LEA REVIEW

Crop
Protection
Mari Neila Seco
Lecturer
Online
Review
Rules You may or may
not turn on your
video.

MNPSeco 2023
Topic Outline
I. Plant Pathology
§ Etymology, Definition, Objective, Economic Importance, Type of Crop Losses,
History
§ Concept of Plant Diseases
§ Plant Disease Diagnosis
§ Non-parasitic/Abiotic agents
§ Parasitic or biotic agents of plant diseases
§ Variability in Plant Pathogens
§ Disease Cycle
§ Epidemiology
§ Principles and methods of plant disease control

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Topic Outline
II. Entomology
§ Definition
§ Principles
§ Arthropods and Insect characteristics
§ Classification, Nomenclature and Identification
of insect
§ Insect Metamorphosis
§ Insect Biology and Development
§ Representative Insect Pests and Mites attacking
crops MNPSeco 2023
Topic Outline
III. Weed Science
§ Definition
§ Characteristics
§ Classification
§ Reproduction and Dispersal
§ Crop-Weed Competition
IV. Mollusks as Pest
V. Rodents/Vertebrate Pests
VI. Integrated Pest Management
VII. Pesticide calculation
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What is a Pest?

• Organism that interferes with the activities

and desires of humans.
-destroys crops & structures
-poses threats to human health and
livestock
-reduces aesthetic and recreational value

• Causes damage to crops which include

weeds, insects, pathogens, vertebrates
and other organisms that disrupt plant
functions.

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Major groups of pests that affect crop
production Vertebrate pests
(rats and birds)

Mollusk
(snails
Decreased
crop
Arthropods production Pathogens (Fungi,
(insects and
mites)
and Low bacteria,
crop yield nematodes, viruses)

weeds

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Disciplines of Crop Protection

Plant Pathology - Study of plant diseases

• Phytobacteriology - Study of bacteria

• Mycology - Study of fungi
• Nematology - Study of nematodes
• Plant Virology - Study of plant viruses

Entomology - Study of insects

Weed Science - Study of weeds

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PLANT
PATHOLOGY

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PLANT PATHOLOGY
» deals with the nature, causes, and control
of plant diseases
Greek words:
Pathos – suffering; logos – study

» has two c omponents:

as a Science
as an Art
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AS A SCIENCE
» understand the nature of plant disease as to:

– Causes
– Plant-pathogen interactions
– Factors affecting disease development in
individual plants and in populations
– Various means of controlling diseases
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 AS AN ART

» Process where science is m a d e useful

» Is doing or applying knowled g e gaine d in scien c e

› Diagnosis
› Disease assessment and forecasting
› Recommendation of appropriate control
measures
› Field application
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 qTo prevent or minimize
WHATIS THE plant disease, thereby:
ULTIMATE
- Increase crop production
GOAL OF - Maintain quantity, quality,
PLANT availability and safety of
PATHOLOGY? food and essential
commodities
- Minimize food and products
loss
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 Economic Importance of Plant Diseases

oPlants - source of food, feed, shelter, fiber, clothing, medicine,

aesthetic, luxury, pleasure crops, clean air, healthy environment,
flood or erosion control

oSustainable and survival of man

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1. Reduction in quantity of food and commodities
oFamine, hunger, starvation

Historical Examples:

A. Potato late blight– Irish potato famine (1845) –

where over a million people died of starvation

• Even caused migration of the 1.5 M Irish to main

and U.S.
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Caused by Phytophthora infestans

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B. Bengal famine of India (1940s)
Caused by Bipolaris oryzae attacking rice

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C. Coffee Rust in Sri Lanka (Ceylon)
Reduced coffee plantings in late 19th century
Replaced with tea

Coffee rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix

D.cadang-cadang disease of coconut
Caused by viroid
Annual loss of over 500,000 trees = 100,000 tons of
copra valued at P750M (1992)

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E. Tungro disease of rice
Tungro disease of rice (virus) affected
70,000 ha of rice fields in 1971 alone
caused a loss of about 1.22 M cavans of
rice amounted to about 30M pesos.
• Still continues to ravage rice fields

Rice tungro

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F. Downy mildew of corn
Destroyed 95% of corn crop without control =
P170 M annually (Peronosclerospora philipinensis)

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G. Abaca bunchy top
• 1930 destruction of the abaca industry in Cavite and
Laguna
• Still wrecks havoc in Bicol and Leyte

Abaca bunchy top

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H. Bacterial blight of rice
• 70-80% infection in susceptible varieties

Rice bacterial leaf blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv.

oryzae
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Crop Loss Due to Plant Diseases
Crop loss:
Present data shows annual world Total losses (%) ~$220 billion
average crop loss of 42%, annually
14.1% due to diseases - $220 B
(data based on 8 major crops)
Weeds,
12.2 Diseases,
In US, $9.1 B loss annually inspite of 14.1
adequate control. In developing
countries, higher values – may even
result to total crop loss if
Insects,
uncontrolled.
10.2
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2. Loss of quality of produce
Presence of blemishes, spots, scars, necrosis and
deformation - unattractive, not pleasing
-sweet potato
- citrus scab
- Mango anthracnose

• Disease reaction- unpleasant flavor and odor

- Moldy grains or seeds = rancid flavor

- Rotten fruits = mushy flavor, souring
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Mango anthracnose Citrus scab Blue mold of orange

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3. Compromised safety of available food due
to toxic compounds

oStorage molds attacking grains & seeds and other

commodities – toxic substance called mycotoxins
Example:
Aspergillus flavus – copra, corn, peanut = aflatoxin – liver
cancer

Turkey X disease of farm animals (1960) fed with contaminated

feeds – aflatoxins – liver cancer
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Corn infected with Aspergillus flavus

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Mold breed infected with Penicillium,
Aspergillus, and other fungus

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Claviceps purpurea – ergot disease of rye = ergot
alkaloid – ergotism in human

St. Anthony’s Fire or Holy Fire: high fever, burning and

tingling sensation, hallucinations as if possessed by evil
spirits.

Ergot of cereals – sclerotia replacing St. Anthony’s Fire

the kernels of rye; toxic alkaloids
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Aspergillus ochraceous = ochratoxin, liver cancer

Fusarium sp = Fumonisin, Tricothescenes, zearalenone

Penicillum sp = yellow rice toxins

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4. Decimation of plant species (trees)

oElm tree attacked by Dutch elm disease caused by

Ophiostoma novo-ulmi

oChestnut tree attacked by the chestnut blight caused

by the Cryphonectria parasitica

oBoth trees are the important shade and timber trees that
comprise the landscape of America

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 Chestnut blight

Coconut Lethal yellowing

Dutch elm disease

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5. Greater environmental hazard due to
toxic chemical

oPesticide use = increase steadily at 14% annually; 1999

world record 2.6 B kg/year = $36 B
oRachel Carson’s (1962) Silent Spring
oPublic awareness of the direct, indirect and cumulative effects of
pesticides on organism other than the pest they are intended to control
has led to increased emphasis on the protection of the environment.

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6. Increased production and food and product
handling cost

To prevent disease, costly measures may have

to be employed, like applying expensive
chemicals or using another variety or using
barriers , chemical coating, etc.

Refrigerated warehouses and transport vehicles

Additional expenses for chemicals, machinery,

storage space, and labor
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7. Further post harvest losses during transit
and storage

Some diseases start in the filed and flourish during

transit and storage, thus, resulting to ore losses.

Rotting of fruits and vegetable due to bacteria and fungi

Anthracnose of mango

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8. Predisposition to attack by other pathogens

oDisease renders a plant weak and therefore susceptible

to attack by other pathogens

Examples:

Nematodes infection of the roots – Fusarium & other

fungal infections, also bacterial infection

Feeding injuries become avenues for other pathogens

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History

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Plant Pathology in the Philippines

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Question
and
Answer
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1. The first report of insect transmission of a
plant virus in the country dates back in 1926
where G.O. Ocfemia reported transmission of a
plant virus by Pentalonia nigronervosa. What is
the particular virus disease?

a. Abaca bunchy top

b. Papaya ringspot
c. Citrus tristeza
d. Bean mosaic

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2. Aspergillus flavus produced one of the
most common mycotoxins called

a. Gibberellins
b. Ochratoxin
c. Fumonisins
d. Aflatoxin

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3. As a science, Plant Pathology deals with
the study of:

a. nature of plant diseases

b. control of plant diseases
c. characteristics/causes of plant diseases
d. factors affecting disease development
e. all of the above

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4. Wrote “Historia Plantarum” where several
diseases of grains, trees and vegetables
were recorded:

a. Pliny the Elder

b. Homer
c. Theophrastus
d. Aristotle
e. none of the above

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6. The Dean of Filipino Plant Pathologists:

a. Davide
b. Reinking
c. Ocfemia
d. Halos
e. Natural

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9. Showed that fire blight of pear and twig blight of
apple were caused by a bacterium

a. Erwin Frank Smith

b. Demetri Iwanowski
c. Martinus Willem
d. Thomas Jonathan Burrill

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10. Claviceps purpurea which causes ergot of rye
produces:

a. sclerotium
b. conidia
c. chlamydospores
d. oospore
e. all of the above

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11. Discovered Bordeaux Mixture which formed the
foundation of chemical control of plant diseases:

a. Iwanoski
b. Needham
c. Milardet
d. Pasteur
e. Bawden

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Healthy Plant MNPSeco 2023 Diseased Plant
Definitions of disease describe it as any of the following:

oAn abnormality or deviation from the normal, an alteration,

disorder, impairment, malfunctioning, disturbance, injury, or
malady

oAll these word imply adverse nature of plant disease

oPhysiologically functions are affected

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CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT
DISEASE
1 . A malfunctioning process that results in
suffering

2. Generally harmful/detrimental

3. Produce symptoms

4. Caused by an agent
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VITAL PROCESSES OF
PLANTS AFFECTED BY
DISEASE

1. Root absorption
2. Uptake of water and
minerals
3. Photosynthesis
4. Respiration
5. Reproduction
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Causes of the disease
oBiological agents referred to as pathogens

oUnfavorable environmental/physical factors (outside the

optimum range of conditions necessary for plant growth)
- Some authors refers to these as stresses

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Disease is dynamic in nature
oConsidered as a process resulting from continuous
irritation of an agent; develops over time

oDiffers from injury which is instantaneous

oInjury is required for disease to take place, but may or

not may lead to disease

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 Agrios (2005)

“the series of invisible and visible responses of plant cells

and tissues to a pathogenic organism or environmental factor
that results in adverse changes in the form, function, or
integrity of the plant and may leas to partial impairment or
death of plant parts or of the entire plant.”

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 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Parasite -an organism which depends wholly or partly on
another living organism for its food
Obligate parasite - an organism that in nature c a n grow a n d
multiply only in living organisms also called as biotrophs
Saprophyte- an organism that uses d e a d organic
material for food

Parasitism -the removal of food by a parasite from its host

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 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Host - a plant that is being atta c ke d by a parasite a n d
from which the parasite obtains its nutrients

Suscept - any plant that c a n b e attacked by a pathogen;

a host plant

Pathogenicity - the capability of a pathogen to cause

disease

Pathogenesis - series of events that lead to disease

development inplant
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Plant disease diagnosis - identification of specific plant
diseases through their characteristic symptoms and signs
a n d other factors that are involve in the disease process

Symptoms- the external a n d internal reactions or

alterations of a plant as a result of disease

Symptom complex - different symptoms exhibited by the plant

Signs - the pathogen or its parts or products seen on a host

plant
- the structures of the pathogens that are
found associated with the infected plant

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASE

» According to affected plant organ

• root diseases - affect water a n d mineral uptake

• leaf diseases - affect photosynthesis
• fruit diseases - affect reproduction
• stem diseases - affect water conduction

» According to symptoms
leaf spots smuts rusts
Mosaic wilts fruit rots

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASE

» According to type of affected crop:

• vegetable diseases

• forest tree diseases

• field crop diseases

• ornamental diseases

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASE
» According to type of pathogen:
• infectious diseases
⌐ fungal diseases
⌐ bacterial diseases
⌐ viral diseases
⌐ ne ma tode diseases
⌐ mycoplasma diseases (Phytoplasma a n d
spirolasmas)
• non-infectious diseases
⌐ c aused by non-parasitic agents of plant
diseases
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COMPONENTS OF PLANT DISEASE
Disease Triangle

Pathogen Environment
(virulent) (favorable)
Disease

Host
(susceptible)
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Symptoms and Signs of Plant Disease

Symptoms - manifestations of a diseased condition

oResponse of plant to invasion by pathogen or exposure to

unfavorable physical factor
oMaybe visible or invisible
oCan be used to distinguish a disease
oHowever, may not be reliable because many pathogens exhibit
similar/identical symptoms or a single pathogen can exhibit a
variety of symptoms

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oLocation of symptoms or kinds of plant organs affected
determines the physiological process affected

Leaf spots – photosynthesis

Root rots – water and nutrients absorption
Wilts – translocations
Fruit rots or flower drop - reproduction

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 Kinds of Symptoms
oLocalized = limited area
(spots, galls, rots)
oSystemic = wide coverage
(wilting, yellowing, blight)

oPrimary = direct result of

invasion (spots)
oSecondary = effect on distant
or uninvaded parts (wilting,
chlorosis)
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 Kinds of Symptoms

oMicroscopic = can not be seen by

naked eye (enlarged cells)
oMacroscopic = large to be visible
(tumor, spots, chlorosis)

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oHistological = microscopic; requires dissection of tissue for
microscopic examinations

oMorphological symptoms = change in form, structure; usually

visible by naked eye

4 CATEGORIES

1. Pre-necrotic or plesionecrotic = preceding death of cells

(wilting; hydrosis; yellowing)

2. Necrotic = death of cells, tissues, organs (rotting, spots,

scab, mummifications)
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3. Hypoplastics = inhibition of differentiation, growth &
development (dwarfing, stunting, chlorosis)

4. Hyperplastic = over differentiation, overdevelopment,

overgrowth of cells, tissues and organs

Hypertrophy – abnormal increase in size (galling, knots, tumors)

Hyperplasia – abnormal increase in cell numbers (galling, knots,
tumors)

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Specific symptoms;

Anthracnose, blast, blight, canker, chlorosis, damping-off, die-

back, little leaf, mosaic, mottling, mummification, phyllody, rosette,
rot, russeting, sarcody, scab, scald, scorch, shoe-string, shot-hole,
spot, streak, stripe, stunting, tumefaction, virescence, wilting,
witches’ broom, yellowing

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Necrotic Hyperplastic Hypoplastic

Spots

Overdevelopment Dwarfing, Stunting,

Mummification Chlorosis
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 EXAMPLES OF SYMPTOMS

Blight- c h a rac te rized by

Leaf spot- A self-limiting lesion on
general a n d rapid killing of
leaves, flowers, a n d stems.
a leaf.

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 EXAMPLES OF SYMPTOMS

Wilt - Loss of rigidity and Stunted growth

drooping of plant parts. (Systemic symptoms)

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EXAMPLES OF SYMPTOMS

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Signs of the disease

Refers to the structures of the pathogen, the pathogen

itself or its products
Found associated with the host tissues
Confirm the identity of the disease

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Spores or conidia

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SIGNS OF PATHOGENS

Virus particles bacterial ooze bacterial cells

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Signs of Bacteria

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SIGNS OF A DISEASES CAUSED BY NEMATODE

Root galls

ne ma tode
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 Diagnosis of Plant Diseases

oProcess of identifying cause of the disease based on symptoms and

signs
oDetermination of the exact casual agent
oEntails understanding of the factors involved in disease development
oMaybe symptoms alone or confirmed through presence of signs
oEasy for rusts, nuts, smuts, downy mildews, and powdery mildews
Disease= name of host + symptom (ex. corn leaf blight, abaca bunchy top,
peanut rust)
Symptom= leaf blight, bunchy top, rust
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 Koch’s Postulates:
(also known as Rules of Proof of Pathogenicity)

1. Establishment of constant association of the pathogen with the

diseased host
2. Isolation of the pathogen into pure culture and characteristics
described
3. Inoculation of the pathogen from the culture into susceptible host of
the same variety to produce original symptoms
4. Re-isolation of the same pathogen from the inoculated host plant

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 Keywords

Associate Isolate

Reisolate Inoculate
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Causes of Plant Diseases
1. Biological or biotic agent
- Bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses & viroids, mollicutes, fastidious,
vascular bacteria, parasitic plants, fungal-like chromistans, protozoa
- Transmissible or infectious
- Follow a disease cycle
- Production of toxins, enzymes, growth hormones before obtaining
nutrients
- Occupy space and reproduce themselves in the cells thus impede
cellular processes
- Variable symptoms, severity of disease
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2. Abiotic agents

- Unfavorable physical factors in the environment like extreme

conditions of temperature, light level, soil moisture, soil, pH, oxygen
levels, nutrient imbalance, air pollutants, adverse meteorologically
factors, toxic substances in the soil, and unfavorable agricultural
practices
- Non infectious or non transmissible
- Avoidance and providing the optimum conditions are the control
strategies

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 NON-PARASITIC CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASE

» Excessively low temperature » Too high temperature

Freezing a n d chilling injury sunsc a l d

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 NON-PARASITIC CAUSES OF PLANTDISEASE

» Lack of oxygen
blackheart disease of potato

» Adverse meteorological
conditions
strong winds
heavy rains
lightning
» Too much or too little light
scorching, sunscalding or
etiolation
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NON-PARASITIC CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASE

Air pollutants
⌐ ethylene gas - cause p remature senescence,
etiolation, stunting, flower drop, sepal necrosis, leaf
malformation
⌐ nitrogen oxides - cause b leaching a n d b rowning of
plants
⌐ peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs)- cause bronzing,
silvering a n d glazing of the lower leaf surfaces -
silver leaf disease.
⌐ Ozone- cause water-soaked spots o n leaves and
black flecks along veinlets
⌐ Particulates (dusts, ash, soot)- cause n e c rosis of
leaves, leaf fall
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NON-PARASITIC CAUSES OF PLANT DISEASE

» Excess or deficiency of nutrient

» Unfavorable pH
» Improper use of pesticides
» Improper agricultural practices
» Lack or excess of soil moisture
» Naturally occurring toxic chemicals

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Question
and
Answer
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4. Parasitism involves one organism taking
its nourishment from another ____

a. Organism
b. Hosts
c. Parasites
d. None of the above

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5. Pathogenicity is the ability of the
pathogen to cause

a. Disease
b. Resistance
c. Susceptibility
d. Tolerance

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6. Obligate parasite is a parasite that can
grow only in association with

a. Non-living host
b. Resistant host
c. Susceptible host
d. Living host

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7. Signs of plant disease refers to the
structure of the pathogen that are found
associated with the

a. Diseased plant
b. Pathogen
c. Alternate host
d. All of the above

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8. Disease identification in plants is called

a. Plant disease diagnosis

b. Field diagnosis
c. Laboratory diagnosis
d. All of the above

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9. This is crucial in correct diagnosis of the
disease

a. Symptom
b. Resistance
c. Tolerance
d. Signs

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11. Facultative parasite is an organism that
can be a parasite under appropriate
conditions but it is primarily

a. Obligate parasite
b. Saprophyte
c. Facultative saprophyte
d. Pathogen

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12. Hyperplastic symptom refers to

a. Underdevelopment of tissue
b. Overdevelopment of tissue
c. Suppression of growth cells, tissues or
organs
d. All of the above

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Crop
Protection
LEA REVIEW
Mari Neila Seco
Lecturer
Topic Outline
I. Plant Pathology
§ Etymology, Definition, Objective, Economic Importance, Type of Crop Losses,
History
§ Concept of Plant Diseases
§ Plant Disease Diagnosis
§ Non-parasitic/Abiotic agents
§ Parasitic or biotic agents of plant diseases
§ Variability in Plant Pathogens
§ Disease Cycle
§ Epidemiology
§ Principles and methods of plant disease control

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Infectious (Biotic) Agents of Plants Disease

1. Bacteria 6. Fungal-like Oomycetes

2. Fastidious Vascular 7. Nematodes
Bacteria 8. Virus
3. Mollicutes 9. Viroids
4. Fungi 10.Parasitic Flowering
5. Protozoans Plants
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 Schematic diagram of
the shapes and sizes
of certain plant
pathogens in relation
to a plant cell

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Taxonomy Hierarchy

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Infectious (Biotic) Agents of Plants Disease
1. Bacteria
• Prokaryotic (no defined nucleus or membrane-bound organelles)
• Unicellular with rigid cell wall enveloped in a slime layer
• DNA present in single circular chromosomes, some in plasmids
in small amounts.
• Reproduce by binary fission (each cell divides into 2 cells)

Bac te ria l
cells
Pure
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culture
 Characteristics of Plant Pathogenic bacteria

• Gram negative (red or pink cell

after gram staining)
• Rod Shaped – 3 shapes of
Bacteria ( spherical, rod shape,
spiral)
• Motile (flagellated) or non-motile
• Generally aerobic (requires
oxygen), some facultative
anaerobic
• Non – spore- formers – no
endospores
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Forms/Shapes of bacteria

Spherical (Cocci)

Rod-shaped (Bacilli)

Spiral-shaped (Spirilla)

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Types of Flagellation

Flagellum is primarily
a motility organelle
t h at enables
movement and
chemotaxis.

They also act as

sensory organs t o
detect temperature M o notrichous Lophotrichous Peritrichous Amphitrichous
and pH changes.

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Stained bacteria cells

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• 100 out of 1,600 species are plant
pathogens

• 0.5 – 3.5 ևm in length and 0.3 – 1.0 ևm in

diameter

• 29 genera (used to be five)

• Various symptoms: water-soaked, greasy

areas on tissues

• Signs of infection: bacterial cells, ooze,

exudates, offensive odor
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GENERA OF PLANT PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

A. Old Genera; Prior to 1980

1. Agrobacterium
2. Pseudomonas
3. Erwinia
4. Xanthomonas
5. Corynebacteria

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B. New Genera (after 1980)
From Pseudomonas From Corynebacteria
1. Acidovorax
2. Burkholderia 1. Arthrobacter
3. Ralstonia 2. Clavibacter
4. Pseudomonas 3. Curtobacterium
4. Corynebacterium
From Erwinia 5. Leifsonia
1. Brenneria 6. Rathayibacter
2. Enterobacter 7.Rhodococcus
3. Pantoea
4. Pectobacterium
5. Erwinia
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B. New Genera (after 1980)
From other Genera

1. Acetobacter 8. Serratia
2. Bacillus 9. Spiroplasma
3. Clostridium 10.Streptomyces
4. Gluconobacter 11.Xylella
5. Nocardi 12. Xylophilus
6. Rhizobacter 13.Agrobacterium
7. Sphingomonas

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HOW DO BACTERIA ENTER THE
HOST PLANTS?
sto m a te s
- Invade tissues intercellularly, although
when parts of the cell wall dissolve, bacteria
also grows intracellularly
- invade the xylem vessels resulting to
wilt symptoms

Natural openings and natural

wounds
• stomata, nectaries, hydathodes, leaf
scar, fruit scar
lenticels
Penetration though artificial
wounds
• insects d a m a g e , frost, filed practices,
strong winds etc

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COMMON SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY BACTERIA

Leaf spot- bacteria in sub-stomatal cavities a n d

parenchyma cells of leaves causing localized
lesions.

Soft rots- bacteria produce hydrolytic enzymes that

d e g ra d e the middle lamella a n d cell walls of the
host resulting to soft, slimy, watery dec ay.

Blight- general necrosis due to rapid growth a n d

a d v a n c e of bacteria.

MNPSeco 2023
 COMMON SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY BACTERIA

Gall- due to hypertrophy and hyperplasia

of meristemic and parenchymatous
tissues.

Canker- phloem and parenchyma tissues

b e c o m e sunken, swollen, flattened,
cracked, discoloured, or d e a d areas on
the stems, twigs, or trunk.

Wilting- a results of vascular d isorders,

bacteria multiply and block normal flow
of water.

MNPSeco 2023
Sign of Bacterial infection

Bacterial Exudate Oozing or steaming

MNPSeco 2023
Bacterial stalk rot of corn caused by Erwinia
chrysanthemi pv. zeae

Early Symptoms Late Symptoms

MNPSeco 2023
Common Bacterial diseases

• Bacterial blight of rice caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv.

oryzae.
• Bacterial wilt of solanaceous crops caused by Ralstonia
solanacearum
• Soft rot of vegetables caused by Pectobacterium
carotovorum pv. carotovorum
• Bacterial stalk rot of corn caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi pv.
zeae

MNPSeco 2023
EXAMPLES OF BACTERIAL DISEASES

⌐ Potato blackleg- Pectobacterium carotovorum

⌐ Potato soft rot - P. carotovorum
⌐ Bacterial leaf streak of ric e - X. oryzae pv. oryzicola
⌐ Stalk rot of c orn - P. chrysanthemi pv. zeae
⌐ Potato scab - Streptomyces scabies
⌐ Ratoon stunting disease of sugarca n e - Leifsonia xyli
⌐ Cassava leaf blight – X. axonopodis pv. manihotis
⌐ Leaf spot of p e p p er – Xanthomonas vesicatoria

MNPSeco 2023
Bacterial soft rot of vegetables caused by Pectobacterium
carotovorum pv. carotovorum

MNPSeco 2023
Bacterial wilt of solanaceous plants caused by Ralstonia
solanacearum

MNPSeco 2023
 EXAMPLES OF BACTERIAL DISEASES

citrus canker
Xanthomonas crown gall of plants
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
axonopodis
pv. citri

stalk rot of corn

Pectobac terium chrysanthemi

bacterial blight of rice

(Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae)
MNPSeco 2023
2. Fastidious Vascular Bacteria

• Previously called rickettsia-like organisms (RLO)

• Inhabit vascular tissues: FXLB (xylem-limited) and
FPLB (phloem-limited) bacteria
• Undulated or rippled cell wall
• Cannot be cultured on the artificial media
• Non-motile (no flagella); Generally rod-shaped
• Mostly gram negative
• Rod-shaped
MNPSeco 2023
Fastidious vascular bacteria

MNPSeco 2023
 FXLB

• Restricted to the xylem

• Grow slowly on complex culture media
• Sap-sucking leafhoppers & plant hoppers are vectors
• Example: Pierce diseases of grapes caused by Xylella
fastidiosa
• Common symptoms: marginal necrosis, stunting, general
decline, reduced yield

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
 FPLB

• Inhibits the phloem tissues

• Cannot be cultured
• Example: huanglongbing disease or citrus greening caused by
three species: Candidatus Liberibacter (CL)

• Vector: citrus psyllid

• Common symptoms: leaf stunting, and clubbing, shoot
proliferation, witches’ broom or green of floral parts
MNPSeco 2023
Huanglongbing or citrus greening disease

MNPSeco 2023
3. Mollicutes (bacteria without cell walls)
§ Prokaryotic
§ Phloem-limited, no cell walls (“molli”-soft; “cute”-skin)
§ Spheroidal to ovoid, irregular to filamentous
(pleomorphic)
§ Gram positive, Facultative aerobes
§ 300 nm -1 ևm
§ Transmitted by leafhoppers, plant hoppers, psyllids
§ Mechanically by grafting and budding
§ Not yet grown in culture
MNPSeco 2023
qPhytoplasma or Mycoplasma-like Organisms (MLOs)

§ Similar characteristics to virus disease

§ Found in the phloem
§ Round to elongated cells
§ Cannot be cultured in the laboratory
§ About 200 plant diseases known
§ Need insect vector for transmission to other plants (leafhoppers,
psyllids
§ Pear decline, aster yellowing, peach X disease, coconut lethal
yellowing
§ Produce virus-like symptoms: yellowing, smaller leaves, stunting,
greening, shoot proliferation, die-back, decline, death

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
PHYTOPLASMA DISEASES

Loofah witches’ broom disease

MNPSeco 2023
Cassava Phytoplasma
Disease (CPD)

MNPSeco 2023
 PHYTOPLASMA DISEASES

Phyllody of strawberry G ra p e vine yellows

Tomato big bu d

C o c o n ut lethal yellowing Apple proliferation

Peanut witches’
MNPSeco 2023 broom
qSpiroplasma

§ Spiral or helical shape

§ Can be cultured in nutrient
media
§ 120 nm dia, ևm long, 15 ևm
long (old)
§ Transmitted by leafhopper
§ Citrus stubborn disease by S.
citri
§ Corn stunt disease by S. kunkelii
(can not be isolated)
MNPSeco 2023
SPIROPLASMA DISEASES

Citrus stubborn disease

(Spiroplasma citri)
Corn stunt disease
MNPSeco 2023
(Spiroplasma kunkelii)
Phytoplasma Spiroplasma

MNPSeco 2023
Question
and
Answer
MNPSeco 2023
1. Bacteria and mollicutes belong to the
kingdom:

a. Eubacteria
b. Chromista
c. Plantae
d. Protozoa

MNPSeco 2023
2. The following are characteristics of plant
pathogenic bacteria, except:

a. rod-shaped
b. mostly aerobic
c. mostly flagellated
d. mostly gram negative
e. mostly spore-forming

MNPSeco 2023
3. The following are included in the old genera
of plant pathogenic bacteria prior to 1980,
except:

a. Agrobacterium d. Pseudomonas
b. Erwinia e. Xanthomonas
c. Mycobacterium

MNPSeco 2023
4. The shape of majority of plant pathogenic
bacteria

a. Spherical
b. rod-shaped
c. Helical
d. filamentous

MNPSeco 2023
5. Bacterial surface appendage(s) responsible
for motility

a. cilia
b. flagella
c. fimbriae
d. pili

MNPSeco 2023
6. Provides structural integrity to the cell

a. cell wall
b. cytoplasm
c. cell membrane
d. nucleus

MNPSeco 2023
7. It is missing in mollicutes responsible for
their polymorphic form

a. cell membrane
b. ribosomes
c. cell wall
d. cytoplasm

MNPSeco 2023
8. Main means of reproduction of bacteria

a. spore formation
b. budding
c. binary fission
d. Transverse fission

MNPSeco 2023
9. Causal agent of crown gall

a.Rhizobacterium trifolii
b. Agrobacterium tumefaciens
c. Pseudomonas syringae pv. savastanoi
d. Agrobacteium rhizogenes

MNPSeco 2023
10. Causal agent of soft rot of vegetables

a. Pseudomonas solanacearum
b. Pectobacterium carotovorum
c. Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris
d. Pseudomonas syringae pv. glycinea

MNPSeco 2023
11.

MNPSeco 2023
12.

MNPSeco 2023
13.

MNPSeco 2023
14.

MNPSeco 2023
15.

MNPSeco 2023
16.

MNPSeco 2023
17. The Phytoplasmas and Spiroplasmas are also known as:
a. flagellate protozoans
b. helical viruses
c. Mollicutes
d. Oomycetes
e. none of the above

MNPSeco 2023
 4. Fungi (True Fungi)
LIFESTYLES:
» Heterotrophs - obtain food from organic
matter (living or non-living); cannot make its own
food

Some are:
• Biotrophs- obtain their nutrients from a living
host
• Saprotrophs- obtain their nutrients from dead
plants or animals
• Necrotrophs- infect a living host, but kill host
cells in order to obtain their nutrients
MNPSeco 2023
 WHAT DO FUNGI DO?
» Fungi are involved in a wide range of activities.

» Some fungi are decomposers, parasites or

pathogens of other organisms, a n d others are
beneficial partners in symbiosis with animals, plants
or algae.

Most plant diseases are caused by fungi. Out of 10,000 described species,
more than 8000 species are of plant pathogens. Fungal diseases such as the
mildew, heat rust in cereals have been known from the Roman times. Today,
fungi diseases have risen to greater economic and scientific prominence.
MNPSeco 2023
» Reproduce mainly by spores
(sexual/asexual)
» asexual spores called conidia arise
from modified mycelial portion called
conidiophore
» Non-chlorophyll bearing, spore-forming
microorganism with branched
filamentous vegetative structures
(called mycelium; e a c h b ranch of
mycelium is called hyphae), true nuclei
and cell walls. Branching filamentous
fungal mycelia
MNPSeco 2023
» Some do not produce spores, instead
they produce sclerotial bodies which
are hardened mass of mycelia

MNPSeco 2023
Rhizoctonia solani S c l e r o t i u m r o l fs i i
Fungal Spores
» a specialized propagative
structure which may b e formed
asexually by arising from modified
mycelia portions or sexually Bipolaris maydis

through the fusion of unlike cells or

gametes.

» It also aid in the d issem ination and

survival of fungi under adverse
conditions.

MNPSeco 2023
Magnaporthe oryzae
 Reproductive Structures Asexual

§ Conidium – non-motile spore borne at the tip or side of hypha; may

be inside conidiomata (pycnidia/acervuli) or organized in a
synnema or sporodochium

§ Ascocarp – contain asci Ascospores – Ascomycetes

§ Basidiocarp – bear basidia and Basidiospores – Basidiomycetes
§ Zygospores – Zygomycetes

The spores are important in identifying the group of fungi

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
Fungi as Plant Pathogens
§ 10,000 species out of 120,000 species

§ Common infectious agent; majority of plant diseases are

caused by fungi

§ Variety of symptoms

§ Versatile organisms existing as saprophytes, obligate

parasites, or facultative parasites, necrotrophs

MNPSeco 2023
Active penetration

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
 Classification

Phylum Phylum Phylum

Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota

Anamorph-
imperfect or
asexual stage of Phylum Phylum
fungi
Deuteromycota Basidiomycota
Teleomorph-
perfect or sexual
stage of fungi
MNPSeco 2023
Classification

§ Phylum Chytridiomycota
- Posteriorly uniflagellate fungi
- Oldest phylum

• Physoderma maydis – causes brown

spot of corn
• Synchytrium psophocarpi – causes
orange galls of winged bean

MNPSeco 2023
Classification

§ Phylum Zygomycota- bread mold

- No zoospores, aseptate or coenocytic hyphae, sexual spore,
zygospore; asexual spores are nonmotile aplanospores inside
sporangia
§ Rhizopus nigricans
§ R. stolonifer – causes soft rot of fruits and vegetables

MNPSeco 2023
Rhizopus rot of strawberry

MNPSeco 2023
Classification

§ Phylum Ascomycota
- Separated hyphae, sexual spore is ascospore inside
asci, may be borne in an ascocarp (teleomorph); non-
motile asexual spore, conidia (anamorph)
- May have both sexual and asexual stage
- Ex. morels, truffles, yeast

MNPSeco 2023
Black sigatoka of banana Mycosphaerella fijiensis Cercospora musicola
var. diffornis

MNPSeco 2023
Asci and ascospore Conidia

MNPSeco 2023
Sooty mold Tar spot of sorghum Powdery mildew

MNPSeco 2023
Classification
§ Phylum Deuteromycota
• Asexual or imperfect fungi
• Produce only asexual spores known as conidia with or without
fruiting body (pycnidia, acervuli, sporodochium or synemmata)
• Distinguished by spore characters: color, shape, septation
(oranamentation)
• Septated hyphae
• Much of the plant pathogenic fungi of the tropics

MNPSeco 2023
Examples:

• Corn leaf spot or leaf blight caused by Bipolaris maydis

• Mango or banana anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides
• Panama wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense
• Purple blotch of onion caused by Alternaria porri

MNPSeco 2023
Corn leaf spot Purple blotch of onion

MNPSeco 2023
Panama wilt of banana Banana anthracnose

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
Rice blast Magnaporthe
(Pyricularia) grisea
Symptom
MNPSeco 2023 Sign
MNPSeco 2023
Classification
§ Phylum Basidiomycota

• Septated hyphae; rhizomorphs

• More advanced structure
• Microscopic spore of the rusts and smuts
• Macroscopic fruiting bodies of the Aphyllophorales
• Basidiopores borne on basidia in basidiocarps
• Heart rots, butt rots, white rots, brown rots, root rots, rots of trees
• Rusts, smuts, mushroom
MNPSeco 2023
 Coffee rust Corn smut

Rust uredospore Teliospore

MNPSeco 2023
Fomes sp. Root rot Pycnoporus sp.

MNPSeco 2023
 5. Protozoans/Flagellate Protozoa
• One-celled, eukaryotic and move by flagella

• Phylum Plasmodiophoromycota
- Endoparasitic slime molds; obligate parasites
-Class Plasmodiophoromycetes

• Plasmodiophora brassicae
- Club rot disease of crucifers or fingers-and-toe disease

• Spongospora subterranea – powdery scab of potato

MNPSeco 2023
Club root disease of cabbage
– hypertrophy and hyperplasia

Powdery scab of potato

– ruptured epidermis

MNPSeco 2023
 6. Fungal-like Oomycetes/Chromista
» They were originally called fungi because they produce
sporangiospores that are enclosed in sporangia and borne on a
sporangiophore.

• differ from fungi in that their cell walls are made up cellulose and
glucans rather than chitin. Mycelium are coenocytic (lack cross
walls/aseptate)

• Phylum Oomycota – bi-flagellate zoospores (asexual) inside zoosporangia

• Abundant sporangia
• Wind- and water- disseminated
• Dependent on moisture, rainy weather
MNPSeco 2023
Potato late blight

Phytophthora sporangia &

sporangiophore

MNPSeco 2023
 Phytophthora
MNPSeco 2023
├ Pythium sp. - damping off
diseases, rots of vegetables

MNPSeco 2023
Downey mildew of corn Peronosclerospora philippinensis

MNPSeco 2023
White rust of kangkong Albugo ipomea - pandurae

and crucifers
MNPSeco 2023
FUNGI VS. OOMYCETES
Question
and
Answer
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
10.

MNPSeco 2023
11. Not a characteristic of a fungi

a. Ultra microscopic
b. Lacks chlorophyll
c. Reproduce by spore
d. Filamentous

MNPSeco 2023
12. Group of fungal pathogens that do not produce either sexual or
asexual spores.

a. Basidiomycetes
b. Imperfect Fungi
c. Sterile Fungi
d. Ascomycetes

MNPSeco 2023
13. The following are examples of pseudofungi under Kingdom
Chromista except

a. Pythium
b. Phytophthora
c. Rhizoctonia
d. Peronosclerospora

MNPSeco 2023
 7. Nematodes
» Nematodes comes from the Greek words
“nema/nematos” = thread and “edos” =
resembling or likeness

» occur in soil, plants, animals and humans. More

than 300 species are known to be parasitic on
plants and it is considered there may be up to 1
million species worldwide.

Threadlike unsegmented worms that possess

stylet to puncture plant cells to obtain
plant juices/sap.

» Plant-parasitic nematodes are mostly

obligate parasites. MNPSeco 2023
7. Nematodes

• Threadlike animals with smooth,

unsegmented bodies (Phylum Nematoda)
• Typically slender and elongated bodies
measuring 300-1000 ևm long and 15-35
ևm wide
• Female of some species are swollen at
maturity
• Possess stylet in the head region for
piercing tissues

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
Mechanisms of infection:

1. Draw food materials from the roots & giving off enzymes
(toxic)- cell divisions at the root tip is inhibited and the
root stops growing
2. Serves as vectors of plant viruses; e.g. Trichodorus &
Xiphinema- Tobacco rattle virus; Grapevine
fanleaf virus (GFLV)
3. Feeding injuries become entry points for other pathogens

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
 GROUPS OF PLANT PARASITIC NEMATODES

Ectoparasitic nematodes
• feed from the outside a nd stylet
enters the plant cell; feed on root
hairs a nd tips

Endoparasitic nematodes
• the entire nematode body
enters the plant cells while it
feeds

Semi-endoparasitic
nematodes
• bury the anterior part of their
body into the host while the
posterior part swells outside the
host cells MNPSeco 2023
 Endoparasitic Nematodes
Migratory endoparasitic nematodes
• those that migrate within the host
and/or between the soil & the host
├ Pratylenchus (le sion ne mato d e )
├ Hoplolaimus (la nc e ne mato d e )
├ Radopholus (burrowingnematode)
├ Helicotylenchus (spiral nematode)

Sedentary endoparasitic nematode

• attach themselves to the roots and remain sedentary

├ Meloidogyne (root-knot nematode

├ Heterodera/Globodera (cyst nematode)
MNPSeco 2023
GENERA OF PLANTPATHOGENIC NEMATODES

» Meloidogyne
» Belonolaimus
» Trichodorus
» Xiphinema
» Hoplolaimus
» Longidorus

MNPSeco 2023
 7. Nematodes

• Heavily infected plants are smaller than normal plants, are usually
chlorotic, and have a tendency to wilt because of reduce or unhealthy
root system. Below ground symptoms vary, depending on the specific
nematode attacking the roots. The following diseases symptoms are
common.
a. Root knots or galls
b. root lesions
c. Abnormal or reduced root development
MNPSeco 2023
Symptoms

Lesions

Stunting and chlorosis Root galls

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
 Important Nematode Diseases in the Philippines

1. Slow dec line of citrus - Tylenchulus semipenetrans

2. Spreading d e c line - Radopholus similis
3. Toppling disease of banana - Radopholus similis
4. Root knot of various crops (RKN) - Meloidogyne spp.
5. False Root Knot - Naccobus spp.
6. Ufra disease of ric e - Aphelenchoides besseyi
7. Ric e root knot (mentek) - Hirschmanniella oryzae
8. Yellow dwarf disease of black p e p p e r - Radopholus similis
9. Red ring disease of c o c o nut - Radinaphelenchus cocophilus
MNPSeco 2023
8. Viruses

» The typical diameter of a spherical plant

virus is ~30 nm and have different shapes

» Obligate parasite (replicate only in

cytoplasm of living hosts)

» Ultramicroscopic/ submicroscopic

» Most of plant viruses have RNA

component, animal viruses have DNA

1 Infected cell= 1-10 million virus particles can

be produced
MNPSeco 2023
8. Viruses

• Ultramicroscopic/ submicroscopic
m a d e up of nucleic a c i d core a n d
protein c o a t

• Nucleic acid core - infectious part,

confers infectivity

• Protein coat- provide a protective

sheath for the nucleic acid, facilitate
movement of virus from cell to cell a n d
for transmission of viruses by vectors

MNPSeco 2023
a. Rigid rods
b. Flexuous rods
c. Isometric
d. Bacilliform
MNPSeco 2023
 HOW DO VIRUSES Plant virus cannot enter the plant cell by itself
ENTER THE PLANTS?
Virus enter through wounds m a d e mechanically
or by insect vectors.

Virus enter by deposition into

ovule of a n infected pollen
grain.

Viruses moves from one cell to another at a rate of

approximately 1 mm/day MNPSeco 2023
TRANSMISSION AND SPREAD OF VIRUSES
» Mec ha nic a l means
» Grafting
» Nematodes
» Soil-borne fungi a n d fungal-like
organisms
» Infected vegetative planting
materials
» Infected seeds and pollen
» Mites
» Insects - aphids, leafhoppers,
thrips, whiteflies, mealy bugs, etc.

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
COMMON SYMPTOMS OF VIRAL INFECTION

» Generally stunted, the yield is less, a n d produce is of

poor quality.
» A plant may a p p e a r healthy without apparent external
symptoms though infected by a virus:
» Some c o m m o n symptoms include:
⌐ Mosaic
⌐ Ring spot
⌐ Vein clearing
⌐ Color breaking
⌐ Chlorosis
⌐ Leaf curling

MNPSeco 2023
• Latent symptoms – appear at the late date

• Symptomless carriers – only show symptoms when

inoculated to indicator plants

• Masked symptoms – do not show symptoms under

certain environmental conditions

MNPSeco 2023
 EXAMPLES OF DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES

Toba cc o mosaic
Pa p a ya ringspot

A b a c a bunchy top Watermelon mosaic Tulip breaking

MNPSeco 2023
 Flexous rod

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
 BPH Tenuivirus

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
 Examples of Plant Diseases
Rice tungro Papaya ringspot

Abaca bunchy top Tomato mosaic

Abaca mosaic Pepper mosaic

Rice grassy stunt Sweet potato feathery mottle

Rice ragged stunt Tomato leaf curl

Disease= name of host + symptom

Pathogen name= disease name + ”virus”
MNPSeco 2023
METHODS OF IDENTIFYING VIRUSES

Electron microscopy
• for virus morphology (size a n d shape)

Serological tests
• for virus relationships, d one by mixing
antibodies with a n antigen
• Enzyme-linked Immonusorbent Assay (ELISA)

Molecular identification
• using a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
a n d DNA sequencing

MNPSeco 2023
 8. Viroids

» very tiny entities m a d e up of stable

a n d free RNA infecting plant cells
» much smaller than viruses (80x smaller)
» naked or lacking the protein
sheath
» obligate parasite
» closely associated with the nuclei,
esp. the chromatin of the cells they
infect
MNPSeco 2023
 TRANSMISSION AND SPREAD OF VIROIDS

» Mechanical means- The infected

sap in contaminated tools
a n d hands or by alighting a n d
chewing insects.

» Thru vegetative propagating

Materials

» Pollen (PSTVd), Seeds

MNPSeco 2023
SYMPTOMS OF VIROID-INFECTED PLANTS
» Yellowing of leaves
» Stunting
» Rolling a n d twisting of leaves
» Mottling a n d chlorosis
» Vertical breaking of bark

MNPSeco 2023
 DISEASES DUE TO VIROIDS

» coconut cadang-cadang- Coconut

cadang-cadang viroid (yellowing of
leaves)
» citrus exocortis- citrus exocortis viroid
(vertical breaking of bark)
» potato spindle tubers- potato spindle
tuber viroid (rolling and twisting of
leaves; tubers elongated)
» wheat chlorotic mottle - wheat
chlorotic mottle viroid (mottling and
chlorosis)
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
Difference of viroids, viruses and phytoplasmas

MNPSeco 2023
9. Parasitic Flowering Plants or Phanerogams

§ 2500 plant parasitize other plants, but

few cause significant damage on crop
plants or trees
§ Depends on other plants for nutrients
and water
Dodder flowers
§ Develop special organ for attachment (Cuscuta sp.)
and extraction of nutrient and water
§ Produce numerous flowers, fruits and
seeds
MNPSeco 2023
§ True parasites – extract both nutrients
and water; Little or no chlorophyll, no
true roots

§ Ex. Cuscuta sp. (dodder) – orange

and yellow leafless vine strands;
haustoria

§ Orobanche sp. (broomrapes)–

clusters of stems; root attach to hosts Cuscuta, dodder

roots
MNPSeco 2023
§ Hemi-parasites – do nor entirely depends on
host plant for water and nutrients; can
photosynthesized in some extent

• Ex. Striga, witchweed – abundant leaves but

roots attach to hosts roots (corn, sugarcane,
sorghum)

• Phoradendron sp. (true mistletoe) – also

carry on photosynthesis but forms branches
Striga, witchweed
(sinkers) which invade cambium of the host
MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
Question
and
Answer
MNPSeco 2023
1. Shape of virus which looks like a flexuous threads

a. Gemini
b. Spherical
c. Bacillus
d. Elongate

MNPSeco 2023
2. How many million virus particles can be produced in each infected
cell?

a. 2-3
b. 1-5
c. 3-4
d. 1-10

MNPSeco 2023
3. Viruses moves from one cell to another at a rate of approximately

a. 3 mm/day
b. 2 mm/day
c. 1 mm/day
d. 5 mm/day

MNPSeco 2023
4. The structure that differentiates plant parasites from free-living
nematodes

a. Cuticle
b. Esophagus
c. Tail
d. Stylet

MNPSeco 2023
5. What is the most destructive stage in the life cycle of root knot
nematode?

a. J1
b. J2
c. J3
d. J4

MNPSeco 2023
6. Example of viroid causing disease

a. Potato spindle tuber

b. Bunchy top of abaca
c. Grassy stunt
d. Rice tungro

MNPSeco 2023
7. Symptoms of virus infected plants, except:

a. mottling
b. wilting
c. vein clearing
d. twisting

MNPSeco 2023
8. The following are the characteristics of plant viruses except

a. ultramicroscopic
b. obligate
c. has NA and protein coat
d. possess well-defined cells

MNPSeco 2023
9. These pathogen can survive as saprophytes, except:

a. fungi
b. bacteria
c. virus
d. none

MNPSeco 2023
10. Mode of nematode dissemination

a. soil
b. fungi
c. insects
d. all of the above

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11. These are inoculum of nematodes

a. larvae
b. juveniles
c. eggs
d. all of the above

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12. One of the following is not due to viroid

a. potato spindle tuber

b. tobacco mosaic
c. cadang-cadang
d. citrus exocortis

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13. First discovered viroid as causal agent of plant disease

a. Deiner
b. Y. Doi et al.
c. A.C. Goheen et al.
d. Uichanco

MNPSeco 2023
14. Witchweed is an example of what type of parasitic flowering plant?

a. Obligate parasite
b. Hemi-parasite
c. True parasites
d. Facultative parasite

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Variability in Plant Pathogens

• Pathogens, like other organisms, continually undergo changes

• The shorter the life cycle, the more reproductive units produced,
the greater the chance for genetic changes

• May involve increase or decrease in pathogenicity

MNPSeco 2023
§ Sexual reproduction – thru segregation and recombination of
genes during meiotic division of zygote

§ Asexual reproduction – reduced frequency and degree of

variability but certain individuals in the progeny may show
different characteristics

MNPSeco 2023
A. Mechanism of variability in fungi, bacteria, viruses, and
other pathogens

1. Mutation – abrupt change in genetic material of an organism

• Represent changes in the sequence of bases in the DNA;

• May be substitution of one base pair for another or addition
or deletion of one or many base pair

MNPSeco 2023
2. Recombination
• Meiotic division follows and recombination occurs as a result of
genetic crossovers in which parts of chromatids of one
chromosomes of a pair are exchanged with parts of the
chromatids of the other chromosomes of the pair

• Or it may result from mitotic division in the course of growth of

an individual

MNPSeco 2023
B. Specialized mechanisms of variability in
pathogens

1. Sexual-like processes in fungi

a. Heterokaryosis – as a result of fertilization or anastomosis,

cells of fungal hyphae contain two or more genetically
different nuclei

MNPSeco 2023
b. Parasexualism – within cells of fungal heterokaryosis,
crossing-over occurs in a few mitotic divisions resulting into
new genetic recombinants

c. Heteroploidy – organism with #s of chromosomes per nucleus

that are different from the normal 1N OR 2N complement for the
particular organism
- Increases the degree of variability exhibited by fungi

MNPSeco 2023
d. Cytoplasmic variation
• due to hereditary determinants in the cytoplasm such as
extrachromosomal factors in the DNA of the mitochondria

Example. Plasmogene of cms- T cytoplasm makes corn kines

susceptible to pathotoxin of Race T of H. maydis

e. Hybridization
• Results from sexual production thru segregation and genetic
recombination and produce variants

MNPSeco 2023
2. Sexual-like Processes in Bacteria

a. Conjugation – a small portion of chromosomes or plasmid

from one bacterium is transferred to the other thru conjugation
bridge between contacting bacterial cells

b. Transformation – bacteria are transformed genetically by

absorbing and incorporating in their own cells genetic
materials secreted by or released during rupture of other
bacteria.

MNPSeco 2023
2. Sexual-like Processes in Bacteria

c. Transduction – a bacterial virus (phage) transfer genetic

materials from the bacterium in which phage was produced to the
bacterium it infects next

d. Mutation – may come spontaneously or naturally, or through

the application of mutagens

MNPSeco 2023
Figure 6.5 Mechanism of variability in bacteria through sexuallike processes
MNPSeco 2023
3. Variation in nematodes
- Thru hybridization and mutations

4. Genetic recombination in viruses

- One or two strains of the same virus inoculated into the same
host plant – one or more new different virus strains are recovered

MNPSeco 2023
§ Variation in pathogenicity and also thru alterations in growth
rate, longevity, host range, optimum temperature, pH, etc.

§ Loss of virulence may occur

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 Disease Cycle
• Sequence of events that leads to disease development in a
plant or in a population of plants

• Knowledge of disease cycle – essential to formulation of control

measures

• Know the weak points where control can be implemented

MNPSeco 2023
Primary events:

§ Inoculation
§ Penetration
§ Infection
§ Colonization (invasion), growth and production of
the pathogen
§ Dissemination of the pathogen
§ Survival of the pathogen

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§ Inoculation – deposition of pathogen inoculum into or onto
infection court

• Inoculum – any part of the pathogen that is capable of infection

E.g. spores, mycelia, bacterial cells, egg, virus particles in sap etc.

• Infectious court – any part of the plant where the inoculum is

deposited
E.g. leaf, stem, roots, petioles, wounds, stomates, etc.

MNPSeco 2023
§ Penetration of ingress – process of breaking the
physical barrier between the pathogen and the host

• Port of entry: intact surface, natural opening, wounds

oActive – fungi from penetration or infection pegs; nematodes

pierce thru tissues; parasitic plants coil around hosts, etc.

oPassive – only move with moisture or protoplasm, land on

wounds, by action of water, winds, insects; e.g. viruses,
bacteria, some fungi, viroids, mollicutes, fastidious bacteria

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MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
§ Infection
- The pathogen starts on obtain nutrients from the host and
becomes established in the host

• Appearance of symptoms
• Incubation period – time interval from inoculation to appearance
of symptoms
• Pathogen employs toxins, enzymes, growth hormone to
parasitize its host & cause changes in the host

MNPSeco 2023
§ Colonization
- The pathogen invades the surrounding cells and tissues;
pathogen reproduction and multiplications

• Intercellularly – in between cells only; fungi, bacteria,

nematodes

• Intracellularly - within cells; viruses & viroids, mollicutes,

fastidious bacteria, protozoa, parasitic plants

• Both; fungi, bacteria, nematodes

• Symptoms are advanced

MNPSeco 2023
Dissemination
- Inocula are spread to other parts of plants or other plants in
the field

• Agents: water, wild, insects, man, animals

• Re-infection occur when secondary inocula are disseminated
and infect new plants
• Secondary cycle is initiated & repeated within the cropping
season
• Favorable condition, susceptible host, virulent pathogen are
present

MNPSeco 2023
MNPSeco 2023
Survival period
- Pathogen goes through a period of dormancy or resting state

• Absence of susceptible host or when environment is

unfavorable or pathogen is no longer available

• In soil, infected crop debris, alternate hosts insects vectors

• Mycelia or sclerotial bodies, resistant spores, bacterial cells,

virus particles, nematode adults, seeds of parasitic plants

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MNPSeco 2023
• Once favorable conditions return, dormant propagules
germinate and produce primary inocula to start disease
cycle again

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Active stage

Survival stage

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• Active stage
- pathogen is infecting the host plant and causing disease

• Survival stage
- pathogen is away from the plant and survives adverse
condition

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§ Monocyclic diseases
• No repeating stage or secondary infection cycles; pathogen immediately
undergoes survival period before primary cycle starts anew
• E.g smuts, soil borne diseases such as root rots and vascular wilt

§ Polycyclic diseases
• More than one disease cycles; secondary infection cycle; abundant
inocula produced and disseminated; before the survival stage occurs
• E.g. rusts, powdery mildew & downy mildew fungi, leafspots & blights

MNPSeco 2023
 Plant disease Epidemiology

• Epidemic – any increase of disease in a population; epiphytotics

• Study of the development and spread of disease in a population of

plants over time

• Disease triangle components: susceptible host, virulent pathogen,

favorable environment

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Disease Triangle
MNPSeco 2023
Host susceptible factors
a. Host genetics (resistant or susceptible)

b. Degree of genetic uniformity (all of same genetic make-up)

c. Age of host (young or old)

d. Stage of crop growth ( right susceptible stage)

e. Type of crop ( annuals or perennials)

MNPSeco 2023
Pathogen factors
a. Genetics of pathogen (virulent or not)

b. Abundance (too many or few)

c. Means of spread (vector-borne, air, water, etc.)

d. Survival structures (lacking or present)

e. Type and rate of reproduction (sexual or asexual)

f. Ecology of the pathogen (associated with insects, soil, hosts)

MNPSeco 2023
Environmental factors:
a. Temperature
b. Humidity
c. Aeration
d. Light
e. Soil
f. Other pathogens or microbes,
g. Cultural practices
- effect on both the pathogens growth and development
- Host susceptible or resistance
MNPSeco 2023
Additional components
• Time-stage of crop growth, time of dissemination of inocula,
duration of exposure to pathogen or vector or favorable
environment, time of planting, time of application of control

• Intervention by man: man’s cultural activities: choice of crop

variety, time of planting, use of pesticides

MNPSeco 2023
Interrelationship of the factors involved in plant disease epidemics

Disease Pyramid
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Factors affecting disease increase
• Initial amount of disease or inoculum – the more initial inoculum
the greater infection

• Rate of disease increase – the faster the increase, the more

rapid the spread

• Duration of disease or period of time involved in disease

development – less time, faster, more disease

MNPSeco 2023
Elements of an epidemic
• Large area planted to a genetically uniform crop

• Presence of virulent pathogen

• Presence of favorable temperature, moisture, wind, and

vector conditions

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Measure of amount or intensity of disease

• Disease incidence – number of infected units expressed as % of the total

number of plants or units examined
E.g. 10 out of 100 plant = 10%

• Disease severity – the area of infection as % of the total area of plant

E.g. 25sq cm covered with lesions out of visual estimate based on standard
diagrams.

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MNPSeco 2023
2. The following are mechanisms of fungal variations except

a. mutation

b. parasexual process

c. heterokaryosis

d. transformation

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3. Inoculum is a pathogen or part of the pathogen that can initiate

a. Infection
b. Invasion
c. Inoculation
d. Colonization

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4. Infection court is the part of the host from which the pathogen can
establish

a. Pathogenic relationship
b. Parasitic relationship
c. Mutual relationship
d. Commensalism

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5. External and internal reactions or alterations of a plant as a result of
a disease is called

a. Infection
b. Symptom
c. Invasion
d. Colonization

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6. This is responsible for wide spread distribution of the inoculums

a. Wind
b. Moisture
c. Soil type and pH
d. Nutrition

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7. It determines the germination and spread of the inoculum

a. Wind
b. Moisture
c. Soil type and pH
d. Nutrition

MNPSeco 2023
8. The time between the initial penetration of the host and appearance
of symptoms

a. Incubation period
b. Infectious period
c. Dormant period
d. Latent period

MNPSeco 2023
9. The hydrophobic layer that repels water and the first layer of defense
of a plant against the pathogen

a. Cutin
b. Wax
c. Cuticle
d. Epidermis

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10. A cellular structure used to absorb nutrients from the plant cell

a. Appressorium
b. Germ tube
c. Haustoria
d. Infection peg

MNPSeco 2023
11. Where guttation water gets out from the leaves

a. Hydathodes
b. Lenticels
c. Stomata
d. Growth cracks

MNPSeco 2023
12. Type of fungal penetration whereby the mycelia occupies the
spaces between the cells and send out haustorium into the cell

a. Direct intercellular
b. Direct with haustoria
c. Direct intercellular with haustoria
d. Direct intra cellular

MNPSeco 2023
13. Stage of disease cycle whereby the pathogens are already
reproducing within the host tissues

a. Dissemination
b. Infection
c. Colonization
d. Invasion

MNPSeco 2023
Four General Principles of Disease Management

• Protection- Prevention of infection through chemical barriers,

biological control, crop management, and manipulation of
environment
• Exclusion- Prevention of a new pathogen from being introduced
into a locality where it is currently unknown.
• Eradication- Elimination of pathogens that have become
established within the plant or in an area
• Resistance- Involves modifying certain physiological or physical
features of the host so that it can repel infection; Resistance is the
relative ability of the plant to overcome the effects of a pathogen
MNPSeco 2023
Methods of PROTECTION

1. Protection by biological control

• Fungal antagonists
• Bacterial biological control agents
• Hypovirulent strains of the same pathogen
• Viral parasites of plant pathogens

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of PROTECTION

2. Protection by chemicals
• Fungicide protectants such as
mancozeb, coppers, and
chlorothanolil
• The finer the spray, the more
complete the coverage on the
plant surface

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of PROTECTION

3. Controlling certain environmental factors that affect infection

• Low temperature storage
• Drying to reduce moisture
• Wrapping of fruits
• Disinfection of storage areas

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Methods of PROTECTION

4. Crop management practices that prevent or reduce infection

• Choice of planting site
• Choice of planting date
• Adjustment of soil pH

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of EXCLUSION

• Legal measures (quarantine)

• Pathogen-free planting materials (tissue culture)
• To avoid outbreaks of diseases due to introduction of new
pathogens
• Quarantine should be taken seriously
a. Total ban of commodities but result in illegal smuggling of
banned items
b. Aim to prevent entry of dangerous pathogens
c. Acceptable risk- enough to be manageable
MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

1. Physical control
• Heat treatment (hot water, hot air)
• Irradiation (UV rays, X-rays, and
Gamma rays)
• Drying stored grains
• Refrigeration

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

2. Chemical control
• Use of disinfectants of fumigants or
chemicals (fungicides, bactericides,
nematicides)
• Systemic chemicals
• Soil fumigants
• Disinfestation of warehouses
• Control of insect vectors

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

Fungicides
1. Protectant fungicides- effective against a broad range of fungi and
protect plant against infection on the surfaces to which chemical is
applied
2. Systemic fungicides- can be absorbed by the plant without harming it,
and transported to other tissues where they are toxic to fungi.
• Can control and eradicate established infections
• Vulnerable to fungi developing resistance
• Can be alternated with other fungicides with other modes of action
• Benomyl, carboxin, oxycarboxin, metalaxyl, carbendazim
MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

Antibiotics
• Chemicals produced by microorganisms which destroy ot injure
living organisms, especially bacteria
• Very few
• Streptomycin used as stop gap measure
• Development of resistance to antibiotics

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

3. Cultural control
• Measures undertaken by man to prevent and control disease by
manipulating plants. Only forms of control that are economically
viable for low value crops
• Roguing or removal and destruction of infected plants
• Removal of alternate hosts
• Sanitation
• Crop rotation
• Creating unfavorable conditions
MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

4. Biological control
• Employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or
control their population
• Involve introduction of exotic species or use of naturally existing
biological control agents in the ecosystem
• Ex. parasites, antagonistic agents, avirulent strains of same
pathogen, suppressive soils

MNPSeco 2023
Methods of ERADICATION

Mechanisms of biological control:

1. Parasitism- hyperparasitism or
mycoparasitism
2. Predation- invertebrates, bacteria
feeding nematodes, amoeba attacking
yeasts, small spores, and fungal
hyphae
3. Competition- between organisms that
require the same resource for growth
and survival. Also, competition for
infection sites of related
microorganism
MNPSeco 2023
Methods of RESISTANCE

• Improving the growing conditions of plants of plants (cultural

management)
• Use of resistant varieties
a. Vertical resistance (few major genes)
b. Horizontal resistance (many minor genes)
Most effective and economical

• Induced resistance
Systemic Acquired Resistance (SAR)- plants infected with
one pathogen become more resistant to subsequent infection by
another pathogen MNPSeco 2023
Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Fungi

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Fungal-like
Oomycetes

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Bacteria

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Phytoplasmas

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Nematodes

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Viruses

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

Diseases
caused by
Viroids

Mandap, 2021
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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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Important Plant Diseases in the Philippines

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-END OF PLANT PATHOLOGY-

Thank you J
MNPSeco 2023