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 • Updated research and new examples of effective practices for children with diverse
abilities, particularly children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Expanded discussion of current research on brain development and executive
­function and implications for teaching.
• New artifacts and examples of children’s work, especially from children in the
­primary grades.

Book Organization Reflects

Guidelines for Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
This book is designed to teach the concept of developmentally appropriate practice for
students because an understanding of its principles is the foundation on which to build
early childhood programs and schools for children from birth through age 8. Chapters
are organized according to NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
which I have coauthored for 30 years.
Part 1, Foundations of Early Childhood Education, describes the current p ­ rofession
and the issues and trends effecting it today (Chapter 1), the rich history from which
developmentally appropriate practices evolved (Chapter 2), and an overview of its
­
­principles and guidelines, which are described in depth in later chapters (Chapter 3).
Part 2, Dimensions of Developmentally Appropriate Practice, includes chapters
­describing the key factors teachers must consider as they make professional decisions.
Chapter 4 presents an overview of current knowledge about how all children develop and
learn. Chapter 5 addresses the unique, individual differences among children, including
children with diverse abilities. Chapter 6 discusses the critical role of social, cultural, and
linguistic contexts on all children’s development and learning and how teachers must
­embrace a diverse society to help every child succeed in school and life.
Part 3, Intentional Teaching: How to Teach, describes the role of the teacher in
­implementing developmentally appropriate practices. Each of the interconnected aspects
of the teacher’s role is addressed in separate chapters: building effective partnerships with
families (Chapter 7), creating a caring community of learners and guiding young children
(Chapter 8); teaching to enhance learning and development (Chapter 9); planning e­ ffective
curriculum (Chapter 10); and assessing children’s learning and development (Chapter 11).
Part 4, Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach, describes both
how and what to teach children from birth through age 8 in language, literacy, the arts,
­mathematics, science, technology, social-emotional development, social studies, physical
development, and health. Each chapter demonstrates how the continuum of children’s
development ­determines the appropriateness of curriculum content and intentional,
­effective teaching strategies for children of different ages.
Early childhood educators join this profession and stay in it because they believe their
work can make a difference in the lives of children and their families. But to make a last-
ing difference, our practices must be effective—they must contribute to children’s learning
and development. This book reflects this core goal by building on the basic framework
of developmentally appropriate practice while going beyond to emphasize intentional
­teaching, challenging and interesting curriculum, and evidence-based, effective practices
for a new generation of early childhood educators. Each of these key themes is discussed
on the following pages.

vii
 Intentional Teaching of Young Children
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education This text builds on the framework of developmentally appropriate practice emphasizing
that effective teachers are intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful in everything they do.
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language
Intentional teachers know not only what to do with children
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
but also why they are doing it and can explain the rationale
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six-
for the decisions they make to other teachers, a­ dministrators,
year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac-
tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting
and families. To help students understand this concept,
it optimally for all children.
Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci-
­Becoming an Intentional Teacher features reveal what
sions of one primary grade teacher:
teachers are thinking
children in herin classroom challenge each yearhow
class. Her firstsituations, is to and why
Frida Lopez has 22 first-grade
get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one
theyconversations
select the strategies they do,andand skills challenge students to
with children, observes their behavior throughout the day,
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math
reflect further
problems on these scenarios.
with counters.
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in-
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur-
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making
The Complex Role of the Teacher
According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1)
creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel-
opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s
learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.
_C03.indd 84
Intentional teachers must reflect and apply their knowl-
edge using a broad repertoire of effective teaching strat-
egies. Demonstrate Your Learning features at the end
of each chapter require students to practice these skills.
This end-of-chapter quiz appears only in REVELTM and
includes feedback.
viii
118 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching in the “Zone”
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are to solve the problem, ex-
working on the basic mathematical number operations— plaining each of their steps.
adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in
After about two weeks of this more
centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I
do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin-
intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract
single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment
gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug-
gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful
when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also
with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee
at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his
adding and subtracting.
observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully
when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing
cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store
Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach-
er, I know that understanding and applying these founda-
center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil-
works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach
dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that
to support his understanding and application of subtraction: children learn best in the context of supportive relation-
ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in-
1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ-
tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing
ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an
abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains!
each child’s level of independent performance on a skill,
(2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help)
During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping
performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al-
and counting, using short word problems and number
cards.
low a child to practice in their supported level, until the
child can do the skill independently. I then set the next
2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in
higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.
the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro-
duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies. (ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by
Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets, an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as-
according to the list, and return (subtract) things they sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have
no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel information on how to support the child’s progress. But by
purchases and returns items for his building project, I assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres-
support and make explicit his adding and subtracting, sive development and learning.
pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math
for his project. Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to
3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could
Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con- she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal
cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together Development?
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
zone of proximal development
and makes a circle around the room.
(ZPD) The distance between
the actual developmental level By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
an individual has achieved (her her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
independent level of problem zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
solving) and the level of po- level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
tential development she could level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
achieve with adult guidance
or through collaboration with
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
other children.
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
scaffolding The assistance,
in the “Zone.”
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
their own. which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
Effective teachers are informed decision makers who adapt
for individual differences, including for children with dis-
abilities and special needs. Check Your Understanding
features engage students in assessing their own learning.
Some questions involve critical thinking about a complex
teaching situation or issue confronting the early childhood
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
field. TheseKey
quizzes
Terms appear only in REVELTM and include
feedback.
10/8/15 11:56 AM ■ age appropriate ■ culture ■ intentional teachers ■ push-down curriculum
■ assessment ■ curriculum ■ learning centers ■ reciprocal relationships
■ caring community of ■ developmentally appro- ■ position statement ■ scientifically based
learners priate practice (DAP) curriculum
■ culturally appropriate ■ individually appropriate
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
Readings and Websites
Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and National Association for the Education of Young
learning: Transforming early childhood environments. Children
St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel-
NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for
developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop-
opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8
ies of all their position statements.
ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants,
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Toddlers, and Families
This website provides resources and practical tips for
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing working with infants, toddlers, and their families.
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children.
ASCD Whole Child Initiative
This website provides resources promoting elementary
education that supports all areas of children’s develop-
ment and learning.
Current Research on Effective Practices
In an era of Common Core State Standards and Early Learning standards, accountability,
and rapid change in the field, the text makes research understandable and meaningful for
students and illustrates the connections between child development, curriculum content,
assessment, and intentional teaching.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449

What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as-
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan-
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab-
graders used to interpret their graphs in
Figure 13.1.
What Works features present research-based practices in
action, including descriptions of demonstrated effective
Problem solving is playing a larger role in
today’s curriculum due to the Common Core standards, but word
problems complicate the challenge of math instruction for dual

practices such as teaching mathematics to dual language

stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM language learners. Teachers should avoid tricky word problems
have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2 cars and 3 trucks;
children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM how many vehicles does he have?” Such a question poses a lan-
learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners. guage test rather than a math problem. A related challenge pre-

learners, father involvement, and using evidence-based cur-

Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language sented by word problems is the culturally implicit knowledge they
learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example, often require. Solving a problem usually requires that a child un-
gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young derstand the situation in which it occurs, whether it’s purchasing
children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.

riculum to narrow the achievement gap.

putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM,
shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys
for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms.
as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil- For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray-
dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel- ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other
evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste-
ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be reotypes of only white males in these roles.
referred to later. What works most effectively are the practices that are de-
Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning-
in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan- ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed
guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t to worksheets that test what children should have already
be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group, learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science,
it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil-
viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need
with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer. to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging
Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can STEM content.
be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil- Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English Language
dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora-
group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-
response will be singled out. discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial 192 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American,
Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science
Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March
concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe- 8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/
cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_
Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel-
introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first Twitter. op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve
in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi-
language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens:
STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.
need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all
how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways. areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81
succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s
A Developmentally and Technologically children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from
Appropriate Classroom
A preschool teacher creates a class website that is updated regularly. The children create Including All Children an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.
a slide show about their class pet using Kid Pix software to share with families. For an
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
integrated science study on the properties of water, kindergartners produce information
books on the computer using digital photos of their water experiments.
Anti-Bias Education
and Children with Disabilities
anti-bias education Learning The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias
People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro- up from school, his teacher describes how often he
experiences and teaching education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically

Lens features present insights on culture, language, and in-

priate practices are that
strategies effective for children with dis-
are specifically used his words and which friends he played with
abilities. The fact is that the basic elementsdesigned
designed not only to prepare all
of de- not onlycenter
during to prepare
time. all children for life in a culturally rich society but also
velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary to counter
for the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias
children for life in a culturally By contrast, when children with disabilities are included
( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally
cluding all children. These features discuss practice through
inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:
rich society, but also to counter in programs that are not developmentally appropriate,
Isaac is 4the years old and has
stereotyping a diagnosis of autism. it becomes difficult for theand
of diverse responsive, anti-bias education ways
child with of helping
special needs—children achieve those goals. The
He is sitting
groups,on and
a brightly against carpetoverarching
to guard colored square indeed, goal for
of all
anti-bias education ismake
of the children—to to help all children reach their full potential.
meaningful

diverse lenses, expanding the sources of information teach-

between
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, two
Literacy, of his
and preschool
the Arts
expressions of bias. peers at circle
393To do so, anti-bias education focusesexperience
time. progress. Compare this child’s to Isaac’s:
on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks &
His teacher is reading a book the class made called
Edwards, 2010; Tara, Teaching Tolerance,
also a 4-year-old 2012):is sitting next to
with autism,
Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted
her teacher
1. Identity. at circle
Teachers time.and
foster The support
teacher ischildren’s
reading fromself-awareness, confidence, and
from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
ers use to make decisions and helping them look at questions
a small-sized book, and many of the children can-
features pictures of the children in the class pairedpride in their family and own identity.
not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle
Stage 6: Advanced Children have developed understanding with their names.
Teachers Isaac loves
intentionally teachthe the book,
vocabu- and reads
time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and
Language Proficiency of specialized, content-related vocabu- along lary with the teacher.
and language Asrequired
skills the teacherfor reads each many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins

or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the lens

child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and
lary. It can take from 5 to 7 years for academic achievement in school. For rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With-
moves. After the story, it is time for singing. Isaac
children to master this level of cogni- example, mathematics out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and
knows this because circle requires
time happensknowingin a similar
tively demanding language. wordseach
routine like day.
Language Lens
addend or double-digit mul- tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara

with which teachers view their practice is a strategy to move

bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. She
The teacher
tiplication that pulls
are not outused
the “song chart” featur-
in everyday
begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and
ingspeech.
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners
the pictures and titles of eight different songs.
One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and
asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re-

beyond the persistent educational tendency to dichotomize

Sources: Based on Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds: turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi-
seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the
Applying Research to Improve Practice, by L. M. Espinosa, 2010, Upper Saddle River, With growing numbers of dual and multi-language cally moves her back to spellings)
learn- the circle, to
and help children learn routines and safety pre-
a 10-minute
“Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re-
NJ: Pearson; Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and struggle ensues. When Tara’s father On
cautions. comesthetoInternet
pick hershe finds images, songs, and
move the song ers card. inIsaac
our classrooms,
holds the card allwhile
teachers
the need to be prepared
Writing. 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, and L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark, to support English language acquisition up,while
the teacher describesstories
also pro- “her bad day”
that and asks depict
accurately him children’s homelands, and

difficult or controversial issues into “either/or” choices, and

children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play”
DE: International Reading Association. to talk to Tara about listening
uses at school.
these to spark conversations among small groups of
with his hands.motingThe teachercontinued homeIsaac,
says, “Yes, language
it is development. Using
time for centers.” technology
She letsexponentially
Isaac choose increases
a center teachers’
A child with options to acts
a disability children. She teaches
like a magnifying glassall
onthe children to use iTranslate
first because she achieve
knowsthese
it is goals,
hard for ashim
these to examples
wait. theillustrate: on classroom
developmental appropriateness of antablets to aid communication and support
early child-

move toward “both/and” thinking. Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then hood program. As is clearburgeoning from Isaac’s friendships.
case and by The class uses Skype to com-
Yao ofisthea Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in
points to the picture water table. His teacher contrast Tara’s experience,municate with children’s
developmentally appropri-relatives in other parts of the
Culture Lens models, “I want preschool.
“Water table.” His
to play at the.
won’t
He is. .isolated
playproud
teacher, with of
.” Isaacfrom
him.his His
says,the ate
other
teacher knows
increasing
children
practice
successful
who the necessary
provides
thatinclusion
country orfoundation
without in theincluding
world. Within
program.native
for hisa few weeks, all the children,
But individually
English speakers, enjoy helping each
Understanding and Responding to Code verbal skills, givessocial
Switching him ainteraction,
hug and says, his “Off
English
you skills won’t develop.
go appropriate She are
adaptations also explore
other essential for children
different languages and learn together.
to the water table.” loansWhenhisIsaac’s
familymother
an iPad andhim
picks with the
withhelp of a trans-
disabilities and other special needs.
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both using the same strategies that promote language learning
story about his family with photos and narration in both opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
the commonly accepted version of English and the home in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
language or dialect. When children are learning a second English
way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, Chinese. When he shares the story with the every child in America if schools take advantage of young
andintentionally
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a teaching new words, and extendingother conversations
children, they
withrealize that Yao has an interesting children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
sentence in one language and then switching to the other quietly with
questions life andAseveral
a puzzle or pegboard.
and ideas. secondofgrader
them decide
loves totoread
use and
the spends all of herable,
app to create free technological resources now available.
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es stories about
time with abilingual
Sometimes book, while
teachersanother
think that they themselves.
struggles with
can reading but looks forward to math because
sup- Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
it’s her
port dualbest subject.
language learning by alternating languages
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
themselves.
The term Again, the opposite appropriate
individually is true. Children’s brains
refers to teachers aboutAssociation for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
will automatically listen and respond home languages, some
to the language of whomusing whatarrived
are newly they know
immi- the individually
27, 2014,
appropriate
from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex- personality, strengths, interests,
grants. and abilities
She
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote relies of
on each individual
technology to child
create in
an the group
accessible to adapt Information about the strengths,
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native helps-dual-language-learner;
interests, abilities, and“Using
needs Technology as a Teaching
for and
dual be responsive
language development, to bilingual
individual
environment variation.
teachers forcan Consider,
allread
the childrenfor instance,
as they two
acquire tricycle riders:
sufficient Tool for Dual Language Learners
language. of each individual child inin
thePreschool through Grade 3,”
The fearless
books in each rider maybut
language need more
should
English careful
do to
sonavigatesupervision
at separatethe school.to prevent injury,
Kara posts whileand
pictures the warier
by K. N. group
Nemeth
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant times. that enables teachers2013,
and F. S. Simon, to Young Children, 68(1),
child may need extra encouragement and support
labels in various to develop
languages (in somehiscases
large motor skills. Similar-
with phonetic 48–52. adapt to and be responsive to
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
ly, some children
Encouraging childrenwilltoneed
code enriched
switch and experiences
respondingto accelerate their language development, individual variation.
positively
while a few honorsmay theneed
language system support
individual that they toalready
continue to build on their precocious reading
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative life’s challenges, while another needs helpbecause
controlling aggression to make friends.
respects and supports their cultural identity
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
Withand
language the culture
individual differenceslinked.
are inextricably that exist,
Teach-teachers clearly cannot expect all children
cate as clearly as they can.
in ashould
ers groupalways
to learn theasame
create warm,thing
positivein classroom
the same way at the same time. Even when the
So what should teachers do about code switching? First, climate in which children feel safe
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to express them-
to a whole group, each child will take away
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
of dual language learning. The most important thing is something
think about different
their own fromuse ofthe learning
language, experience.
which serves Therefore, to help children progress,
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor- them well in other learning situations and has long-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to cial development.
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching. Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
should view code switching as a strength. As always, http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
teachers should be good language models themselves, /fcp/docs/code-switching.pdf.

• Current research findings, such as effective strategies for teaching dual language learn-
ers or children with autism spectrum disorder, are brought to life and made meaningful
by connections to classroom and community examples.
• The terms and definitions used in this text contribute to establishing a shared v­ ocabulary
for all of those in and entering the field.
• Approximately 40% of the references are from 2012 and beyond.

ix

In the Developmental Continuum feature, the text provides
an overview of the continuum of learning in the areas of
language, literacy, mathematics, and cognitive, social, emo-
tional, and physical development and describes how child
development is linked to curriculum planning for children
from birth through age 8.
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education
Promoting Play
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many
children today experience high levels of unrelent-
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of
all children to some extent. Teachers today report
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of
children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed
as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood
obesity is also endemic.
Research demonstrates that exercise and child-
initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically,
however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head
Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil-
dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out-
doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre-
pare children academically for school. And children
living in poverty are most likely to suffer because
they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and
programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic
instruction to close the school readiness gap.
Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and
administrators need to understand that play and
school readiness is not an either/or choice. The
American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that
play is essential for children’s physical health, emo-
tional and mental well-being, social relationships,
and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play
develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity.
In short, play contributes to all areas of develop-
ment and learning.
Continuity and Change
One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field
expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many
longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the
field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by
both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early
childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the
important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research
about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing
should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.
x
Connections between Curriculum and
Child Development
Unlike many early childhood texts that focus on child development only, this text shows
how child development and curriculum content knowledge are connected.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
Birth to about
8 months
• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play.
• Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing
consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.”
• Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone.
• Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets.
• Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.
Between 8 and • Become more purposeful in their communications.
18 months • Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from
a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.)
• Understand many more words than they can say.
• Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech.
• Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me.
• Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and
18 months.
From 18 to • Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances
24 months called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu-
nicating their message: “No nap.”
Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences
with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).
• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words.
• Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.)
• Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as
they seem to want to name everything.
Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words.
• Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the
more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l.
• Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations.
• Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten.
• Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.
The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace.
• During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend
what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal.
• At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-
guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate
that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th
edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson;
Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language,
and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and
J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
• Chapters 12 to 15 help early childhood teachers understand right from the start
that there is content in the curriculum for young children. They describe the goals
for young children’s learning and development that predict success in school and
life. Each of these chapters includes examples of effective strategies such as teach-
ing children of diverse abilities in inclusive classrooms or ways to promote dual
language learning.
31
A new feature, Promoting Play, presents new research on the
important role of play in development and effective strategies
In an attempt to get children ready for school and
protect them from injury, early childhood programs
to help children learn through play or protect their right to play.
may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
initiated play time. Because children spend so much
These features address play across the full age range, from birth
time in early childhood programs and school, it may
be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
through age 8. Discussions of play are also integrated in each
outdoor play.
Early educators need to draw on the support of
chapter throughout this book as an effective means to support
physicians and other experts to help educate parents
and policy makers about the importance of play in
children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil-
all domains of development and promote learning in all cur-
dren cope with stress and improve school success.
They also need to advocate for funding to provide
safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and
riculum areas. Today many people are concerned about how the
outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and
opportunities must be designed to protect children
standards movement is negatively impacting play. We often hear
from injury, but protecting them from stress is
equally important.
Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail
statements such as “We can’t let children play because we have
Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care
Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A.
Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012,
to teach literacy,” or “We don’t have time for outdoor play in
Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics.
aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/
peds.2011-2102.full.pdf+html; “The Importance of
primary grades because we have to get children ready for stan-
Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and
Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on
Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, &
dardized tests.” Play should not be treated as a separate part of
Council on Communications and Media Committee
on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health,
Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http://
an early childhood program or day that can be cut if someone
www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.
deems it unimportant. Therefore, you will find a discussion of
play in every chapter of this book.
• The emphasis on implementing effective curriculum reflects current trends such
as the goal of aligning prekindergarten and primary education, NAEYC accredita-
tion and CAPE professional preparation standards, and enhanced expectations for
teacher qualifications as described in the 2015 report, Transforming the Workforce
for Children Birth through Age 9: A Unifying Foundation by the Institute of Medicine
and the National Research Council.
 Acknowledgments
Over more than four decades in early childhood education, I have had the
privilege of working with and learning from countless friends, colleagues, teachers, and
children. This book would not have been possible without the help and encouragement of
the following people:
My deepest appreciation goes to Kathleen Cranley Gallagher, my collaborator on this
edition, who revised Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, and 15. Kate’s vast experience with chil-
dren, with and without disabilities, as well as her research on children’s social-emotional
development and mental health greatly inform this edition. Kate contributed research and
effective practices on early intervention, teaching children with autism spectrum disorder,
and other cutting-edge topics. Without Kate’s help, I can’t imagine completing this work
in a timely fashion.
I especially wish to thank Carol Copple, with whom I have collaborated on Devel-
opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs for several decades, and
who contributed features as well as invaluable assistance in conceptualizing aspects of the
book. Thanks also to Laura Colker for her overwhelming generosity, sharing of ideas, and
gracious support.
I want to acknowledge Carol Brunson Day for teaching me so much about diver-
sity, anti-bias education, and cultural influences on development. Her work contributed
greatly to the Culture and Language Lens features and Chapter 6.
Thank you to Gail E. Joseph, who was especially helpful on the first edition, and many
of her contributions are still present in Chapters 5 and 14 and the Including All Children
lenses.
Thanks to my longtime friend Kay M. Albrecht, who contributed to Chapter 15 and
provided numerous examples from her extensive classroom experience.
I wish to thank Linda Espinosa and Luis Hernandez for helping ensure that the book
reflects the most current research and practical examples for teaching dual language
learners.
Close colleagues whose wisdom and encouragement have educated and sustained me
for decades include Marilyn Smith, J. D. Andrews, Barbara Willer, and Barbara Bowman.
My deepest gratitude goes to Sharon Lynn Kagan for writing the foreword to this edi-
tion. The debt is never paid to the late Carol Seefeldt, who taught the first early childhood
course I ever took and mentored me through my dissertation. I hope that my work con-
tinues to reflect her vision.
A sincere thank you and acknowledgment of support to Arlington Public Schools
(APS) in Arlington, Virginia. Those assisting in the effort include: Arlington Public
Schools administrative personnel Regina Van Horne, Lisa Stengle, and Linda Erdos;
K. W. Barrett Elementary principal, Mr. Dan Redding; and K. W. Barrett instructional
staff Joshua McLaughlin, Anastasia Erickson, Emily Sonenshine, Stephanie Shaefer, Judy
Concha, Jennifer Flores, Elizabeth Jurkevics, and Richard Russey. Also, a big thanks to
those students and their parents who allowed us to use the student artwork and artifacts
found in this book.
I am also grateful to the many other schools, teachers, and administrators who
welcomed me as an observer, shared examples, and contributed artifacts, including:
Cathy ­Polanski, Second Grade, Arcola Elementary School; Hoaliku Drake Preschool,
Kamehameha Schools Community-Based Early Childhood Education; the Center
­
for Young Children at the University of Maryland; The Shoenbaum Family Center in
­Columbus, Ohio, including Anneliese Johnson; Wickliffe Progressive Community School
and the Jentgen family; Linden, New Jersey, Public Schools; Far Hills Country Day School
in Far Hills, New Jersey; the HighScope Demonstration Preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan;
and Easter Seals Blake Children’s Achievement Center in Tucson, Arizona.
I continue to be indebted to Julie Peters, my editor at Pearson, for contributing her
wealth of knowledge about early childhood teacher education, and her unwavering s­ upport
for my work. I also wish to thank Linda Bishop for leading me through the d ­ evelopment
xi
 of an Interactive eText for the first time. Thanks also for the creative contributions to the
first edition of Max Effenson Chuck and Kelly Villella Canton.
My life and work continue to be inspired by Patty Smith Hill, founder of NANE,
whose vision for early childhood education laid the foundation for NAEYC’s commitment
to developmentally appropriate practice.
I would also like to thank the many reviewers who contributed to the development
of this book. They are: Margaret Charlton, Tidewater Community College; Jody Eberly,
The College of New Jersey; Amy Howell, Central Oregon Community College; Claire
Lenz, St. Joseph’s College; Marilyn Roseman, Mount Aloysius College; and Lois Silvernail,
Spring Hill College.

Instructor Supplements
The following instructor tools supplement, support, and reinforce the content presented
throughout the text. All supplements are available for download for instructors who adopt
this text. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com, click “Educators,” register for access,
and download files. For more information, contact your Pearson representative.
• Online Instructor’s Manual (013402687X). The Instructor’s Resource Manual pro-
vides chapter-by-chapter tools to use in class. Lecture or discussion outlines, teach-
ing strategies, in-class activities, student projects, key term definitions, and helpful
resources will reinforce key concepts and applications and keep students engaged.
• Online Test Bank (0134026756). These multiple-choice and essay questions tied to
each chapter provide instructors the opportunity to assess student understanding
of the chapter content. An answer key is provided.
• Online PowerPointTM Slides (0134026829). Each slide reinforces key concepts and
big ideas presented throughout the text.
• TestGen (013402673X). This powerful test generator contains the same items that
are in the Online Test Bank, but you may add or revise items. Assessments may be
created for print or testing online. You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for
other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web.

The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:

TestGen Testbank file - PC • TestGen Testbank file - MAC • TestGen Testbank -
Blackboard 9 TIF • TestGen Testbank - Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF •
Angel Test Bank • D2L Test Bank • Moodle Test Bank • Sakai Test Bank

xii
 Foreword
Like all Sue Bredekamp’s work, Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education:
Building a Foundation has become a landmark. Since its publication, it has been
the major benchmark against which all volumes related to early childhood practice are
­measured, domestically and internationally. Indeed, it has been a driving force, not only
guiding practice and scholarship, but also serving as a seminal vehicle to codify and
chronicle the impact of history, the experiences of practitioners and leaders, and the im-
pact of policy on the changing field of early education. In so doing, it has converted static
assumptions and understandings about early childhood pedagogy into living, dynamic,
and far more intentional practices.
Since its appearance, Effective Practices has been widely read and used to guide early
childhood teacher preparation and practice. Its popularity has placed a special burden on
the work; it, like the field, cannot remain stagnant or isolated from changes in the social
context. Precisely because it is so well used and because the field is changing so rapidly, a
new edition is necessary. Consider for example, the impact that the emergence of the K–12
Common Core has had on early education: whether one favors or disparages the Common
Core ideologically, it is here to stay and is having profound impacts on American educa-
tion generally, and American early education specifically. In addition, the revitalization
of an emphasis on continuity and transition, emerging currently in the form of the “P–3
Movement,” is altering the way early educators conceptualize and actualize the linkages
between pre-primary and primary education. Within the birth to 5-year-old component
of early childhood, a renewed emphasis on supporting the infrastructure through the Ear-
ly Learning Challenge Fund, with its focus on Quality Rating and Improvement Systems,
standards, and assessments, is precipitating dramatic changes in the way early childhood
education services are being designed and delivered. Finally, new research related to the
way children learn and process information is calling forth compelling pedagogical align-
ments that address the importance of dual language learners, executive functioning, early
mathematics, and learning progressions.
With the early childhood field changing so rapidly, time-honored questions are be-
ing catapulted to new prominence, often begging for urgent response: What should be
the balance between cognitive development and other domains historically important to
early childhood? What should be the balance between a focus on learning processes and
content? What should be the balance between teacher-guided, intentional pedagogy and
child-guided experiential learning? Note that none of these questions is new and that each
recognizes the critical importance of balance.
Indeed, the majesty of this volume is that it, too, understands and addresses the im-
portance of the contemporary context and the balance in perspective and practice it de-
mands. In this volume, Bredekamp takes a long-haul view; she renders solid definitions
of the field, situating the reader firmly in reality, and provides one of the most thorough
historical overviews available. But Bredekamp does not stop there, nor does she skirt the
tough issues, the new research, or the new demands being placed on early educators.
Rather, with clarity and grace, she systematically addresses them all, setting before the
field a rich compendium of research, firsthand and extremely well-cultivated practice,
and ever-wise counsel. Readers will be impressed by the currency, practicality, and clear
intentionality of the volume, evoking the same from those who regard it with the care with
which it was written.
Of particular importance in this ever-changing and increasingly connected world
is the role of culture and language. Bredekamp addresses these issues with honesty and
integrity, treating readers to a richly nuanced understanding of the important roles of
each in the development of young children. Cautiously, she reminds us that the words
“developmentally appropriate”—although bywords of the profession—must be deeply
contextualized in order to be understood and mastered. Indeed, in discussing how to
­balance ­developmentally, individually, and contextually appropriate practices, ­Bredekamp
­brilliantly notes that “a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the
xiii
 ­ evelopmental appropriateness of an early childhood classroom.” In turn, early educators
d
must regard this seminal edition as the best possible lens through which to see and enlarge
what matters most in our field; with wisdom and prescience, it sheds all the light necessary
to advance our evolving, joyous profession and our critically important work on behalf of
children, their families, and their countries.

Sharon Lynn Kagan, Ed.D.

Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Early Childhood and Family Policy,
Teachers College, Columbia University;
and Professor Adjunct, Yale University’s Child Study Center

xiv
 Brief Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2

Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 6

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . 68

Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . 1
 00

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

 38

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204

Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children. . . . . 2
 38

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 08

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy,
and the Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 78

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:

Mathematics, Science, and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional
Learning and Social Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
 54

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit:

Physical Development and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children. . . 516

xv
 Table of Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2

Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What Is Early Childhood Education?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Landscape of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Access to Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How Early Childhood Education Is Changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Why Become an Early Childhood Educator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Joys of Teaching Young Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Career Options for Early Childhood Educators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Culture of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Setting Standards for Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measuring Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Brain Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care . . . . . . . . 24
Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Current Trends in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
New Federal and State Policy Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Standards and Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Higher Teacher Qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Advances in Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Continuity and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Learning from the Past. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Why History Is Relevant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Changing View of Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
European Influences on American Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . 41
John Amos Comenius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

xvi
 Johann Pestalozzi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friedrich Froebel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Maria Montessori. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Early Childhood Movements in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Kindergarten Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Nursery School Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Child Care Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A Wider View of Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
African Americans in Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Native American Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Latino Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bringing the Stories Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Story of Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Prekindergarten Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate

Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
NAEYC’S Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . 70
Current Issues in Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Intentional Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Purposeful Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Understand and Explain Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Make Informed Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Consider All You Know When Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Complex Role of the Teacher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Create a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Teach to Enhance Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Assess Children’s Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Build Relationships with Families and Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Teacher’s Role in Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking . . . . . . . . . . 89
Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Physical Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research on Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Future of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Understanding Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Role of Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Why Study Child Development and Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Brain Development and Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
How the Brain Promotes Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Implications for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Implications for Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Child Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Learning Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Role of Play in Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Types of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Benefits of Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Play and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Connecting Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

The Importance of Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Where Do Individual Differences Come From?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience. . . . . . . . . . 142
What We Know About Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Gender Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Cognitive Development and Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Seeing Each Child as an Individual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Gifted and Talented Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Responsive Education for All Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Differentiating Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Response to Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

xviii
 Individual Differences in Ability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
The Language of Early Childhood Special Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism . . . . . . . . . 155
What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements
for Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Work on a Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . 170

Understanding Cultural Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
What Is Culture?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
The Role of Culture in Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A Framework for Thinking About Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Individualistic Cultural Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Interdependent Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Continuum of Common Cultural Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Applying the Continuum in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Embracing Linguistic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Cross-Cultural Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Effective Practices for Diverse Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Culturally Responsive Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Linguistically Responsive Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Anti-Bias Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204

Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Today’s Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Welcoming Diverse Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Family Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Family Circumstances and Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Reciprocal Relationships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Roles of Teachers and Parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Family-Centered Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

xix
 Communication with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Barriers to Effective Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Effective Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Family Engagement in Programs and Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Benefits of Family Involvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Community Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Clarify Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Communicate Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Negotiate Successfully. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding

Young Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . 240
The Value of a Caring Community of Learners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
The Teaching Pyramid Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Positive Relationships with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
The Importance of Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
High-Quality Supportive Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Support Children to Do Their Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior. . . . . . . . . 255
Guidance and Punishment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Conflict Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Intensive Individualized Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Understand Challenging Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans . . . . . 261
Use Positive Behavior Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Teaching: Both a Science and an Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
The Science of Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The Art of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
What Are Teaching Strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Using an Array of Teaching Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
xx
 Reflect on Your Own Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Strategies That Develop Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving. . . . . . . . . 292
Grouping as an Instructional Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
The Learning Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Play as a Context for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Involvement during Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Role during Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Teaching with Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Research on Digital Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Defining Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
What Is Curriculum?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Written Curriculum Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
The Teacher’s Role. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Role of Standards in Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
What Are Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
How Do Standards Affect Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Approaches to Planning Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Emergent Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Integrated Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Thematic Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
The Project Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Scope and Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Comprehensive Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Focused Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
The Reggio Emilia Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Research on Preschool Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
A Model for Planning Effective Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
The Child in the Sociocultural Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Sources of Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Learning the Language of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Formative and Summative Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Informal and Formal Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xxi
 Performance Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dynamic Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Types of Standardized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Identifying Children with Special Learning or Developmental Needs . . . . . . . . . 351
Evaluating Program Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Assessing for Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Indicators of Effective Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Developmentally Appropriate Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Individually Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs. . . . . . . . 358
Observation and Recording to Improve Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Observing and Gathering Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Recording What Children Know and Can Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . 369
Standardized Testing of Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Types of Standardized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Appropriate Uses of Standardized Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Concerns about Standardized Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Assessment and the Common Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Kindergarten Entry Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts. . . . 378
Children’s Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
The Critical Importance of Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Types of Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Language Differences in Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Developmental Continuum: Oral Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Impact of Common Core Speaking and Listening Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Scaffolding Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Supporting Language Development in Babies and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Dual Language Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
How Children Learn a Second Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Developmental Continuum: Dual Language Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Literacy-Rich Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Early Literacy from Birth to Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Literacy in the Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
xxii
 Learning to Read. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades. . . . . 404
Evidence-Based Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Digital Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Impact of the Common Core State Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Communicating Through the Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
The Value of Creative Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Visual Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Music, Movement, and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Seeing the Arts with New Eyes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:

Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
The Importance of Mathematics and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Need for an Educated Workforce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Mathematics Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
The Continuum of Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Executive Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Children’s Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Language and Cognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Mathematical Language and the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Curriculum Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Process Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Effective Mathematics Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Effective Mathematics Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science and Technology in the Early Childhood Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Effective Science Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Teaching about and with Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society:

Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Self-Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Continuum of Social and Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Infants and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Preschool and Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
xxiii
 Diversity and Social-Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
The Role of Play in Social-Emotional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Emotional Development and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Social Development and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Social and Emotional Curriculum Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
What Is Social Studies?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Social Studies Content Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical

Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Benefits of Physical Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Childhood Obesity Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Implications for Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
How Physical Development Occurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
The Continuum of Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Gross-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Fine-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
The Role of Play in Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Childhood Experiences with the Natural Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Outdoor Play Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Health and Safety Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote Physical
Fitness and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Curriculum for Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference

for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Life as an Early Childhood Educator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Caring for and Educating Infants and Young Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Teaching the Whole Child in the Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood Professional . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Become a Professional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Protect Children from Abuse and Neglect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Join a Profession That Makes a Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
xxiv Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
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 CHAPTER IX
THE AFTERNOON CALL

“W hich way?” asked Ned as, a few minutes later, they went
through the gate.
“Let’s go down to the river and along the road and see all the
booful automobiles,” said Laurie.
“It’s not my idea of a pleasant walk,” returned Ned, “to get entirely
covered with dust and then run over!”
“We’re not going to walk,” announced Polly. “Anyway, not yet.
We’re going this way.” She and Mae turned toward School Park.
“Not going to walk?” exclaimed Laurie. “What are we going to do?
Polly, don’t tell me you’ve gone and bought an automobile!”
“We’re going calling,” said Polly.
“What!” protested Ned. “Calling, did you say? Not much, Polly! At
least, I’m not.”
“Now, Ned Turner—” began Polly.
“Oh, never mind him,” broke in Laurie. “I’ll go calling with you,
Polly. I just love to go calling. Have you any one specially in mind?
Or shall we just take them as they come?”
They were crossing the street now diagonally, Polly and Mae in
the lead. Laurie was smoothing his hair and settling his tie
smirkingly. Ned looked rebellious. “Who are we going to call on?” he
demanded dejectedly.
“You’ll know soon enough,” laughed Polly. And he did, for the next
instant she had pushed open a little gate between the lilac hedges
and was leading the way up the short path to Miss Comfort’s door.
 “Gee!” murmured Laurie. But he and Ned followed obediently and
stared questioningly at Polly while somewhere at the rear of the little
house, a bell jangled in response to her tug at the brown crockery
knob. “What’s the big idea?” whispered Laurie to Mae, who was
nearest. But Mae only shook her head. And then, with such
promptitude as to suggest to Ned that he had not just imagined that
face at the front window, the door opened, and Miss Comfort was
giving them welcome. There were introductions in the small hall,
during which Ned trod on Laurie’s foot and Laurie pushed Mae into
an umbrella-stand which had once been a length of drain-pipe and
which now bore a faded design of cat-o’-nine-tails and swallows; and
then, somehow, they were all seated in the front parlor, Laurie, who
had neglected in the confusion to leave his cap in the hall, trying to
stuff it into a side pocket.
The room was not over-furnished. There was a walnut sofa
covered with faded green rep across one corner, a marble-topped
walnut table between the two front windows, a bookcase midway of
the inner wall, a number of straight chairs placed formally along the
sides of the room, and an easy-chair at each window. There were
also two foot-stools covered with crewel work, one of which Ned
narrowly escaped, and a brightly hued Brussels carpet. A fireplace,
surmounted by a white marble shelf, was blankly, inexorably closed
by a glossy black sheet of iron. Two gilt candelabra adorned the
ends of the mantel, and a black marble clock, whose stumpy hands
had stopped at twelve minutes to nine on some long-past day, stood
squarely in the center. There was a purple and green square of
embroidery on the table and a few books of unexciting appearance.
Everything was spotlessly clean, immaculately neat, depressingly
orderly.
Polly and Mae, as usual, crowded into one of the easy-chairs, and
Miss Comfort sat erectly in the other. Miss Comfort proved to be
small and rather thin, with lightish hair that wasn’t brown and wasn’t
white. She had small, delicate features and dark eyes that remained
very bright and clear. Miss Comfort might be nearly seventy, as Polly
had stated, but there was something youthful in her pleasant face,
her quick movements, and her thin, soft voice. Laurie was receiving
these impressions when that thin, soft voice pronounced his name
and he discovered that his hostess had turned from the girls and was
looking toward him, her head pushed forward a little as if, despite
their brightness, her eyes were not as serviceable as they had been.
“Mr. Laurie,” Miss Comfort was saying, “I want to thank you for
your interest in my affairs. I do think it was extremely kind of you to
send that telegram to my brother-in-law. Although I am convinced
that nothing will come of it, I assure you that I appreciate your
helpfulness.”
It was rather a precise and formal little speech, and it is probable
that Miss Comfort had prepared it in advance of the occasion. It left
Laurie surprised and sputtering.
“But—but—why, that’s all right—if you mean—”
Polly came to his rescue: “It was mama who told, Laurie. She
really didn’t mean to, but if you knew her as well as I do you’d know
that she simply can’t keep a secret, no matter how hard she tried.”
“Oh,” said Laurie. “Well, you don’t need to thank me—us a bit,
Miss Comfort. I—we were mighty glad to do anything we could, and
we wish there was more we might do. I guess Polly’s told you that
that—er—that your brother-in-law hasn’t answered yet.”
Miss Comfort nodded. “Yes, and I’m not surprised. Mr. Goupil is a
very busy man, I suppose, and I dare say he hasn’t time to—to look
after all matters himself.”
“Well, if you ask me—” began Laurie indignantly.
“But she hasn’t,” interrupted Ned warningly. “I guess what Laurie
was going to say, Miss Comfort, is that he—that is, we—both of—
neither of us—” Laurie was smiling enjoyably—“can understand how
your brother-in-law could act so—so—”
“Rotten,” supplied the irrepressible Laurie.
“I know,” replied Miss Comfort. “Perhaps I can explain a little. You
might say that Mr. Goupil and I are strangers. Yes, that is scarcely an
exaggeration. My sister Amanda met him in New Jersey fourteen
years ago when she was teaching school there. Amanda was much
younger than I and—and impulsive. I knew nothing about Mr. Goupil
until she wrote to me from Chicago saying that she was married and
on her way west with her husband. I was dreadfully surprised, as you
can well understand, for Amanda was—” Miss Comfort hesitated,
coughed and continued—“was almost fifty years of age, and I had
never thought of her becoming married. In my surprise, I fear that my
letter to her was not—well, quite as sympathetic as it should have
been. I suppose I showed her that I was a little bit hurt because she
had not confided in me earlier. That was most unfortunate, because
it led to a—a misunderstanding. I tried very hard to atone, but she
never forgave me, and after two years she stopped answering my
letters.” Miss Comfort was silent a moment, gazing down at the thin
hands folded in her lap. “I fear,” she went on at length, “Amanda
gathered the impression that I didn’t approve of her husband. Well, I
don’t suppose I did. I mean that I didn’t approve of him for her. You
see, he was younger than Amanda by several years, and then he
was a foreigner.”
“A foreigner!” exclaimed Polly. “Why, I didn’t know that, Miss
Comfort.”
Miss Comfort nodded. “Yes, he was a Frenchman, Polly. Of course
there are undoubtedly many most estimable French gentlemen, but it
did seem to me that if Amanda had to marry she might have found a
man of her own race.” Miss Comfort sighed and then she laughed
apologetically. “I don’t know why I’m telling you all this. Oh, yes, I
was trying to explain about Mr. Goupil, wasn’t I? Well, you see, after
Amanda was married I never saw either her or her husband. They
lived in Chicago a year or so and then moved further west, and after
that I lost all trace of them until I received word lately of Amanda’s
death. After that came this letter from the lawyer about the house.
Maybe, you see, Mr. Goupil doesn’t feel very kindly toward me, and if
he doesn’t I don’t suppose I should blame him one bit.”
“This house belongs to him now?” asked Laurie.
“Yes. My mother left a will that gave everything to Amanda, but
allowed me the use of this place until Amanda’s death. Of course
mother never meant it the way she wrote it. She just got a little mixed
up, and as she didn’t employ a lawyer to do it for her, why, it stood
just as she wrote it. I’ve often wondered,” added Miss Comfort,
wrinkling her forehead, “what she did mean. I suppose she meant
me to live here until my death, and not Amanda’s.”
“I’ll bet you could break a will like that,” declared Laurie eagerly.
“So Mr. Whipple told me,” responded Miss Comfort. “He was the
lawyer. He’s dead now. But I didn’t like to do it. It seemed kind of—of
disrespectful to mother. Besides, I never had any suspicion that I
would outlast poor Amanda.”
In the ensuing silence Polly and Mae gazed sympathetically at
Miss Comfort, who, smoothing the old black dress over her knees,
appeared lost in her thoughts. Finally:
“Well,” began Laurie. Then he stopped, cleared his throat, and
said: “Look here, Miss Comfort, I’d like to ask you— It may sound
cheeky— Well, what I mean is, haven’t you—that is, are you—”
Laurie’s cheeks reddened as he floundered on. “Haven’t you any—
any means at all? Maybe it’s none of my business—”
“No, Mr. Laurie, I haven’t,” replied Miss Comfort quietly. “There
wasn’t ever much money after my father died, and mother’s will left
what there was to Amanda. That was just as it should have been, for
as long as I had this house I was quite all right.” She smiled gently.
“But, land sakes, I don’t want you young folks to trouble your heads
about me and my affairs. Troubles aren’t for the young, Mr. Laurie.”
“That’s all right,” was the dogged response, “but—but something—
somebody— It doesn’t seem right for you to have to go to—to that
place!”
“Why, I don’t know,” said Miss Comfort thoughtfully. “I guess lots of
perfectly respectable folks have gone to the poor-farm. I dare say
there’s no disgrace. And they do say that the—the institution is
conducted very nicely. No doubt I’ll be quite comfortable there. And
—and it isn’t as though I’d have to stay very long.”
“Oh,” exclaimed Ned relievedly, “then you expect to—” But Polly
interrupted him.
 “Now, Miss Comfort,” cried Polly indignantly, “don’t you talk like
that! Why, goodness gracious, you aren’t old at all! The—the idea!”
“I should say not!” said Mae warmly. “The idea!”
Miss Comfort chuckled softly. “Well, I ain’t helpless yet, I know,
Polly, but I’m—” she coughed daintily— “I’m getting along in years,
my dear.”
“Seems to me,” exploded Laurie, “there ought to be some place in
this town where you could go. Wouldn’t you a whole lot rather live in
a—a—” he had started to say “barn,” but changed it to—“a—a shed
than go to that poor-farm place?”
“Why, yes, I don’t know but what I would,” said Miss Comfort, “as
long as it had a roof and I could go on with my work. But I’m afraid I
couldn’t even pay the rent for a shed, Mr. Laurie. Now I ain’t going to
let you talk a minute longer about me. Why, I’m just ashamed of
myself!” She arose quickly and crossed to the door with short, firm
steps. “Will you excuse me a minute?” she asked.
When she had gone the four visitors looked at each other silently.
Finally, “Rotten shame, I call it,” muttered Laurie. Ned nodded
agreement. Polly, whose gaze was fixed on Laurie expectantly, said
suddenly: “Laurie, if you have anything in mind I think you’d ought to
tell her. It might make her feel more comfortable.”
“Anything in mind?” echoed Laurie. “I haven’t. At least, only—”
Miss Comfort’s return with a dish of cake stopped him.
A little later they were outside again, walking silently away from
the little white house with the brown shutters. When they were at last
out of sight of the front windows Polly turned eagerly toward Laurie.
“What were you going to say?” she demanded. “You have thought
of some plan, haven’t you?”
Laurie hesitated, frowning thoughtfully. “Not much of a one,” he
answered. “I guess it doesn’t amount to anything. Only—well, now
look here, doesn’t it seem that there ought to be some place
somewhere in this town that would do for her? It wouldn’t have to be
much, would it? Maybe just a sort of shed that could be fixed up and
made comfortable? Or a nice stable that has rooms above it. You
know some stables have quarters for the coachman or chauffeur or
gardener. Maybe—”
“Why, I think it’s a perfectly stunning idea!” cried Polly. “No one
thought of that!”
“But she’d have to pay rent just the same, wouldn’t she?” asked
Ned dubiously. “Some rent, anyhow? And she said—”
“If we explained about her,” said Polly, “I’m sure no one would
think of asking rent for just a stable attic—” Laurie’s chuckles
interrupted. “Well, whatever you call it. Loft, isn’t it? Anyhow, perhaps
just a—a nominal rent would be all they’d ask.”
“Why don’t we look right now and see if we can’t find something?”
asked Mae excitedly.
“Why don’t we?” cried Polly eagerly.
“Just what I was about to propose,” said Laurie a bit patronizingly,
“when Ned butted in. Let’s start in and do the old burg systematically.
Which way shall we go first?”
Dusk had settled over Orstead when the four, footsore and weary,
returned to the shop. Their quest had been fruitless.
 CHAPTER X
THE COACH MAKES A PROMISE

“T urner,” said Coach Mulford, taking the vacant place on the

bench beside Laurie and laying a hand on his knees, “Turner,
they tell me you’re grooming a dark horse.”
“Sir?” Laurie looked blank. Pinky’s smile told him that there was a
joke somewhere about, but the phrase was a new one to him and he
didn’t get the coach’s meaning. Mr. Mulford laughed.
“They tell me that you’re training a new pitcher for us,” he
explained. “How about it?”
Laurie reddened a bit. He wasn’t surprised that the coach knew
about it, for his crazy boast and his daily work-outs with Kewpie were
known all over school and he was being joked unmercifully. Those
morning sessions now were being attended by something of a
gallery of interested spectators who were generous with suggestions
and applause. But it occurred to him now that Coach Mulford must
think him rather a fool.
“I—well, I’m sort of helping Kewpie Proudtree,” he answered
haltingly. “He wants to learn to pitch, Mr. Mulford.”
“I see.” The coach evidently didn’t disapprove of the proceeding.
Laurie gathered that from his tones. “I see. How’s he getting on?”
Laurie shook his head. “Not very well,” he said frankly.
“Sorry to hear that,” was the grave reply. “Still, there’s quite a while
yet, and I dare say we’ll manage to get along with Beedle and the
others until your man’s ready.” Mr. Mulford slapped Laurie’s knee
again and again laughed. Laurie laughed, too, but it wasn’t a whole-
hearted laugh. Aware of the coach’s amused regard, he felt slightly
resentful. After a moment he said offhandedly:
 “I reckon he’ll be ready for the Farview game, sir.”
“Think so? Fine!” Mr. Mulford chuckled as he arose. “Well, let me
know when he is ready, Turner.”
“If I do will you give him a trial?” asked Laurie quickly.
“What?” Mr. Mulford paused in his departure and looked back.
“Give him a trial? Why, I don’t know, Turner,” he continued slowly,
“but I might.”
“You—you wouldn’t care to make that a promise, would you, sir?”
asked Laurie. Pinky’s round, red face smiled back as, after a
perceptible pause, he nodded.
“Yes, I’ll make it a promise, Turner,” he agreed. “But, mind you,
you mustn’t ask me to waste my time. If your Great Unknown gets so
he can really pitch, you let me know, and I’ll look him over. But no
duds, Turner!”
When, just before supper that evening, Laurie jubilantly repeated
the conversation to Kewpie, Kewpie was all swelled up over that title
of Great Unknown until Ned dryly remarked that most Great
Unknowns never amounted to a hill of beans. Even that pessimistic
utterance failed to dispel all of Kewpie’s pleasure, however.
“That’s all right,” he said. “But some of them make good, don’t
they? Well, here’s one of ’em. You ask Nod if I didn’t pitch some
mighty nice curves this morning.”
“Yeah,” agreed Laurie glumly, “they curved all right, but you
mustn’t think that a batter’s going to step out of his box to hit your
balls, Kewpie. Batters aren’t that accommodating!”
“Gosh,” complained Kewpie, “you don’t give a fellow credit when
he deserves it. If you think it’s any fun going through that stunt every
morning—”
“Who started it?” demanded Laurie.
“Well, that’s all right, but—”
“You’ll get a nice long rest pretty soon,” said Ned soothingly.
“Spring recess’ll be along in less than two weeks, old son.”
 Kewpie made no reply for a moment. Then, “Well,” he began
hesitantly, “I was thinking, Nid, that maybe I ought—oughtn’t—
oughtn’t to go home at recess.”
“Not go home! For goodness’ sake, why?”
“Well, I’d lose a whole week, wouldn’t I? You and Laurie will be
here, won’t you?”
“Yes,” replied Ned, with a notable lack of enthusiasm. He and
Laurie weren’t at all keen on remaining at school during the spring
vacation, but it lasted only eight days, and as the journey to
California occupied four, why, as Laurie put it, “they’d meet
themselves coming back!”
“Sure,” continued Kewpie. “Well, I ought to stay, too, I guess, and
get a lot of practice in. Don’t you think so, Nod?”
“Why, I don’t know.” Laurie looked startled. The prospect of seven
long days with nothing to do but to catch Kewpie’s drops and curves
seemed decidedly lacking in attraction. There were moments when
Laurie’s determination wavered, and this was one of them. “I
suppose it would be a mighty good idea, though,” he added listlessly.
Ned’s mouth trembled in a smile.
“Absolutely corking, Kewpie,” he declared. “Of course, you ought
to stay. But what about your folks? Won’t they expect you home?”
Kewpie nodded. “But I wrote yesterday and told them that maybe I
wouldn’t be able to.”
“I’d like to have seen that letter,” chuckled Ned.
Kewpie grinned. “I just told them that I might have to stay here on
account of baseball practice,” he explained innocently.
“Of course,” agreed Ned gravely. “Well, you and Laurie can have a
fine old time during recess. No recitations to bother you or anything.”
“O Death, where is thy sting?” murmured Laurie.
“There is, though,” observed Ned, throwing his legs over the side
of the Morris chair and eyeing Laurie quizzically, “just one
complication that occurs to me. I’ve heard talk of the baseball team
taking a Southern trip during recess. In that case, Laurie, I suppose
you’d go along.”
“Honest?” exclaimed Kewpie anxiously. “I didn’t know that!”
“Nor any one else,” said Laurie, frowning. “Don’t you know yet
when Ned’s joshing?”
“Oh,” breathed Kewpie with immense relief. “I thought maybe—”
“A swell chance I’d have of going with the team if it did go,” said
Laurie. “I can’t play ball. I didn’t make a hit this afternoon. Couldn’t
even see the old pill! Guess I’ll quit and go in for—for soccer or
rowing.”
“Yes, rowing would be nice for you,” said Ned. “You’re so big and
strong! It’s a wonder to me they haven’t grabbed you for the boat
before this!”
“I’ll bet I could row as well as you, you old bluffer!”
“There goes the bell!” yelped Kewpie. “Gosh, I didn’t know it was
so late! S’long!” He collided with a chair and rushed out.
A week passed, a week of ideal weather. The days were mildly
warm and spring-like, and Polly’s possible snow didn’t develop. It
showered occasionally, usually at night, and never enough to
interfere with baseball practice. Tennis came into its own again, and
Bob Starling was torn between the desire to remain at home and
speed the making of the court behind the big house and the longing
to go over to the school field and engage in combat with his ancient
rivals. The crews were on the river daily. The education of Kewpie
Proudtree as a baseball pitcher continued. Laurie regained his
batting eye in a measure and talked no more of abandoning the
diamond for the courts or the four-oared shells. Ned borrowed three
golf-clubs from as many different acquaintances, bought a fourth,
and accompanied Joe Stevenson, captain of last autumn’s football’s
eleven, around the links. Mr. Goupil, of Sioux City, Iowa, continued to
emulate the Sphinx, and Miss Comfort was temporarily installed in
one of the up-stairs rooms at the Widow Deane’s, Polly sleeping in
the room below.
 This arrangement had come about as the result of an eleventh-
hour hitch in the program that was to have placed Miss Comfort in
the poor-farm, down the river about two miles. It turned out that
gaining admission to that institution was not such a simple matter as
one might suppose. There was a great deal of red tape to be untied,
and the untying of it occupied the energies of several of Orstead’s
influential citizens. There was no doubt that eventually Miss Comfort
would reach that haven, but meanwhile there ensued a delay that
might last a week—a fortnight—even longer. Bob Starling’s father,
instigated by his sister, who, since the death of Bob’s mother, had
kept house for them, offered very generous assistance of money.
Other individuals had sought to aid, as, too, had the congregation of
the little church that Miss Comfort attended. But all such offers had
been gratefully and firmly declined. Hospitality the little old lady
would have accepted, but charity in the form of money was, to her
mind, something quite different and most repugnant. So, until the last
knot in the mass of red tape had been untied, she was to remain as
Mrs. Deane’s guest, an arrangement that brought as much pleasure
to the Widow and Polly as it did to Miss Comfort.
Even Polly had now accepted the inevitable. That first search for a
modest habitation for the exile had been discouragingly
unsuccessful, as had a second and more half-hearted one, and the
four sympathetic young folks had finally agreed that the situation was
beyond them. If Polly was a wee bit disappointed in Laurie because
of his failure to find a solution of the problem—and I think she was—
she doubtless recognized the injustice of that emotion and
concealed it. Laurie, once satisfied that everything had been done
that could be done, philosophically banished the matter from his
mind. Of course, he was just as sorry as ever for Miss Comfort, but
that didn’t keep him from giving his full attention to matters of more
personal interest, such as trying to beat Elk Thurston out for the
position of first substitute catcher, and striving, sometimes
hopelessly, to make Kewpie into a pitcher. It is always so much
easier to view another’s misfortunes with philosophy than one’s own.
Hillman’s played two games during the week preceding the spring
vacation and won one of them. The second, with Lincolndale High
School, went to ten innings at 7 to 7 and was then called to allow the
visitors to catch a train. Laurie, to his oddly mingled relief and
disgust, saw action in neither of the contests. Elk Thurston took the
place of Cas Bennett, the regular catcher, for the last two innings in
the first encounter, but in the second game Cas worked through to
the end. Laurie had to acknowledge that Elk did pretty well that
Wednesday as a catcher—better, probably, than he could have
done. Laurie’s modesty, though, did not keep him from telling himself
that, while he might have performed less skillfully behind the plate
than Elk had, he was mighty sure he could have done better at the
bat. The Orstead High School pitcher, the third since the beginning
of the game, had nothing on the ball, was, in fact, scarcely more of a
twirler than Kewpie Proudtree, and yet Elk had swung ingloriously at
the first three offerings and had failed to so much as tickle one of
them. “Bet you,” thought Laurie, “I’d have fouled one, anyhow!”
The Lincolndale game was on Friday, and the next day vacation
began. By noon the school was pretty well depopulated, although
there remained a scattering of unfortunate fellows who, like Ned and
Laurie, lived too far from Orstead to allow of a home visit, or who
could not afford the trip. Kewpie had reached a compromise with his
parents. He was to go home and remain until Tuesday morning.
Then he was to return to school and the demands of baseball. Ned
was cynical after Kewpie’s departure.
“Bet you we won’t see Kewpie again until a week from to-morrow,”
he said to Laurie.
Laurie shook his head. “I don’t know,” he replied, “but I have a
hunch that he will be back Tuesday. Kewpie’s taking this pretty
seriously, Ned, and he’s really trying mighty hard. Sometimes I think
that if only he wasn’t so outrageously like a dumpling he could do
something at it!”
 CHAPTER XI
ON LITTLE CROW

M ae Ferrand was not on hand the next afternoon when the twins
and Bob Starling reached the Widow Deane’s. Mae, Polly
informed them, had gone to Poughkeepsie to spend Sunday with her
grandmother. They decided to go down to the river for their walk this
afternoon, and were soon descending Walnut Street. At the station
they crossed the tracks, passed the freight-shed, and went
southward beside the river, blue and sparkling in the spring sunlight.
Then they had to return again to the tracks and cross a bridge that
spanned a narrow inlet. The inlet connected the river with a shallow
stretch of marsh and water known as the Basin which lay between
the tracks and the big rock-quarry. The quarry was slowly but very
surely removing the hill called Little Crow, and the face of the quarry
was fully eighty feet in height from the boulder-strewn base to the
tree-topped summit. It was here that stone was being obtained for
the work on which Mr. Starling’s company was engaged. Spur-tracks
ran from the railroad to the base of the high cliff, about two hundred
yards distant, and from the railroad again to the stone-walled dock
wherein the quarry company loaded to lighters for water
transportation. The Basin was a favorite place for skating in winter,
and Ned reminded the others of several episodes of three months
back.
“Remember the time Elk Thurston tried to get ashore over there by
the rushes?” asked Ned. “Every time he put his foot down the ice
broke and let him through.”
“And he got angrier and angrier,” laughed Polly, “and tried to hurry
and—”
“Fell flat,” chuckled Laurie. “They told him the ice wouldn’t hold
him over there, but he always knows a little more than any one else.
And, look, there’s the old Pequot Queen over there yet. It’s a wonder
some one doesn’t take her away or break her up or something.”
“Nobody knows who she belongs to, I heard,” said Bob. “The old
ferry company went bust three or four years back, and the quarry
company can’t touch her because she isn’t theirs. I heard they had a
bill for dockage as long as my arm against the Queen, though.”
“Still, that’s the quarry dock she’s in,” said Ned, “and she must be
in the way there. I don’t see why they don’t push her out and let her
float down the river.”
“She’d be a menace to navigation,” replied Bob knowingly. “The
law would get them if they tried that.”
“Sort of like a fellow driving an automobile into your front yard and
leaving it there and going off,” laughed Laurie. “You couldn’t put it out
into the street because that would be against traffic rules and you
couldn’t take possession of it—”
“You could send it to a garage, though,” said Bob.
“Yes, and pay the garage bills!”
“The quarry folks could see that it got on fire accidently,” said Ned.
“It would only burn to the water-edge. The hull would be just as
much in the way as the whole thing,” objected Bob.
“I hope they’ll let it stay just where it is,” said Polly. “I’m sure it
comes in very handy when we come here skating. Remember that
perfectly ferocious day just after Christmas, Laurie, when we were all
nearly frozen and you made a fire in the—the fireplace—”
“Fireplace!” echoed Ned. “That’s corking!”
“Well, the—the—why, I don’t see why it isn’t a fireplace, Smarty.
It’s the place you build the fire, isn’t it?”
“Boiler,” said Bob.
“Well, anyway, it just about saved my feet from freezing right off,”
declared Polly. “And we had a lot of fun on the boat, and I hope no
one will do anything to it at all!”
 “Guess you needn’t worry,” said Laurie. “Looks as if she’d stay
right here and rot to pieces. Guess she’s got a good start already.”
Their homeward way led them through the woods and around the
slope of Little Crow Hill, at first by an old wood-road and then by
devious trails through the now leafless forest. That was the nearer
way, but there was a longer, more arduous, and far more attractive
route that took them to the summit of Little Crow and laid the world at
their feet; for from above the face of the quarry they could look for
miles and miles up and down the broad river and across it and
westward to the rising foot-hills of the mountains. Since to-day was
as clear as a whistle and the air held that crisp quality that makes
exertion a pleasure, Bob’s suggestion that they go up to the top of
the hill was accepted with enthusiasm by Ned and Laurie. Polly,
glancing solicitously at her dress, hesitated. But she was, in the
boys’ parlance, “a good sport,” and she didn’t want to spoil their fun.
So after a brief moment she, too, agreed, although with less
enthusiasm, and they turned northward from the wood-road and
ascended, for a time almost parallel to the railroad, a narrow path
where the branches clutched mischievously at Polly’s skirt and
proved that she had had cause for indecision.
Laurie led, with Polly next. For a while the going was not hard, but
then outcropping boulders set the path to twisting and winding, and
soon they were helping themselves upward by branches and setting
their feet carefully in the moist tangles of root and moss. It was half-
way up a more than usually severe stretch, when every muscle was
tense, that Laurie suddenly stopped short, turned about and
exclaimed “Say!” in such an unexpected and explosive burst of
sound that Polly, thrown from her balance by her attempt to avoid
collision with Laurie, and startled out of her wits, fell back against
Ned. Only Bob’s prompt support from the rear saved the situation.
The three glared at the offender in outrage.
“Say,” exclaimed Ned, “what do you want to do? Break all our
necks? What’s the matter with you, anyway, stopping like that and
shouting like a crazy man?”
 Laurie stared back for an instant as though he neither saw Ned
nor heard him. Then his gaze fell and he turned away. “Sorry,” he
muttered.
“But—but what was it?” gasped Polly. “Did you see a snake or—or
something?”
Laurie shook his head and began to climb again. “I just thought of
something,” he said.
“Well, for the love of lime-drops!” scolded his brother. “Don’t think
any more until we get to the top, you poor prune!”
They went on, but it wasn’t difficult to perceive that Laurie wasn’t
obeying Ned’s injunction. If he had been he wouldn’t have stumbled
over everything in his course and he wouldn’t have missed the path
above the big fern-clad rock near the summit and gone wandering off
into the brush all by himself until called back by the others. Ned
observed him pityingly as he sheepishly rejoined them.
“We’ll have to hold you when we get to the top,” said Ned
crushingly. “If we don’t you’ll probably walk right over the edge! What
in the world’s got into you?”
“Nothing,” answered Laurie, an absent expression possessing his
features again. “What are you stopping here for?”
“Well, there is something,” said Ned accusingly, “and I know what
it is. You’ve got some crazy idea in your bean.” He turned to Polly.
“He’s always like that when he thinks he’s discovered something big,
like perpetual motion or—or how to make a million dollars. We’ll
have to watch him until he recovers, or he will do himself harm. You
go first, Bob, and I’ll keep an eye on him.”
The rest of the climb was accomplished without further incident,
and they at last emerged in a small cleared space at the top of the
hill. I don’t mean cleared in the sense of free from rubbish, for
occasional picnic-parties had offended against nature as they have a
way of doing, and the scanty grass was littered with paper and
empty cracker-boxes and an occasional bottle or tin. Ned viewed the
scene disgustedly.
 “Funny what human hogs some folks are,” he growled, kicking an
empty olive-bottle over the edge of the cliff. He paused until, after an
appreciable interval, the distant tinkling sound of breaking glass met
his ears. “It’s enough to make you sick. Folks who can’t stand a
speck of dust on their automobile will get out and eat their lunch and
leave the place looking like a pigsty. Ought to be brought back and
made to eat every scrap of the mess they leave behind them.”
“Right-o,” agreed Bob, “but I don’t believe these folks were
automobilists, Ned. It’s a long way up here from the road.”
“Doesn’t matter,” said Ned, “whether they came in a car or walked;
they’re hogs just the same.”
“Well, let’s sit down and get our breaths,” said Polly, suiting action
to words. “That’s a perfectly frightful climb, isn’t it. I don’t think I tore
my dress, though.” She was making inspection and looked vastly
relieved as no damage showed.
“Better luck going down,” said Bob cheerfully, and Polly made a
face at him as he sprawled beside Ned. Laurie had not joined them
on the grass, but instead was lounging toward the edge of the cliff,
his hands in his pockets.
“Laurie, please don’t go so close,” called Polly from a dozen feet
away. “It makes me feel sort of squirmy.”
Perhaps Laurie didn’t hear her. He was very near the edge now,
close by a pine that leaned outward at an angle, its roots clinging to
the thin crust of earth that hid the rock beneath. Ned glanced toward
him, and an expression of disapproval came to his face.
“He thinks he’s smart,” he said contemptuously. “He’s always liked
to walk on roofs and act silly goat that way.” He raised his voice.
“Laurie!”
Laurie gave a start. “Yes?” he answered. Then—well, then
everything happened all at once and with incredible speed. They
saw Laurie grasp suddenly at the leaning tree, saw him miss it, saw
one foot disappear over the edge in a tiny cloud of brown dust, and
then, in almost the same instant, Laurie just wasn’t there!
 CHAPTER XII
ON THE QUARRY SHELF

T here was an instant of incredulous horror on the cliff top. Then

Polly’s smothered gasp broke the silence, and the two boys were
on their feet. Short of the edge, Ned faltered for a moment, sick and
trembling, and it was Bob who crouched on hands and knees and
looked first down the steeply sloping face of rock. Beside him the
earth was still trickling where Laurie’s unwary foot had broken off an
overhanging crust.
For a second Bob’s gaze, fearfully searching the rocky débris far
below, saw nothing. Then came a sharp cry of relief from Ned, who
had now dropped beside him, and at the same moment Bob’s gaze,
retraveling the face of rock, fell on Laurie.
About thirty feet below them he was, his feet set on a shelf
scarcely four inches wide, his right hand stretched high and its
fingers hooked over a still narrower ledge, his left hand flung
outward, its palm pressed against the smooth surface. His head
leaned against the raised shoulder, his forehead close to the rock.
Viewed from below the quarry face looked perpendicular, as, indeed,
it was farther around where the height was less, but here there was
a perceptible slope, slight but sufficient to have saved Laurie from a
headlong plunge to the strewn fragments at the base. His cap was
gone and the miniature landslide had powdered his head and
shoulders with red dust.
“Laurie!” called Ned tremulously.
For a space there was no answer. Then Laurie’s voice reached
them, weak and muffled. “Yeah?”
He didn’t raise his face.
“Are you hurt?” asked Bob anxiously.
 “No, not—yet.” He stopped and then added, “Scraped a bit.”
“Can you hold on until we—we—” Ned stopped because he
couldn’t think just then what it was they could do.
“I reckon so,” answered Laurie. “Is there ... anything near my left
hand ... I can reach, Ned?”
“No. Wait. Yes, there’s a sort of edge about six inches higher. Can
you reach it? Further up. Nearer you now. That’s it!” Laurie’s
questing fingers had found the spot. It wasn’t much of a hold, only a
bit of rough rock projecting an inch or so from the smooth face. Ned
was suddenly aware that Polly was crouched beside him, crying
nervously. He tried hard to think clearly. After a moment he said:
“Laurie, we’re going for a rope. It will take some time, but—but it’s
the only thing I can think of. Can you hold on until we get back?”
“I’ll stick,” was the grim answer. His voice was clearer now and
steadier. “How far down am I?”
“About thirty feet.” Ned stumbled to his feet. “No use both of us
going, Bob,” he said hurriedly. “You stay. And Polly. I guess I can find
rope at the quarry.” He was off then, running down the path. Bob
dropped to his knees again beside Polly. Polly was speaking, trying
to make her voice steady and confident.
“It won’t be long, Laurie,” she called. “Be—be brave and—”
“Hello, Polly,” answered Laurie from below, a faint reminder of his
old insouciance in his voice. “Nice fix, eh?”
“Yes, but don’t worry, and—you’d better not talk.”
“Guess I’d rather,” answered Laurie. “Sort of keeps me from
thinking about—things.” After a moment he continued. “Position’s
sort of cramped, Polly. Bob there, or did he go, too?”
“No, I’m here,” answered Bob. “I’ve been thinking—”
“Don’t do it,” said Laurie. “I tried it, and now look at me! Wish my
legs wouldn’t tremble. How wide’s the thing I’m standing on, Bob?”
“Three inches. Maybe four. What I was—”