medicines, flashlights, extra batteries, battery-
operated radios, personal documents, extra cash, hygiene kit, cellphone with charger, power bank, family and emergency contact
information, whistle, first aid kit, candles, matchsticks, rope, hammer and others.
5. Participate in regular earthquake drills.
6. Help plan the evacuation areas where family members can go during emergency situations.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS DURING AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Be calm, be alert and don’t panic.
2. If you are inside a structurally sound building: Quickly open the door, if possible, DUCK-COVER-HOLD. Stay away from glass
windows and heavy furniture or appliances that may fall.
3. If you are outdoors, move to an open area. (Stay away from trees, posts, power lines, and structures, stay away from slopes and
landslide- prone areas, move away from the shoreline and move to higher grounds because tsunami may occur after an
earthquake.)
4. If you are in a moving vehicle, stop and get out. Do not attempt to cross bridges, underpass tunnels and flyovers.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE
1. Prepare for aftershocks. Once the shaking stops, take the fastest and safest way out of the building. Do not use elevators nor enter
damaged buildings.
2. Check yourself and others for injuries.
3. Check for damaged electrical and water lines.
4. Check for spills of chemical, toxic or flammable materials.
5. Extinguish fires in the area to prevent it from spreading.
6. If you need to evacuate your residence, leave a message stating the place where you are going. Also, bring your emergency kit.
7. Keep yourself updated through your battery-operated radios.
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TROPICAL CYCLONES
Different Names of Tropical Cyclones
1. Hurricane - Northeast Pacific Ocean or North Atlantic Ocean
2. Typhoon - Northwest Pacific Ocean
3. Cyclone - South Pacific Ocean or Indian Ocean
Tropical Cyclones - a storm system characterized by a counterclockwise rotating air mass around a central part called eye that has a
low pressure. In Philippines, it is an intense weather system of circulating heavy rain clouds, characterized by strong wind gustiness
and arising between 5° N and 20° N latitude, and between 100° E and 180° E longitude.
Where do Tropical Cyclones originate? It is form in the INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE around the equator. It is
the area where the trade winds from Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge.
The Philippine archipelago is located within the typhoon belt of the Pacific, lying within the proximity of the Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where trade winds converge and storms commonly form within the western Pacific.
 According to PAGASA about 20-22 tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility each year within the months
of, but not limited to the period, June to November.

PHILIPPINE AREA OF RESPONSIBILITY (PAR) - Philippine is bounded on the East by the Pacific Ocean and the Philippine Sea. It is
bounded on the south by Celebes Sea and on the west by South China Sea also known as West Philippine Sea. The Philippines is
found near the Western North Pacific Basin. This basin is one among the six areas within the world where most of the typhoons are
formed. In most cases, the typhoons that are formed during this area pass along the Philippine territory. This explains why the
Philippines often experiences 20 to 22 typhoons yearly. It is said that the Philippines lies along the typhoon belt in the Pacific region.
Public Storm Warning Signals (PSWS) – are hoisted before the corresponding meteorological conditions prevail over the locality.

PARTS OF TYPHOON: Eye, Eye Wall, Inner Rainbands, Outer Rainbands

TROPICAL CYCLONE FUEL: Warm Water (Large body of water), Moisture, Inward Spiraling Winds
STEPS IN TYPHOON DEVELOPMENT
1. Evaporation of water at ocean surface temperature of 26.5° C or higher.
2. Warm, moist air rises upwards from ocean surface, leaving a low-pressure area near the ocean surface.
3. Air from surrounding high pressure areas rushes towards the low-pressure area. This air is initially dry and cooler, but near the ocean
surface the air is heated and carries more water vapor from continuous evaporation. (Temperature contrast between air masses)
4. As the warm air rises towards the cooler parts of the upper atmosphere, it cools off and the water vapor begins to condense to form
clouds. (Low-level Disturbance)
5. More clouds form and wind speed pick up as the Coriolis Effect causes the air to spiral as it rises. As the wind rotate faster, the low-
pressure area near the ocean surface becomes a tropical depression, and may eventually turn into typhoon.
TWO FACTORS THAT FUEL A TROPICAL CYCLONE INTO A FULL-BLOWN TYPHOON
1. Rapid upward movement of water vapor from the ocean due to fast rising warm air.
2. Condensation of water vapor which releases to the swirling wind.
HOW WILL A TYPHOON BECOME WEAK? COLD WATER- absences of moisture from warm ocean water means absences
of typhoon’s fuel. NO WATER- when typhoon moves on land.
Why Philippines is prone to typhoon? It is located near the Pacific Ocean. The distance of the Philippine from the equator is
the best site for the Coriolis effect, an apparent force that spins the cyclone.
PAGASA - (Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA) is a national service institution
under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). PAGASA is the government agency responsible for monitoring typhoons
and weather disturbances within the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR).
PAGASA tasked to do the following:
1. Monitor the weather and climate of the country.
2. Provide information to the public about typhoon and flood warnings.
3. deliver weather forecasts and advisories.
4. Provide facts related to climatology, meteorology, and astronomy.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN MONITORING WEATHER AND CLIMATE
1. Windvane - One of the oldest forms of weather. - It is used to point out the direction of the wind.
2. Anemometer - It is used to measure the wind speed.
3. Hygrometer - It is used to measure humidity or air moisture.
4. Barometer - It is an instrument measuring atmospheric pressure, used especially in forecasting the weather and determining
altitude.
5. Doppler Weather Radars - These are installed in some strategic locations in the Philippines for closely monitoring of the
movements of typhoons, the amount of rainfall, and other atmospheric conditions every day.
6. Automated Rain Gauge - It keeps track of excess rainfall to provide necessary warning signals, whether such rainfall can cause
flashfloods or landslides.
7. Landslide Early Warning Sensors (LEWS) - Used to pick up signals which can be read by the computer to show the movement
of the soil and ground. This is an effective tool which can help reduce the risks of landslide incidents.
8. Automated Weather Station - It jointly to monitor the amounts of rainfall and flood levels. This tool is designed to produce
incoming warning in the form of sirens to signal the public for evacuation.
THE DAMAGING EFFECTS OF TYPHOON
Heavy Rains, Strong Winds, Storm Surge, Flood, Destruction of Infrastructures, Landslide, Damage on Crops and Vegetation, Death
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COMETS, ASTEROIDS, AND METEOROIDS
Near-Earth Objects (NEO) - These are comets, and asteroids that have been nudged by the gravitational attraction of nearby planets
into orbits that allow them to enter the Earth’s neighborhood.
COMETS - It is made up of ice (cosmic snowballs - frozen water & frozen gases), dust and small particles. FROZEN GASES
like ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, and organic compounds. Sometimes called “dirty snowballs”
ORIGIN: Kuiper belt and Oort Cloud
• OORT CLOUD is the area which is located beyond the orbit of the dwarf planet Pluto.
• KUIPER BELT beyond the orbit planet Neptune.
SHAPE: Varied and Irregular.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Ice (frozen water), Frozen gases (ammonia, methane, and carbon dioxide), Organic compounds
(carbon-containing compounds)
ORBIT: Highly elliptical
PARTS OF COMET
1) Nucleus - It is also known as the core. It is composed of ice, gas, and dust.
2) Coma - It is also halo of evaporated gas and dust that surrounds the nucleus.
3) HYDROGEN ENVELOP - It is hydrogen gas surrounds the coma of the comet.
4) DUST TAIL - It is formed by radiation from the sun that forces dust particles away from the coma.
5) PLASMA TAIL - It is also called as ion tail or gas tail. It is made of electrically charged gas molecules that are pushed away
from the nucleus by the solar wind.
 TWO CATERGORIES OF COMET
1. SHORT PERIOD COMET- it is a comet with an orbital period of less than 200 years. Usually located at Kuiper’s Belt.
Examples: Forbes (6.13 years), Kojima (7.85 years), Halley’s Comet (76 year)
2. LONG PERIOD COMET- it is a comet with an orbital period of more than 200 years. Usually located at Oort Cloud.
Examples: Hale-Bopp (2,530-2533 years), Hyakutake (17,000 years), Kohoutek (50,000 – 200,000 years)
Comet Halley - Most famous short period comet of the 20th century. 75-79 years to orbit the sun.
Comet Hale-Bopp - Contained argon which was believed to explain the very bright appearance of the comet in 1997.
Scientist also discovered a faint sodium tail, a third type of comet tail to add to the well-known dust and plasma (or ion) tails.

The composition of a comet is important in helping scientists understand how Earth has liquid water, which in turn made the
planet habitable. During Earth’s formation, scientists theorized that the planet must have been too hot to have liquid water on its
surface. By studying comets’ orbits and the chemical composition of materials found in impact craters found all over Earth, soil and ice
samples collected from drilling down Earth’s crust and marine layers, scientists theorized that the early impact of comets on Earth
brought liquid water to the planet.

ASTEROIDS - are rocky or metallic fragments. Astronomers believed that they are the fragments from the formation
of our Solar System.
ORIGIN: Main Asteroid Belt
SHAPE: Varied and Irregular
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Silicates (olivine and pyroxene), Iron, Nickel
ORBIT: Round
TYPES OF ASTEROIDS
1. C-Type or Chondrite Asteroid – made of clay and silicate rocks
2. S-Type or Stony Asteroid – made of silicate materials nickel-iron
3. M-Type or Metallic Asteroid – made of nickel and iron

Examples of Asteroids:
1) In February 2013, Asteroid 2012 DA14 made a very close approach to Earth as it orbited the Sun. Distance in space is
measured in light years and this asteroid was just 0.4 light year away from Earth, the closest that any asteroid has ever been
to Earth.
2) In December 2012, during the midst of the doomsday prophecies, Asteroid Toutatis also made a near approach to Earth but
not as close as Asteroid 2012 DA14.

Planets and asteroids have similar composition (also called minor planets or planetoids) metals like iron and nickel (earth’s
core).
Asteroids that cross Earth’s orbit are called Near-Earth Asteroids or NEAs. At least 1000 asteroids orbit outside of the Asteroid
Belt – these could be a danger to Earth.
Torino Scale - It is a system used to rate the hazard level of an object moving toward Earth.

The presence of silicates allows a comets or asteroids to reflect lights from the Sun. Silicates are minerals that contain the
elements silicon, oxygen, and at least one metal. If an asteroid has smaller amounts of silicates relative to its other components, it
would be more difficult to see it even with a telescope because only a small area of the asteroid can reflect light thus it may appear
smaller than what it really is when viewed.
The chemical composition of an asteroid is important in providing clues for scientists to discover more about the chemical
composition of Earth and the other planets in the Solar System, as well as how life on Earth was affected by impacts in the past. It is
the scientists’ belief that Earth, other planets, and asteroids are essentially similar in composition. In fact, asteroids are also called
minor planets or planetoids. Asteroids are mostly composed of metals like iron and nickel; the same metals that are theorized to make
up Earth’s core.

METEORITE METEOROID AND METEOR

Meteoroids - A meteoroid is a piece of stony or metallic debris which travels in outer space. It is broken up rock and dust from
either a comet, asteroid, the moon, or from Mars. It can be as small as a grain of sand or as big as a boulder.
Meteors - It is sometimes called a shooting star or falling star. It is a light phenomenon or a streak of light that occurs when a
meteoroid burns up as it enters Earth’s atmosphere.
Meteorite - It is a solid piece of debris from an object, such as a comet, asteroid, or meteoroid, that originates in outer space
and survives its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of Earth or another planet.
Meteor Shower - It is a celestial event in which a number of meteors are observed to radiate, or originate, from one point in the night sky.
SOME EXAMPLES OF FAMOUS ANNUAL METEOR SHOWERS
1) NAME OF THE METEOR SHOWER: Perseid
MONTH: August
SOURCE OF METEOROID: Comet Swift-Tuttle
CONSTELLATION: Perseus
2) NAME OF THE METEOR SHOWER: Draconid
MONTH: October
SOURCE OF METEOROID: Comet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner
CONSTELLATION: Draco
3) NAME OF THE METEOR SHOWER: Orionid
MONTH: October
SOURCE OF METEOROID: Comet Halley
CONSTELLATION: Orion
4) NAME OF THE METEOR SHOWER: Leonid
MONTH: November
SOURCE OF METEOROID: Comet Tempel-Tuttle
CONSTELLATION: Leo
5) NAME OF THE METEOR SHOWER: Taurid
MONTH: November
SOURCE OF METEOROID: Comet Encke
CONSTELLATION: Taurus
6) NAME OF THE METEOR SHOWER: Geminid
MONTH: November
 SOURCE OF METEOROID: Asteroid 3200 Phaethon
CONSTELLATION: Gemini

HOW MUCH AND HOW WELL YOU CAN SEE METEORS IN THE SKY DEPEND ON SEVERAL FACTORS:
air pollution, light pollution, the time of day, weather conditions, size of the meteoroids, source of the meteoroid (comet versus
asteroid), and the chemical composition of the meteoroid itself.

Types of Meteorites
1) Iron Meteorite
2) Stony Meteorite
3) Stony-Iron Meteorite

Celestial visitors like comets, asteroids, and meteors have always captured the imagination of ancient civilizations. They have been
thought of as bad omens or signs of great change or challenge such as ushering disasters and wars. But with new scientific processes
and tools, as well as greater access to scientific information, these celestial visitors have gained the appreciation and interest of many
people, scientists and non-scientists included all over the world.