Measures of Central Tendency and Variability / Dispersion

Measures of central tendency are statistical measures that provide a single, representative value for a set of data. These measures help to describe the center or
average of a distribution. The three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.

The mean, often referred to as the average, is calculated by adding up all the values in a dataset and then dividing by the number of observations.

Median:

The median is the middle value of a dataset when it is ordered from least to greatest. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two
middle values.

Mode:
The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.

Variance is a statistical measure that quantifies the spread or dispersion of a set of data points in a data set. It provides information about how much individual data
points deviate from the mean (average) of the data set. In essence, it gives a sense of how much the values in the data set differ from the average.

Mean:

Standard deviation is a statistical measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values. It quantifies how much individual data points differ from the mean
(average) of the data set. Standard deviation provides a more interpretable measure of dispersion compared to variance because it is in the same units as the original data.
 Input your 10 items test score
Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Score 10 5 6 8 9 8 4 9 9 9

Solve the following:

A. Mean:
Solution: 10+5+6+8+9+8+4+9+9+9= 77
77/10=7.7

B. Median:
Solution: 4,5,6,8,8,9,9,9,9,10
=8.5
C. Mode:
Solution: {4,5,6,8,8,9,9,9,9,10}
The Mode is 9
D. Range
Solution: 10-4=6

E. Variance
Solution:

Students (xi-x) (xi-x)2

(10-7.7) (2.3)2= 5.29
(5-7.7) (-2.7)2= 7.29
(6-7.7) (-1.7)2= 2.89
(8-7.7) (0.3)2= 0.09
(9-7.7) (1.3)2= 1.69
(8-7.7) (0.3)2= 0.09
 (4-7.7) (-3.7)2= 13. 69
(9-7.7) (1.3)2= 1.69
(9-7.7) (1.3)2= 1.69
(9-7.7) (1.3)2= 1.69
S2= 36.1 = 36.1 = 4.01
10-1 9

F. Standard Deviation:
Solution: √4.01
= 2.00
J. Difficulty and Discrimination Index

Difficulty Index: The difficulty index, also known as the difficulty level, is a statistical measure used in educational assessment to evaluate the difficulty of a particular item or
question on a test. It provides insights into how easily or difficultly examiners are able to answer a specific question. The difficulty index is typically expressed as a
percentage.
Calculation: The difficulty index is calculated by dividing the number of individuals who answered the item correctly by the total number of individuals and then multiplying by
100 to convert it into a percentage.
Interpretation:
A high difficulty index (close to 100%) indicates that the item was relatively easy for the test-takers.
A low difficulty index (closer to 0%) suggests that the item was challenging for the majority of test-takers.

Discrimination Index: The discrimination index is another statistical measure used in educational assessment, particularly in the context of multiple-choice tests. It assesses
the ability of a test item to discriminate between high-performing students and low-performing students.

Interpretation:

A positive discrimination index indicates that high scorers are more likely to answer the item correctly than low scorers. This suggests that the item
effectively discriminates between different levels of ability.
A negative or zero discrimination index suggests that the item does not effectively differentiate between high and low performers and may need revision.
Reliability:

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measurement tool or test. A reliable test produces consistent results over time and across different
conditions.

Types of Reliability:

Test-Retest Reliability: Measures the consistency of scores when the same test is administered to the same group of people at different times.
Internal Consistency Reliability: Assesses the consistency of scores across different items within the same test.
Inter-Rater Reliability: Examines the agreement between different raters or observers scoring the same test or assessment

Interpretation: A reliability coefficient close to 1 indicates high reliability, while values closer to 0 suggest lower reliability.
Complete the table.

Students p q D Descriptive Di Descriptive Decision KR20

meaning meaning

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 Solution:
0
Item
s
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0.06 Moderate 0 To be discarded Revise

2 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0.5 0.5 0.3 Moderate 1 To be discarded Revise

3 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0.6 0.24 0.5 Moderate 0.3 Very good items Retain

4 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0.8 0.16 0.4 Moderate 0.6 Very good items Retain

5 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0.9 0.09 0.4 Moderate 0.6 Very good items Retain

6 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0.8 0.16 0.4 Moderate 0.6 Very good items Retain

7 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0.4 0.24 0.4 Moderate 0.6 Very good items Retain

8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0.9 0.09 0.3 Moderate 0.3 Very good items Retain

9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9 0.09 0.6 Moderate 0 To be discarded Revise

10 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0.9 0.09 0.4 Moderate 0.6 Very good items Retain

 Interpretation: EXCELLENT

D = difficulty index
Di = Discrimination index

Note: the coding above is just a sample for you to be guided. Input your data.

Interpret and discuss your result, give emphasis on the result of KR20:
 The test questionnaire results to excellent. This proves that most of the students got the correct answer. Some questions need to be discard and most of it
is a good items but this doesn’t mean that this questions are acceptable because some students just search the answer for each questions and just choose
the answer randomly.
Normal curve and skewed distribution of scores

Skewness Calculator | 365 Data Science open this site and calculate the skewness of your data

1) Illustrate the graph of the result

2) Discuss
Illustratethe result
here:

A normal distribution, often represented by a bell-shaped curve, is a symmetrical probability distribution commonly encountered in various
fields. It is characterized by the following features:

Symmetry: The normal curve is symmetrical around its mean, with both tails extending infinitely. This means that the distribution is equally likely

to fall on either side of the mean.

Bell Shape: The curve has a distinct bell shape, with the highest point at the mean. As values move away from the mean in either direction, the

frequency of occurrence decreases.

Mean, Median, and Mode: In a perfectly normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are all located at the center of the distribution.

Standard Deviation: The spread of scores in a normal distribution can be described by the standard deviation. Approximately 68% of the scores

fall within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within two standard deviations, and 99.7% within three standard deviations.

Z-Scores: Z-scores are used to standardize values in a normal distribution, allowing for comparisons between different normal distributions.

Skewed Distribution:

A skewed distribution, on the other hand, is asymmetrical. It is characterized by a lack of symmetry, and the direction of the skewness is

determined by the longer tail:

Positively Skewed (Right Skewed): In a positively skewed distribution, the tail on the right-hand side is longer or fatter than the left side. This

means that there are relatively more low values, and the distribution is pulled toward the higher values.

Negatively Skewed (Left Skewed): In a negatively skewed distribution, the tail on the left-hand side is longer or fatter than the right side. This

indicates that there are relatively more high values, and the distribution is pulled toward the lower values.

Mean, Median, and Mode: In a positively skewed distribution, the mean is typically greater than the median, while in a negatively skewed
distribution, the mean is typically less than the median.

Example: An example of a positively skewed distribution might be income data, where most people have average incomes, but there are a few

extremely wealthy individuals. An example of a negatively skewed distribution could be exam scores, where most students perform well, but a

few students perform poorly.