Effective Practices in Early Childhood

Education: Building a Foundation 3rd

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 • Updated research and new examples of effective practices for children with diverse
abilities, particularly children with autism spectrum disorder.
• Expanded discussion of current research on brain development and executive
­function and implications for teaching.
• New artifacts and examples of children’s work, especially from children in the
­primary grades.

Book Organization Reflects

Guidelines for Developmentally
Appropriate Practice
This book is designed to teach the concept of developmentally appropriate practice for
students because an understanding of its principles is the foundation on which to build
early childhood programs and schools for children from birth through age 8. Chapters
are organized according to NAEYC’s guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
which I have coauthored for 30 years.
Part 1, Foundations of Early Childhood Education, describes the current p ­ rofession
and the issues and trends effecting it today (Chapter 1), the rich history from which
developmentally appropriate practices evolved (Chapter 2), and an overview of its
­
­principles and guidelines, which are described in depth in later chapters (Chapter 3).
Part 2, Dimensions of Developmentally Appropriate Practice, includes chapters
­describing the key factors teachers must consider as they make professional decisions.
Chapter 4 presents an overview of current knowledge about how all children develop and
learn. Chapter 5 addresses the unique, individual differences among children, including
children with diverse abilities. Chapter 6 discusses the critical role of social, cultural, and
linguistic contexts on all children’s development and learning and how teachers must
­embrace a diverse society to help every child succeed in school and life.
Part 3, Intentional Teaching: How to Teach, describes the role of the teacher in
­implementing developmentally appropriate practices. Each of the interconnected aspects
of the teacher’s role is addressed in separate chapters: building effective partnerships with
families (Chapter 7), creating a caring community of learners and guiding young children
(Chapter 8); teaching to enhance learning and development (Chapter 9); planning e­ ffective
curriculum (Chapter 10); and assessing children’s learning and development (Chapter 11).
Part 4, Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach, describes both
how and what to teach children from birth through age 8 in language, literacy, the arts,
­mathematics, science, technology, social-emotional development, social studies, physical
development, and health. Each chapter demonstrates how the continuum of children’s
development ­determines the appropriateness of curriculum content and intentional,
­effective teaching strategies for children of different ages.
Early childhood educators join this profession and stay in it because they believe their
work can make a difference in the lives of children and their families. But to make a last-
ing difference, our practices must be effective—they must contribute to children’s learning
and development. This book reflects this core goal by building on the basic framework
of developmentally appropriate practice while going beyond to emphasize intentional
­teaching, challenging and interesting curriculum, and evidence-based, effective practices
for a new generation of early childhood educators. Each of these key themes is discussed
on the following pages.

vii
 Intentional Teaching of Young Children
Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education This text builds on the framework of developmentally appropriate practice emphasizing
that effective teachers are intentional, thoughtful, and purposeful in everything they do.
should not be viewed in isolation. All three considerations, in fact, interact with and
influence each other; they are always intertwined in shaping children’s development and
behavior. For example, children all over the world follow a similar developmental pat-
tern when learning language. They all progress from cooing, to babbling, to one-word
utterances, to telegraphic speech (“Daddy up”), to short sentences, and finally to more
complex sentences. However, a wide range of individual variation exists in language
Intentional teachers know not only what to do with children
acquisition of children who are roughly the same age, because of differences in language
experience as well as developmental variation. At age 3, Joey speaks in three-word ut-
but also why they are doing it and can explain the rationale
terances, whereas his same-age cousin, Michael, expounds in paragraphs. Finally, each
child speaks the language, including the dialect, of his or her own cultural group. Six-
for the decisions they make to other teachers, a­ dministrators,
year-old Amelia speaks English to her mother and Spanish to her father. All of these fac-
tors influence children’s language development and how teachers think about supporting
and families. To help students understand this concept,
it optimally for all children.
Now let’s look at how the meshing of the three considerations plays out in the deci-
­Becoming an Intentional Teacher features reveal what
sions of one primary grade teacher:
teachers are thinking
children in herin classroom challenge each yearhow
class. Her firstsituations, is to and why
Frida Lopez has 22 first-grade
get to know the children well. She meets with their families, engages in one-on-one
theyconversations
select the strategies they do,andand skills challenge students to
with children, observes their behavior throughout the day,
and sets up specific tasks to evaluate their skills such as literacy tasks or solving math
reflect further
problems on these scenarios.
with counters.
As she gets to know her students, she regularly assesses their abilities and in-
terests in relation to what she knows from her study of child development, the cur-
riculum goals, and her experiences teaching other 6- and 7-year-olds. She finds that
a few children exceed her expectations in reading or social skills, whereas others are
significantly behind their peers in some areas. Each child has a unique personality
and profile of abilities, and Frida becomes more aware of these.
Neela has Down syndrome, and Frida has already met with her parents and the
team of special education professionals who create and implement an individualized
educational plan for her. After a few weeks, Frida becomes concerned that another
child, Almonzo, might have an undiagnosed language delay. In the case of the six
children whose home languages are not ones Frida knows, she recognizes that she
must take extra steps to find out about them. Using community volunteers and, in
one case, a paid translator, Frida connects with the families of her students to build
relationships and to learn what capabilities the children exhibit in their homes and
communities.
So we see that in meeting the children, Frida seamlessly draws on her knowledge
of child development and learning, as well as her knowledge of them as individuals and
members of cultural groups. Precisely because children are so different and their abilities
vary so greatly, Frida will need to draw from a wide repertoire of teaching strategies to
help them achieve developmentally appropriate goals.
So far we have described the areas of knowledge that teachers consider in making
decisions about developmentally appropriate practice—what teachers need to know and
think about. Now we turn to the work of the teachers—what do early childhood teachers
do? What are the dimensions of practice that describe the teacher’s role?
✓ Check Your Understanding 3.3: Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making
The Complex Role of the Teacher
According to the NAEYC’s (2009) guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice,
the complex job of an early childhood teacher has five interrelated dimensions: (1)
creating a caring community of learners, (2) teaching to enhance learning and devel-
opment, (3) planning curriculum to achieve important goals, (4) assessing children’s
learning and development, and (5) establishing reciprocal relationships with families.
_C03.indd 84
Intentional teachers must reflect and apply their knowl-
edge using a broad repertoire of effective teaching strat-
egies. Demonstrate Your Learning features at the end
of each chapter require students to practice these skills.
This end-of-chapter quiz appears only in REVELTM and
includes feedback.
viii
118 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Becoming an Intentional Teacher
Teaching in the “Zone”
Here’s What Happened In my kindergarten, we are to solve the problem, ex-
working on the basic mathematical number operations— plaining each of their steps.
adding and subtracting. In our classroom, children work in
After about two weeks of this more
centers for part of the morning. Through assessments that I
do during center time, I learned that Miguel can add two sin-
intensive approach, Miguel demonstrates ability to subtract
single-digit numbers on his own, and begins to experiment
gle-digit numbers on his own. I also learned that he is strug-
gling with subtracting single-digit numbers, but is successful
when I talk through the subtraction activities with him. I also
with double-digit numbers. He insists on being the employee
at checkout in the Home Improvement Store to showcase his
adding and subtracting.
observed that Miguel is able to subtract more successfully
when the problem is applied, such as when he is playing
cashier and giving “change” in our Home Improvement Store
Here’s What I Was Thinking As a kindergarten teach-
er, I know that understanding and applying these founda-
center. Miguel especially likes to play there because his Dad tional mathematical concepts is essential for building chil-
works in construction. I decided on a three-pronged approach
dren’s later competence in math. I also understand that
to support his understanding and application of subtraction: children learn best in the context of supportive relation-
ships, and I structure interactions in my classroom to in-
1) I set aside 5–10 minutes twice a week to work individ-
tentionally support each learner. I do this by: (1) assessing
ually with Miguel. Using manipulatives, including an
abacus and small counting trains. Miguel loves trains!
each child’s level of independent performance on a skill,
(2) assessing each child’s level of supported (with help)
During this time, I verbally support Miguel’s grouping
performance on a skill, and (3) developing lessons that al-
and counting, using short word problems and number
cards.
low a child to practice in their supported level, until the
child can do the skill independently. I then set the next
2) I also intentionally join Miguel and other children in
higher level of skill as the child’s goal skill.
the Home Improvement Store at center time. I intro-
duce the concept of “Supply Lists” to the center, using Vygotsky used the term zone of proximal development
cards with pictures and labels of the different supplies. (ZPD) to describe the child’s skill level when supported by
Children can add nuts, bolts, and tools to their baskets, an adult or more experienced peer. He believed that by as-
according to the list, and return (subtract) things they sessing only what a child knows, a teacher does not have
no longer need for their building projects. As Miguel information on how to support the child’s progress. But by
purchases and returns items for his building project, I assessing a child’s ZPD, I am able to structure for progres-
support and make explicit his adding and subtracting, sive development and learning.
pointing out to Miguel how successfully he uses math
for his project. Reflection How did this teacher use assessment to
3) Finally, during the morning math challenge, I pair guide her intentional teaching? What other strategies could
Miguel with a friend who understands subtraction con- she have used to teach Miguel in his Zone of Proximal
cepts well, and is very verbal. I have them work together Development?
gets over the last hurdle herself. Ave gives him a big smile as she pushes off with her feet
zone of proximal development
and makes a circle around the room.
(ZPD) The distance between
the actual developmental level By giving Ave “a leg up,” Khari helped her accomplish a goal that she couldn’t do on
an individual has achieved (her her own, but could achieve with his assistance. Vygotsky (1978) identified this as the
independent level of problem zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the distance between the actual developmental
solving) and the level of po- level an individual has achieved (their independent level of problem solving) and the
tential development she could level of potential development they could achieve with adult guidance or through
achieve with adult guidance
or through collaboration with
collaboration with other children. The assistance, guidance, and direction teachers pro-
other children.
vide children in their ZPD is called scaffolding. To gain deeper understanding of how
children learn in their ZPD, read the feature Becoming an Intentional Teacher: Teaching
scaffolding The assistance,
in the “Zone.”
guidance, and direction teach-
ers provide children to help
Social Construction of Knowledge Scaffolding does not mean that teachers
them accomplish a task or
learn a skill (within their ZPD)
that they could not achieve on
control or shape learning, as behaviorists believe (see p. 124). Instead, children learn by
solving problems collaboratively with the teacher’s support or by working with peers,
their own. which is called co-construction, or social construction of knowledge.
Effective teachers are informed decision makers who adapt
for individual differences, including for children with dis-
abilities and special needs. Check Your Understanding
features engage students in assessing their own learning.
Some questions involve critical thinking about a complex
teaching situation or issue confronting the early childhood
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 99
field. TheseKey
quizzes
Terms appear only in REVELTM and include
feedback.
10/8/15 11:56 AM ■ age appropriate ■ culture ■ intentional teachers ■ push-down curriculum
■ assessment ■ curriculum ■ learning centers ■ reciprocal relationships
■ caring community of ■ developmentally appro- ■ position statement ■ scientifically based
learners priate practice (DAP) curriculum
■ culturally appropriate ■ individually appropriate
✓ Demonstrate Your Learning
Click here to assess how well you’ve learned the content in this chapter.
Readings and Websites
Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2014). Designs for living and National Association for the Education of Young
learning: Transforming early childhood environments. Children
St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Devel-
NAEYC’s website has a special section on resources for
developmentally appropriate practice and play, plus cop-
opmentally appropriate practice in early childhood
programs serving children from birth through age 8
ies of all their position statements.
ZERO to THREE—National Center for Infants,
(3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the
Education of Young Children.
Toddlers, and Families
This website provides resources and practical tips for
Epstein, A. S. (2014). The intentional teacher: Choosing working with infants, toddlers, and their families.
the best strategies for young children’s learning (Rev.
ed.). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu-
cation of Young Children.
ASCD Whole Child Initiative
This website provides resources promoting elementary
education that supports all areas of children’s develop-
ment and learning.
Current Research on Effective Practices
In an era of Common Core State Standards and Early Learning standards, accountability,
and rapid change in the field, the text makes research understandable and meaningful for
students and illustrates the connections between child development, curriculum content,
assessment, and intentional teaching.
Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems 449

What Works
Teaching STEM to Dual Language Learners
Considerable attention is paid to research on how dual language
learners acquire English and learn to read. At times, there is an as-
sumption that because mathematics is about numbers and quan-
tity, language is less of a barrier. However, mathematics itself is
a language, and as we have seen, math talk is what makes its ab-
graders used to interpret their graphs in
Figure 13.1.
What Works features present research-based practices in
action, including descriptions of demonstrated effective
Problem solving is playing a larger role in
today’s curriculum due to the Common Core standards, but word
problems complicate the challenge of math instruction for dual

practices such as teaching mathematics to dual language

stract concepts comprehensible for children. Other areas of STEM language learners. Teachers should avoid tricky word problems
have their own vocabulary and involve academic language that that create confusion, such as: “Jonas has 2 cars and 3 trucks;
children do not encounter in everyday interactions. In short, STEM how many vehicles does he have?” Such a question poses a lan-
learning presents unique challenges for dual language learners. guage test rather than a math problem. A related challenge pre-

learners, father involvement, and using evidence-based cur-

Many of the same strategies for teaching dual language sented by word problems is the culturally implicit knowledge they
learners in general are effective in teaching STEM. For example, often require. Solving a problem usually requires that a child un-
gestures such as a circling motion are useful in helping young derstand the situation in which it occurs, whether it’s purchasing
children understand basic concepts such as the whole amount or groceries or driving a car at a certain speed.

riculum to narrow the achievement gap.

putting together and taking apart. Children readily count or form Manipulatives are hailed as an excellent tool to teach STEM,
shapes with their fingers. Teachers can set up an obstacle course and yet many children cannot relate to these toys. Few such toys
for children to use their whole bodies to learn position words such reflect the racial, cultural, and gender diversity of our classrooms.
as above, below, between, and through. A strategy for older chil- For example, Lego® has introduced some plastic figures portray-
dren is to create a math, science, or technology dictionary of rel- ing people of color as doctors, scientists, architects, and other
evant terms. Such a resource engages children in using different STEM occupations. However, most STEM toys still promote ste-
ways of representing a concept—in this case, words that can be reotypes of only white males in these roles.
referred to later. What works most effectively are the practices that are de-
Another effective strategy is having children talk to one another velopmentally appropriate for all children—hands-on, meaning-
in pairs or small groups. When children are learning a new lan- ful experiences coupled with teacher scaffolding, as opposed
guage, it is important not to put them on the spot. They shouldn’t to worksheets that test what children should have already
be expected to respond in front of the whole class. In a small group, learned. Dual language learners need to actively “do” science,
it is easier to practice concepts and “errors” are more likely to be technology, and engineering tasks—as teachers and other chil-
viewed as part of the learning process. This is especially important dren supply the words. And most important of all, teachers need
with a topic like math that may have only one correct answer. to have high expectations that all children can learn challenging
Introducing a math or science concept to the whole class can STEM content.
be done effectively using an interactive whiteboard. Then chil- Sources: Based on “6 Tips When Discussing Math with the English Language
dren can be prompted to respond to questions chorally as a whole Learner,” by B. Austin, 2014, Chicago, Erikson Early Math Collabora-
group. Not every child will answer correctly, and no one child’s tive, retrieved March 17, 2015, from http://earlymath.erikson.edu/6-tips-
response will be singled out. discussing-math-english-language-learner; “It’s Time for More Racial 192 Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach
Diversity in STEM Toys” by M. Weinstock, 2015, Scientific American,
Another proven strategy when introducing a math or science
Voices: Exploring and Celebrating Diversity in Science, retrieved March
concept is to explicitly teach it by modeling, supplying the spe- 8, 2015, from http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/voices/2015/02/23/
cific name, and having children repeat the word. Also helpful is its-time-for-more-racial-diversity-in-stem-toys/?WT.mc_id=SA_sharetool_
Dual language learners are individuals. They need differentiated instruction to devel-
introducing and using a consistent sentence such as the one first Twitter. op their English skills, to maintain and further develop their home language, and achieve
in school. Today’s vast array of digital tools make individualizing instruction for multi-
language learners much easier than in the past, as described in the feature Language Lens:
STEM skills and understanding, with T standing for technology. In other words, children Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners.
need to think critically about how technology is used to solve problems as well as learn Awareness and responsiveness to all forms of diversity must be integrated across all
how to use technological tools in intentional and creative ways. areas of curriculum and teachers’ relationships with children to ensure that all children
Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice 81
succeed in school. But more than that, schools have a responsibility to provide today’s
A Developmentally and Technologically children with the skills to function in a complex, global society. In short, they benefit from
Appropriate Classroom
A preschool teacher creates a class website that is updated regularly. The children create Including All Children an anti-bias education, which we describe in the next section.
a slide show about their class pet using Kid Pix software to share with families. For an
Developmentally Appropriate Practice
integrated science study on the properties of water, kindergartners produce information
books on the computer using digital photos of their water experiments.
Anti-Bias Education
and Children with Disabilities
anti-bias education Learning The early childhood field has embraced the concept of an anti-bias education. Anti-bias
People sometimes wonder if developmentally appro- up from school, his teacher describes how often he
experiences and teaching education includes learning experiences and teaching strategies that are specifically

Lens features present insights on culture, language, and in-

priate practices are that
strategies effective for children with dis-
are specifically used his words and which friends he played with
abilities. The fact is that the basic elementsdesigned
designed not only to prepare all
of de- not onlycenter
during to prepare
time. all children for life in a culturally rich society but also
velopmentally appropriate practice are necessary to counter
for the stereotyping of diverse groups and to guard against expressions of bias
children for life in a culturally By contrast, when children with disabilities are included
( Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010). In this section, we discuss goals of culturally
cluding all children. These features discuss practice through
inclusion to succeed. Consider the following example:
rich society, but also to counter in programs that are not developmentally appropriate,
Isaac is 4the years old and has
stereotyping a diagnosis of autism. it becomes difficult for theand
of diverse responsive, anti-bias education ways
child with of helping
special needs—children achieve those goals. The
He is sitting
groups,on and
a brightly against carpetoverarching
to guard colored square indeed, goal for
of all
anti-bias education ismake
of the children—to to help all children reach their full potential.
meaningful

diverse lenses, expanding the sources of information teach-

between
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, two
Literacy, of his
and preschool
the Arts
expressions of bias. peers at circle
393To do so, anti-bias education focusesexperience
time. progress. Compare this child’s to Isaac’s:
on four core goals for children (Derman-Sparks &
His teacher is reading a book the class made called
Edwards, 2010; Tara, Teaching Tolerance,
also a 4-year-old 2012):is sitting next to
with autism,
Friends, Friends, Who Do You See? It is adapted
her teacher
1. Identity. at circle
Teachers time.and
foster The support
teacher ischildren’s
reading fromself-awareness, confidence, and
from Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, 1996), but
Stage Description How Teachers Can Help
ers use to make decisions and helping them look at questions
a small-sized book, and many of the children can-
features pictures of the children in the class pairedpride in their family and own identity.
not see the pictures very well, including Tara. Circle
Stage 6: Advanced Children have developed understanding with their names.
Teachers Isaac loves
intentionally teachthe the book,
vocabu- and reads
time has been in progress for over 20 minutes and
Language Proficiency of specialized, content-related vocabu- along lary with the teacher.
and language Asrequired
skills the teacherfor reads each many of the children are getting restless. Tara begins

or problems from broader perspectives. Widening the lens

child’s name in the story, he or she stands up and
lary. It can take from 5 to 7 years for academic achievement in school. For rocking back and forth and looking at the door. With-
moves. After the story, it is time for singing. Isaac
children to master this level of cogni- example, mathematics out warning, the teacher stops reading the book and
knows this because circle requires
time happensknowingin a similar
tively demanding language. wordseach
routine like day.
Language Lens
addend or double-digit mul- tells the children to stand up for a finger play. Tara

with which teachers view their practice is a strategy to move

bolts from the circle and runs to the water table. She
The teacher
tiplication that pulls
are not outused
the “song chart” featur-
in everyday
begins splashing and yelling. The teacher stops and
ingspeech.
Using Technology to Teach Dual Language Learners
the pictures and titles of eight different songs.
One song is about a train. Isaac loves trains and
asks Tara to return to circle. When Tara does not re-

beyond the persistent educational tendency to dichotomize

Sources: Based on Getting It Right for Young Children from Diverse Backgrounds: turn on her own volition, the assistant teacher physi-
seems eager to hear the new song. He points to the
Applying Research to Improve Practice, by L. M. Espinosa, 2010, Upper Saddle River, With growing numbers of dual and multi-language cally moves her back to spellings)
learn- the circle, to
and help children learn routines and safety pre-
a 10-minute
“Trains on the track.” The teacher helps Isaac re-
NJ: Pearson; Oral Language and Early Literacy in Preschool: Talking, Reading, and struggle ensues. When Tara’s father On
cautions. comesthetoInternet
pick hershe finds images, songs, and
move the song ers card. inIsaac
our classrooms,
holds the card allwhile
teachers
the need to be prepared
Writing. 2nd edition, by K. A. Roskos, P. O. Tabors, and L. A. Lenhart, 2009, Newark, to support English language acquisition up,while
the teacher describesstories
also pro- “her bad day”
that and asks depict
accurately him children’s homelands, and

difficult or controversial issues into “either/or” choices, and

children sing. Then Isaac makes the sign for “play”
DE: International Reading Association. to talk to Tara about listening
uses at school.
these to spark conversations among small groups of
with his hands.motingThe teachercontinued homeIsaac,
says, “Yes, language
it is development. Using
time for centers.” technology
She letsexponentially
Isaac choose increases
a center teachers’
A child with options to acts
a disability children. She teaches
like a magnifying glassall
onthe children to use iTranslate
first because she achieve
knowsthese
it is goals,
hard for ashim
these to examples
wait. theillustrate: on classroom
developmental appropriateness of antablets to aid communication and support
early child-

move toward “both/and” thinking. Isaac brings the teacher the song card and then hood program. As is clearburgeoning from Isaac’s friendships.
case and by The class uses Skype to com-
Yao ofisthea Chinese speaker who doesn’t talk at all in
points to the picture water table. His teacher contrast Tara’s experience,municate with children’s
developmentally appropri-relatives in other parts of the
Culture Lens models, “I want preschool.
“Water table.” His
to play at the.
won’t
He is. .isolated
playproud
teacher, with of
.” Isaacfrom
him.his His
says,the ate
other
teacher knows
increasing
children
practice
successful
who the necessary
provides
thatinclusion
country orfoundation
without in theincluding
world. Within
program.native
for hisa few weeks, all the children,
But individually
English speakers, enjoy helping each
Understanding and Responding to Code verbal skills, givessocial
Switching him ainteraction,
hug and says, his “Off
English
you skills won’t develop.
go appropriate She are
adaptations also explore
other essential for children
different languages and learn together.
to the water table.” loansWhenhisIsaac’s
familymother
an iPad andhim
picks with the
withhelp of a trans-
disabilities and other special needs.
lator shows him a digital storytelling app to create a Children all over the world speak multiple languages. The
Code switching is the ability to understand and use both using the same strategies that promote language learning
story about his family with photos and narration in both opportunity to become bilingual or multilingual awaits
the commonly accepted version of English and the home in all children: listening and responding in a meaningful
language or dialect. When children are learning a second English
way, using real objects and nonverbal cues, Chinese. When he shares the story with the every child in America if schools take advantage of young
andintentionally
language, they often code switch, usually beginning a teaching new words, and extendingother conversations
children, they
withrealize that Yao has an interesting children’s inborn ability to learn language and the afford-
sentence in one language and then switching to the other quietly with
questions life andAseveral
a puzzle or pegboard.
and ideas. secondofgrader
them decide
loves totoread
use and
the spends all of herable,
app to create free technological resources now available.
as in: “I drew a picture de mi madre” or “Mi mano es stories about
time with abilingual
Sometimes book, while
teachersanother
think that they themselves.
struggles with
can reading but looks forward to math because
sup- Sources: Digital Story Helps Dual Language Learner Connect
dirty.” Code switching is not limited to children. In fact,
bilingual people of all ages alternate between languages
it’s her
port dualbest subject.
language learning by alternating languages
Kara’s kindergarten includes speakers of four different
with Classmates, by D. Bates, no date, Washington, DC: National
themselves.
The term Again, the opposite appropriate
individually is true. Children’s brains
refers to teachers aboutAssociation for the Education of Young Children, retrieved August
depending on the setting and the topic of conversation.
will automatically listen and respond home languages, some
to the language of whomusing whatarrived
are newly they know
immi- the individually
27, 2014,
appropriate
from http://www.naeyc.org/technology/digital-story-
Many bilingual individuals find that they can best ex- personality, strengths, interests,
grants. and abilities
She
they know best and tune out the other one. To promote relies of
on each individual
technology to child
create in
an the group
accessible to adapt Information about the strengths,
press their feelings and personal thoughts in their native helps-dual-language-learner;
interests, abilities, and“Using
needs Technology as a Teaching
for and
dual be responsive
language development, to bilingual
individual
environment variation.
teachers forcan Consider,
allread
the childrenfor instance,
as they two
acquire tricycle riders:
sufficient Tool for Dual Language Learners
language. of each individual child inin
thePreschool through Grade 3,”
The fearless
books in each rider maybut
language need more
should
English careful
do to
sonavigatesupervision
at separatethe school.to prevent injury,
Kara posts whileand
pictures the warier
by K. N. group
Nemeth
In the past, it was assumed that code switching meant times. that enables teachers2013,
and F. S. Simon, to Young Children, 68(1),
child may need extra encouragement and support
labels in various to develop
languages (in somehiscases
large motor skills. Similar-
with phonetic 48–52. adapt to and be responsive to
that children were confused or incompetent. But now we
know that the opposite is true: children are able to sepa-
ly, some children
Encouraging childrenwilltoneed
code enriched
switch and experiences
respondingto accelerate their language development, individual variation.
positively
while a few honorsmay theneed
language system support
individual that they toalready
continue to build on their precocious reading
rate the languages in their brains and apply the differ-
possess and helps them adapt to different communica-
ent rules of grammar of each language. Code switching ability. A withdrawn, timid child may need a great deal of emotional support to cope with
tion requirements in different situations. And it also
is actually a sign of children’s growing communicative life’s challenges, while another needs helpbecause
controlling aggression to make friends.
respects and supports their cultural identity
competence. They are using all they know to communi-
Withand
language the culture
individual differenceslinked.
are inextricably that exist,
Teach-teachers clearly cannot expect all children
cate as clearly as they can.
in ashould
ers groupalways
to learn theasame
create warm,thing
positivein classroom
the same way at the same time. Even when the
So what should teachers do about code switching? First, climate in which children feel safe
teacher introduces a concept or reads a book to express them-
to a whole group, each child will take away
they should expect code switching as a normal aspect selves. Capable code switchers acquire the ability to
of dual language learning. The most important thing is something
think about different
their own fromuse ofthe learning
language, experience.
which serves Therefore, to help children progress,
not to correct children when they mix languages. Cor- them well in other learning situations and has long-
recting children’s language attempts sends a signal that lasting positive effects on language, cognition, and so-
they’ve done something wrong. They may stop trying to cial development.
communicate in order to avoid making the “mistake” of
code switching. Source: Code Switching: Why It Matters and How to Respond, by
National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, no
Instead of focusing on children’s “errors,” teachers date, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human
should focus on understanding the child’s message. They Services, Office of Head Start. Retrieved January 26, 2015, from
should view code switching as a strength. As always, http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/cultural-linguistic
teachers should be good language models themselves, /fcp/docs/code-switching.pdf.

• Current research findings, such as effective strategies for teaching dual language learn-
ers or children with autism spectrum disorder, are brought to life and made meaningful
by connections to classroom and community examples.
• The terms and definitions used in this text contribute to establishing a shared v­ ocabulary
for all of those in and entering the field.
• Approximately 40% of the references are from 2012 and beyond.

ix

In the Developmental Continuum feature, the text provides
an overview of the continuum of learning in the areas of
language, literacy, mathematics, and cognitive, social, emo-
tional, and physical development and describes how child
development is linked to curriculum planning for children
from birth through age 8.
Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education
Promoting Play
Addressing Threats to Children’s Play
Pediatricians and psychologists agree that too many
children today experience high levels of unrelent-
ing stress. Factors such as poverty and violence are
the primary sources, but stress affects the lives of
all children to some extent. Teachers today report
that more children are aggressive and disruptive as
a result of stressful events. Increasing numbers of
children, especially boys, are inaccurately diagnosed
as hyperactive and needlessly medicated. Childhood
obesity is also endemic.
Research demonstrates that exercise and child-
initiated play are effective stress-relievers. Ironically,
however, a survey of child care, preschool, and Head
Start teachers found that they tend to limit chil-
dren’s opportunities for active play, especially out-
doors, due to safety concerns and the need to pre-
pare children academically for school. And children
living in poverty are most likely to suffer because
they have less access to safe outdoor play areas and
programs feel extra pressure to focus on academic
instruction to close the school readiness gap.
Part of the solution is that teachers, parents, and
administrators need to understand that play and
school readiness is not an either/or choice. The
American Academy of Pediatrics emphasizes that
play is essential for children’s physical health, emo-
tional and mental well-being, social relationships,
and brain development and cognition. Vigorous play
develops large motor skills, and can reduce obesity.
In short, play contributes to all areas of develop-
ment and learning.
Continuity and Change
One overarching trend always affecting education is continuity and change. As the field
expands and changes occur in response to new political and economic realities, many
longtime early childhood professionals are concerned that the fundamental values of the
field will be lost. Development, including development of professions, is characterized by
both continuity and change. In this book we describe how the fundamental values of early
childhood education can be retained and enhanced (thus maintaining continuity with the
important tenets of the past), while also presenting what is known from new research
about effective teaching practices for all children. Some ways of thinking and practicing
should be cherished and held onto, whereas others may need to be updated or abandoned.
x
Connections between Curriculum and
Child Development
Unlike many early childhood texts that focus on child development only, this text shows
how child development and curriculum content knowledge are connected.
Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts 383
Developmental Continuum
Oral Language
Age of Child Developmental Expectations
Birth to about
8 months
• Communicate through behaviors rather than words; signal distress by crying. Caregivers
need to interpret babies’ sounds and gestures.
• Smile or vocalize if they want someone to pay attention or play.
• Begin vocalizing vowel sounds called cooing. Soon after, they begin to babble, producing
consonant/vowel sounds such as “ba.”
• Continue to babble using all kinds of sounds and will play with sounds when alone.
• Begin to understand familiar names such as those of siblings or pets.
• Laugh and appear to listen to conversations.
Between 8 and • Become more purposeful in their communications.
18 months • Use facial expressions, gestures, and sounds to get their needs met. (If a bottle falls from
a high chair tray, instead of just crying, the 14-month-old may grunt and wave at the floor.)
• Understand many more words than they can say.
• Speak in long, babbled sentences that mirror the cadence of conventional speech.
• Soon start to shake their head “no” and begin to use the word me.
• Usually crack the language code and begin to use their first words between 12 and
18 months.
From 18 to • Experience a burst in vocabulary and begin to combine words into two-word utterances
24 months called telegraphic speech. Like old-fashioned telegrams, they waste no words in commu-
nicating their message: “No nap.”
Ages 2 to 3 • Progress from using two-word combinations (my truck) to three- and four-word sentences
with words in the correct order more often (Where’s my truck?).
• Speaking vocabulary may reach 200 words.
• Use adjectives and adverbs. (Give me my blue truck now.)
• Most children’s speech becomes more understandable. Constantly ask, “Wassat?” as
they seem to want to name everything.
Ages 3 to 6 • Have a vocabulary of about 1,000 words.
• Although some may still have difficulty, most are better able to articulate some of the
more difficult sounds, like s, th, z, r, and l.
• Can initiate and engage in more complex conversations.
• Use 1,500 to 2,000 words as vocabulary expands rapidly during kindergarten.
• Usually speak clearly and are lively conversation partners with adults and other children.
The primary grades • Language development continues at a rapid pace.
• During these years, children need a large vocabulary to learn to read and to comprehend
what they read. Explicit teaching of vocabulary needs to be an instructional goal.
• At the same time, the more children read, the more words they learn because the lan-
guage of books is more elaborate than everyday conversation. Some researchers estimate
that children need to learn 3,000 words a year throughout the elementary school years.
Sources: Based on Assessing and Guiding Young Children’s Development and Learning, 6th
edition, by O. McAfee, D. Leong, and E. Bodrova, 2015, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson;
Learning Language and Loving It: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Social, Language,
and Literacy Development in Early Childhood Settings, 2nd edition, by E. Weitzman and
J. Greenberg, 2002, Toronto: The Hanen Centre.
• Chapters 12 to 15 help early childhood teachers understand right from the start
that there is content in the curriculum for young children. They describe the goals
for young children’s learning and development that predict success in school and
life. Each of these chapters includes examples of effective strategies such as teach-
ing children of diverse abilities in inclusive classrooms or ways to promote dual
language learning.
31
A new feature, Promoting Play, presents new research on the
important role of play in development and effective strategies
In an attempt to get children ready for school and
protect them from injury, early childhood programs
to help children learn through play or protect their right to play.
may actually be contributing to children’s stress by
minimizing children’s large muscle activity and child-
initiated play time. Because children spend so much
These features address play across the full age range, from birth
time in early childhood programs and school, it may
be their only opportunity to have physical activity or
through age 8. Discussions of play are also integrated in each
outdoor play.
Early educators need to draw on the support of
chapter throughout this book as an effective means to support
physicians and other experts to help educate parents
and policy makers about the importance of play in
children’s lives and its essential role in helping chil-
all domains of development and promote learning in all cur-
dren cope with stress and improve school success.
They also need to advocate for funding to provide
safe playgrounds and adequate spaces indoors and
riculum areas. Today many people are concerned about how the
outdoors for active engagement. Play spaces and
opportunities must be designed to protect children
standards movement is negatively impacting play. We often hear
from injury, but protecting them from stress is
equally important.
Sources: “Societal Values and Policies May Curtail
statements such as “We can’t let children play because we have
Preschool Children’s Physical Activity in Child Care
Centers,” by K. A. Copeland, S. N. Sherman, C. A.
Kendeigh, H. J. Kalkwarf, & B. E. Saelens, 2012,
to teach literacy,” or “We don’t have time for outdoor play in
Pediatrics, 129(2), retrieved from http://pediatrics.
aappublications.org/content/early/2012/01/02/
peds.2011-2102.full.pdf+html; “The Importance of
primary grades because we have to get children ready for stan-
Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and
Maintaining Strong Parent-Child Bond: Focus on
Children in Poverty,” by R. M. Milter, K. R. Ginsburg, &
dardized tests.” Play should not be treated as a separate part of
Council on Communications and Media Committee
on Psychological Aspects of Child and Family Health,
Pediatrics, 129(1), e204–e213, retrieved from http://
an early childhood program or day that can be cut if someone
www.pediatrics.aappublications.org.
deems it unimportant. Therefore, you will find a discussion of
play in every chapter of this book.
• The emphasis on implementing effective curriculum reflects current trends such
as the goal of aligning prekindergarten and primary education, NAEYC accredita-
tion and CAPE professional preparation standards, and enhanced expectations for
teacher qualifications as described in the 2015 report, Transforming the Workforce
for Children Birth through Age 9: A Unifying Foundation by the Institute of Medicine
and the National Research Council.
 Acknowledgments
Over more than four decades in early childhood education, I have had the
privilege of working with and learning from countless friends, colleagues, teachers, and
children. This book would not have been possible without the help and encouragement of
the following people:
My deepest appreciation goes to Kathleen Cranley Gallagher, my collaborator on this
edition, who revised Chapters 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, and 15. Kate’s vast experience with chil-
dren, with and without disabilities, as well as her research on children’s social-emotional
development and mental health greatly inform this edition. Kate contributed research and
effective practices on early intervention, teaching children with autism spectrum disorder,
and other cutting-edge topics. Without Kate’s help, I can’t imagine completing this work
in a timely fashion.
I especially wish to thank Carol Copple, with whom I have collaborated on Devel-
opmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs for several decades, and
who contributed features as well as invaluable assistance in conceptualizing aspects of the
book. Thanks also to Laura Colker for her overwhelming generosity, sharing of ideas, and
gracious support.
I want to acknowledge Carol Brunson Day for teaching me so much about diver-
sity, anti-bias education, and cultural influences on development. Her work contributed
greatly to the Culture and Language Lens features and Chapter 6.
Thank you to Gail E. Joseph, who was especially helpful on the first edition, and many
of her contributions are still present in Chapters 5 and 14 and the Including All Children
lenses.
Thanks to my longtime friend Kay M. Albrecht, who contributed to Chapter 15 and
provided numerous examples from her extensive classroom experience.
I wish to thank Linda Espinosa and Luis Hernandez for helping ensure that the book
reflects the most current research and practical examples for teaching dual language
learners.
Close colleagues whose wisdom and encouragement have educated and sustained me
for decades include Marilyn Smith, J. D. Andrews, Barbara Willer, and Barbara Bowman.
My deepest gratitude goes to Sharon Lynn Kagan for writing the foreword to this edi-
tion. The debt is never paid to the late Carol Seefeldt, who taught the first early childhood
course I ever took and mentored me through my dissertation. I hope that my work con-
tinues to reflect her vision.
A sincere thank you and acknowledgment of support to Arlington Public Schools
(APS) in Arlington, Virginia. Those assisting in the effort include: Arlington Public
Schools administrative personnel Regina Van Horne, Lisa Stengle, and Linda Erdos;
K. W. Barrett Elementary principal, Mr. Dan Redding; and K. W. Barrett instructional
staff Joshua McLaughlin, Anastasia Erickson, Emily Sonenshine, Stephanie Shaefer, Judy
Concha, Jennifer Flores, Elizabeth Jurkevics, and Richard Russey. Also, a big thanks to
those students and their parents who allowed us to use the student artwork and artifacts
found in this book.
I am also grateful to the many other schools, teachers, and administrators who
welcomed me as an observer, shared examples, and contributed artifacts, including:
Cathy ­Polanski, Second Grade, Arcola Elementary School; Hoaliku Drake Preschool,
Kamehameha Schools Community-Based Early Childhood Education; the Center
­
for Young Children at the University of Maryland; The Shoenbaum Family Center in
­Columbus, Ohio, including Anneliese Johnson; Wickliffe Progressive Community School
and the Jentgen family; Linden, New Jersey, Public Schools; Far Hills Country Day School
in Far Hills, New Jersey; the HighScope Demonstration Preschool in Ypsilanti, Michigan;
and Easter Seals Blake Children’s Achievement Center in Tucson, Arizona.
I continue to be indebted to Julie Peters, my editor at Pearson, for contributing her
wealth of knowledge about early childhood teacher education, and her unwavering s­ upport
for my work. I also wish to thank Linda Bishop for leading me through the d ­ evelopment
xi
 of an Interactive eText for the first time. Thanks also for the creative contributions to the
first edition of Max Effenson Chuck and Kelly Villella Canton.
My life and work continue to be inspired by Patty Smith Hill, founder of NANE,
whose vision for early childhood education laid the foundation for NAEYC’s commitment
to developmentally appropriate practice.
I would also like to thank the many reviewers who contributed to the development
of this book. They are: Margaret Charlton, Tidewater Community College; Jody Eberly,
The College of New Jersey; Amy Howell, Central Oregon Community College; Claire
Lenz, St. Joseph’s College; Marilyn Roseman, Mount Aloysius College; and Lois Silvernail,
Spring Hill College.

Instructor Supplements
The following instructor tools supplement, support, and reinforce the content presented
throughout the text. All supplements are available for download for instructors who adopt
this text. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com, click “Educators,” register for access,
and download files. For more information, contact your Pearson representative.
• Online Instructor’s Manual (013402687X). The Instructor’s Resource Manual pro-
vides chapter-by-chapter tools to use in class. Lecture or discussion outlines, teach-
ing strategies, in-class activities, student projects, key term definitions, and helpful
resources will reinforce key concepts and applications and keep students engaged.
• Online Test Bank (0134026756). These multiple-choice and essay questions tied to
each chapter provide instructors the opportunity to assess student understanding
of the chapter content. An answer key is provided.
• Online PowerPointTM Slides (0134026829). Each slide reinforces key concepts and
big ideas presented throughout the text.
• TestGen (013402673X). This powerful test generator contains the same items that
are in the Online Test Bank, but you may add or revise items. Assessments may be
created for print or testing online. You install TestGen on your personal computer
(Windows or Macintosh) and create your own tests for classroom testing and for
other specialized delivery options, such as over a local area network or on the web.

The tests can be downloaded in the following formats:

TestGen Testbank file - PC • TestGen Testbank file - MAC • TestGen Testbank -
Blackboard 9 TIF • TestGen Testbank - Blackboard CE/Vista (WebCT) TIF •
Angel Test Bank • D2L Test Bank • Moodle Test Bank • Sakai Test Bank

xii
 Foreword
Like all Sue Bredekamp’s work, Effective Practices in Early Childhood Education:
Building a Foundation has become a landmark. Since its publication, it has been
the major benchmark against which all volumes related to early childhood practice are
­measured, domestically and internationally. Indeed, it has been a driving force, not only
guiding practice and scholarship, but also serving as a seminal vehicle to codify and
chronicle the impact of history, the experiences of practitioners and leaders, and the im-
pact of policy on the changing field of early education. In so doing, it has converted static
assumptions and understandings about early childhood pedagogy into living, dynamic,
and far more intentional practices.
Since its appearance, Effective Practices has been widely read and used to guide early
childhood teacher preparation and practice. Its popularity has placed a special burden on
the work; it, like the field, cannot remain stagnant or isolated from changes in the social
context. Precisely because it is so well used and because the field is changing so rapidly, a
new edition is necessary. Consider for example, the impact that the emergence of the K–12
Common Core has had on early education: whether one favors or disparages the Common
Core ideologically, it is here to stay and is having profound impacts on American educa-
tion generally, and American early education specifically. In addition, the revitalization
of an emphasis on continuity and transition, emerging currently in the form of the “P–3
Movement,” is altering the way early educators conceptualize and actualize the linkages
between pre-primary and primary education. Within the birth to 5-year-old component
of early childhood, a renewed emphasis on supporting the infrastructure through the Ear-
ly Learning Challenge Fund, with its focus on Quality Rating and Improvement Systems,
standards, and assessments, is precipitating dramatic changes in the way early childhood
education services are being designed and delivered. Finally, new research related to the
way children learn and process information is calling forth compelling pedagogical align-
ments that address the importance of dual language learners, executive functioning, early
mathematics, and learning progressions.
With the early childhood field changing so rapidly, time-honored questions are be-
ing catapulted to new prominence, often begging for urgent response: What should be
the balance between cognitive development and other domains historically important to
early childhood? What should be the balance between a focus on learning processes and
content? What should be the balance between teacher-guided, intentional pedagogy and
child-guided experiential learning? Note that none of these questions is new and that each
recognizes the critical importance of balance.
Indeed, the majesty of this volume is that it, too, understands and addresses the im-
portance of the contemporary context and the balance in perspective and practice it de-
mands. In this volume, Bredekamp takes a long-haul view; she renders solid definitions
of the field, situating the reader firmly in reality, and provides one of the most thorough
historical overviews available. But Bredekamp does not stop there, nor does she skirt the
tough issues, the new research, or the new demands being placed on early educators.
Rather, with clarity and grace, she systematically addresses them all, setting before the
field a rich compendium of research, firsthand and extremely well-cultivated practice,
and ever-wise counsel. Readers will be impressed by the currency, practicality, and clear
intentionality of the volume, evoking the same from those who regard it with the care with
which it was written.
Of particular importance in this ever-changing and increasingly connected world
is the role of culture and language. Bredekamp addresses these issues with honesty and
integrity, treating readers to a richly nuanced understanding of the important roles of
each in the development of young children. Cautiously, she reminds us that the words
“developmentally appropriate”—although bywords of the profession—must be deeply
contextualized in order to be understood and mastered. Indeed, in discussing how to
­balance ­developmentally, individually, and contextually appropriate practices, ­Bredekamp
­brilliantly notes that “a child with a disability acts like a magnifying glass on the
xiii
 ­ evelopmental appropriateness of an early childhood classroom.” In turn, early educators
d
must regard this seminal edition as the best possible lens through which to see and enlarge
what matters most in our field; with wisdom and prescience, it sheds all the light necessary
to advance our evolving, joyous profession and our critically important work on behalf of
children, their families, and their countries.

Sharon Lynn Kagan, Ed.D.

Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Early Childhood and Family Policy,
Teachers College, Columbia University;
and Professor Adjunct, Yale University’s Child Study Center

xiv
 Brief Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2

Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 6

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . 68

Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . 1
 00

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

 38

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204

Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding Young Children. . . . . 2
 38

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 08

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy,
and the Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
 78

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:

Mathematics, Science, and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society: Social-Emotional
Learning and Social Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
 54

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit:

Physical Development and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference for Children. . . 516

xv
 Table of Contents

Part 1 Foundations of Early Childhood Education 2

Chapter 1 Continuity and Change in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
What Is Early Childhood Education?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Why Early Childhood Education Is a Field on the Rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Landscape of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
How Early Childhood Education Is Expanding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Access to Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How Early Childhood Education Is Changing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Why Become an Early Childhood Educator? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Joys of Teaching Young Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Dimensions of Effective, Intentional Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Career Options for Early Childhood Educators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Culture of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Early Childhood Program Quality and Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Setting Standards for Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Measuring Quality in Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measuring Effectiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Positive Effects of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Brain Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Lasting Benefits of Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Positive Effects of Prekindergarten, Head Start, and Child Care . . . . . . . . 24
Social Justice and Closing the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Current Trends in Early Childhood Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
New Federal and State Policy Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Standards and Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Higher Teacher Qualifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Alignment of Services from Birth Through Age 8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Advances in Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Continuity and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Chapter 2 Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Learning from the Past. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Why History Is Relevant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
The Changing View of Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
European Influences on American Early Childhood Education. . . . . . . . . . 41
John Amos Comenius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

xvi
 Johann Pestalozzi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Friedrich Froebel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Maria Montessori. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Early Childhood Movements in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Kindergarten Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Progressive Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Nursery School Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
The Child Care Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
A Wider View of Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
African Americans in Early Childhood History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Native American Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Latino Early Childhood History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Bringing the Stories Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Story of Head Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Prekindergarten Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Building on a Tradition of Excellence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Chapter 3 Understanding and Applying Developmentally Appropriate

Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
What Is Developmentally Appropriate Practice?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
NAEYC’S Position Statement on Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . 70
Current Issues in Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Developmentally Appropriate Practice in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Intentional Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Purposeful Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Understand and Explain Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Developmentally Appropriate Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Make Informed Decisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Consider All You Know When Making Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
The Complex Role of the Teacher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Create a Caring Community of Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Teach to Enhance Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Plan Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Assess Children’s Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Build Relationships with Families and Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Teacher’s Role in Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Widening the Lens: Moving from Either/Or to Both/And Thinking . . . . . . . . . . 89
Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Physical Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Organize the Day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Research on Developmentally Appropriate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Research on Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Future of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

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Part 2 Learning and Developing from Birth to Age 8: Who We Teach 100
Chapter 4 Applying What We Know about Children’s Learning
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Understanding Development and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Development? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
What Is Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Role of Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Relationship between Theory, Research, and Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Why Study Child Development and Learning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Brain Development and Implications for Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
How the Brain Promotes Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Implications for Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Implications for Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Child Development Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Piaget and Cognitive Developmental Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Vygotsky and Sociocultural Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory of Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Learning Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
B. F. Skinner and Behaviorism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Role of Play in Development and Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Types of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
The Benefits of Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Play and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Connecting Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Chapter 5 Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

The Importance of Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Why Pay Attention to Individual Differences?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Where Do Individual Differences Come From?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
How Experience Affects Outcomes for Children: Risk or Resilience. . . . . . . . . . 142
What We Know About Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Gender Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Cognitive Development and Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Emotional and Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Approaches to Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Seeing Each Child as an Individual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Gifted and Talented Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Responsive Education for All Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Differentiating Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Response to Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

xviii
 Individual Differences in Ability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
The Language of Early Childhood Special Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
What Teachers Should Know about Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Seeing Children with Disabilities as Individuals: The Case of Autism . . . . . . . . . 155
What Teachers Should Know about Legal Requirements
for Children with Disabilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Embracing Natural Learning Environments and Inclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Effective Practices for Children with Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Work on a Team. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Assess Young Children of Diverse Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Plan Individualized Instructional Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Chapter 6 Embracing a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World . . . . . . . . . . 170

Understanding Cultural Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
What Is Culture?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
The Role of Culture in Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
How Culture Functions: Principles to Keep in Mind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
A Framework for Thinking About Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Individualistic Cultural Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Interdependent Cultural Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Continuum of Common Cultural Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Applying the Continuum in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Become Aware of Your Own Cultural Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Learn about the Perspectives of Various Cultural Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Why Does Culture Matter to Teachers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Embracing Linguistic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Cultural Competence: The Key to Effective Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Cross-Cultural Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Effective Practices for Diverse Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Culturally Responsive Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Linguistically Responsive Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Anti-Bias Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Part 3 Intentional Teaching: How to Teach 204

Chapter 7 Building Effective Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Today’s Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Welcoming Diverse Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Family Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Family Circumstances and Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Reciprocal Relationships with Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Roles of Teachers and Parents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Family-Centered Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

xix
 Communication with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Barriers to Effective Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Effective Communication Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Family Engagement in Programs and Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Benefits of Family Involvement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Opportunities for Meaningful Family Engagement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Community Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
A Framework for Building Partnerships with Families. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Clarify Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Communicate Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Negotiate Successfully. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Demonstrate Willingness to Learn and Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Chapter 8 Creating a Caring Community of Learners: Guiding

Young Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
A Caring Community of Learners: The Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . 240
The Value of a Caring Community of Learners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
The Teaching Pyramid Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Positive Relationships with Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
The Importance of Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Effective Strategies to Build Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
High-Quality Supportive Environments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Establish Clear, Consistent, Fair Rules for Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Support Children to Do Their Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Teaching Social-Emotional Competence and Guiding Behavior. . . . . . . . . 255
Guidance and Punishment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Teach Emotional Literacy and Social Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Conflict Resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Intensive Individualized Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Understand Challenging Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Assess and Address the Function of the Child’s Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Team with Families and Professionals to Implement Individualized Plans . . . . . 261
Use Positive Behavior Support. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Applying the Teaching Pyramid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Teaching Boys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Apply the Pyramid Model to Address Biting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Apply the Pyramid Model to Alleviate Bullying. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Chapter 9 Teaching to Enhance Learning and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Teaching: Both a Science and an Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
The Science of Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The Art of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
A Repertoire of Effective Teaching Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
What Are Teaching Strategies? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Teacher-Initiated and Child-Initiated Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Using an Array of Teaching Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
The Power of Scaffolding: An Integrated Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Connecting Teaching Strategies and Learning Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
xx
 Reflect on Your Own Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Strategies That Make Learning Meaningful. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Strategies That Develop Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Strategies That Promote Higher-Level Thinking and Problem Solving. . . . . . . . . 292
Grouping as an Instructional Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
The Learning Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Play as a Context for Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Involvement during Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Teachers’ Role during Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Teaching with Digital Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Research on Digital Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Using Technology and Digital Media to Teach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Assistive Technology for Children with Diverse Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

Chapter 10 Planning Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Defining Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
What Is Curriculum?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Curriculum Models, Approaches, and Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Written Curriculum Plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
The Teacher’s Role. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Components of Effective Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
The Role of Standards in Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
What Are Standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
How Do Standards Affect Curriculum? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Alignment of Standards and Curriculum across Age Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Approaches to Planning Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Emergent Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Integrated Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Thematic Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Webbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
The Project Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Scope and Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Research-Based Early Childhood Curricula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Comprehensive Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Focused Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
The Reggio Emilia Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Research on Preschool Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
A Model for Planning Effective Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
The Child in the Sociocultural Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Sources of Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Applying the Curriculum Model in Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Adapting for Individual Differences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339

Chapter 11 Assessing Children’s Learning and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

Learning the Language of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Formative and Summative Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Informal and Formal Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Observation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xxi
 Performance Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dynamic Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Standardized Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Types of Standardized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Purposes of Assessment: Why Assess?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Assessing to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Identifying Children with Special Learning or Developmental Needs . . . . . . . . . 351
Evaluating Program Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Assessing for Accountability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Connecting Purposes and Types of Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Indicators of Effective Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Developmentally Appropriate Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Individually Appropriate Assessment for Children with Special Needs. . . . . . . . 358
Observation and Recording to Improve Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Observing and Gathering Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Recording What Children Know and Can Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Interpreting and Using Evidence to Improve Teaching and Learning . . . . . . . . . 369
Standardized Testing of Young Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Types of Standardized Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Appropriate Uses of Standardized Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Concerns about Standardized Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Assessment and the Common Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Kindergarten Entry Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375

Part 4 Implementing an Effective Curriculum: What to Teach 378

Chapter 12 Teaching Children to Communicate: Language, Literacy, and the Arts. . . . 378
Children’s Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
The Critical Importance of Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Types of Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Language Differences in Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Developmental Continuum: Oral Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Impact of Common Core Speaking and Listening Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Scaffolding Children’s Language Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Supporting Language Development in Babies and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Scaffolding Preschoolers’ Language Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Dual Language Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
How Children Learn a Second Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Developmental Continuum: Dual Language Acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Teaching Dual Language Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Literacy-Rich Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Early Literacy from Birth to Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Literacy in the Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
xxii
 Learning to Read. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Developmental Continuum: Literacy in Kindergarten and Primary Grades. . . . . 404
Evidence-Based Reading Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
Digital Literacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Impact of the Common Core State Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Communicating Through the Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
The Value of Creative Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Visual Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Music, Movement, and Dance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Drama. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Seeing the Arts with New Eyes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416

Chapter 13 Teaching Children to Investigate and Solve Problems:

Mathematics, Science, and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
The Importance of Mathematics and Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Need for an Educated Workforce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Mathematics Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
The Cognitive Foundations of Early Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
The Continuum of Cognitive Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Executive Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Children’s Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Language and Cognition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Mathematical Language and the Achievement Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Effective Mathematics Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Curriculum Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Mathematics Process Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Effective Mathematics Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
Effective Mathematics Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
The Role of Play in Teaching and Learning Mathematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Effective Science Curriculum and Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science and Technology in the Early Childhood Curriculum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Science Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Effective Science Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Teaching about and with Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
A Developmentally and Technologically Appropriate Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

Chapter 14 Teaching Children to Live in a Democratic Society:

Social-Emotional Learning and Social Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Social-Emotional Foundations of Early Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Self-Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Social Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Stress in Children’s Lives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Continuum of Social and Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Infants and Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Preschool and Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Primary Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
xxiii
 Diversity and Social-Emotional Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
The Role of Play in Social-Emotional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Emotional Development and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Social Development and Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Effective Social-Emotional Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Social and Emotional Curriculum Goals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Effective Social Studies Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
What Is Social Studies?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Social Studies Content Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Effective Strategies for Teaching Social Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Chapter 15 Teaching Children to Be Healthy and Fit: Physical

Development and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
The Importance of Physical Fitness and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Benefits of Physical Fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Childhood Obesity Crisis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Implications for Early Childhood Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
How Physical Development Occurs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
The Continuum of Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Phases of Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Gross-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Fine-Motor Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
The Role of Play in Physical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Childhood Experiences with the Natural Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Outdoor Play Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
The Value of Rough-and-Tumble Play. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Health and Safety Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
The Teacher’s Role in Health and Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Effective Curriculum and Teaching to Promote Physical
Fitness and Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Curriculum for Physical Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Effective Health Curriculum and Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Chapter 16 Putting It All Together in Practice: Making a Difference

for Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Life as an Early Childhood Educator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Caring for and Educating Infants and Young Toddlers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Teaching the Whole Child in the Preschool. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Teaching the Whole Child in the Kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Teaching the Whole Child in the Primary Grades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
Beginning Your Journey as an Early Childhood Professional . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Become a Professional. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Protect Children from Abuse and Neglect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Join a Profession That Makes a Difference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Author Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
xxiv Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
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reflector is then opened and the operator sights through the tube to
locate the station with which he is to communicate, and signals by
means of the push button key. It is essential that the lamp be held
rigidly and the sighting tube be continuously aimed exactly at the
receiving station during signaling. A slight movement of the lamp
makes the signals appear blurred or entirely invisible to the receiving
station. A lamp station should always be located in the shade or
protected from direct sun rays, which would otherwise produce a
continuous glare from the reflector and make the electric light signals
invisible. A lamp may be held in the hand while signaling or fastened
to anything that will aid stability. In permanent and semi-permanent
stations an arrangement for holding the lamp in a fixed position,
directed at the receiving station, should be installed. In addition, a
wooden tube tapering down in size toward the outer end and being 6
ft. to 9 ft. long and approximately the size of the lamp at the inner
end, should be constructed and also permanently aligned on the
receiving station. This reduces the diffusion of the rays of the lamp,
and also minimizes the possibility of the signals being read where
not intended.
Adjustments of Lamps.—The reflecting apparatus of a lamp is
carefully adjusted before it is issued. However, it is possible that a
slightly different adjustment will give better results when a new bulb
is inserted. To focus the lamp the light is flashed on some dark
background, such as wall a few yards away, and the screws
supporting the parabolic mirror carefully turned until the light
becomes concentrated in the smallest possible circle. The
adjustment screws are then tightened, but they should never be set
tight. If the receiving operator is having trouble in receiving signals,
he will inform the sending station by sending a series of dots. The
sending operator will then examine his apparatus to see if the lamp
is properly directed at the receiving station, if the reflector is out of
focus, or if the battery has become weak. The receiving operator
indicates the manner in which he is receiving the signals by the
method in which he sends the dots. If the signals become worse, the
dots are made more rapidly. As the adjustment becomes better, the
dots are made more slowly. When a good readable adjustment has
been obtained, he will signal BR, meaning “go ahead.”
 PRECAUTIONS IN LAMP SIGNALING.
Don’t leave the lamp cover open when not in use.
Don’t forget to open it when you start to transmit.
Don’t touch the mirror. If necessary, it should be cleaned by wiping
with gauze or cotton or wiped with clean water.
Don’t pull the wire cable fastened to the bottom of the lamp when
removing from the box.
Don’t return broken or burned-out globes to the pouch, but throw
them away unless ordered to turn them in. Don’t use the lamp for
illuminating purposes.
Don’t neglect to keep a constant watch on the stations with which
you are supposed to communicate.

SIGNALING RANGE OF LAMPS.

Day. Night.
14 cm 1 to 3 kilometers 2 to 6 kilometers.
24 cm 1 to 6 kilometers 3 to 10 kilometers.
35 cm 5 to 10 kilometers 8 to 15 kilometers.
Signals may be transmitted by using either white or red bulbs, but
the range when using red bulbs is reduced approximately 50%.

GENERAL SERVICE CODE AND CONVENTIONAL

SIGNALS FOR USE WITH PROJECTORS,
BUZZERS AND WIGWAG.

A .- G --. M -- S ... Y -.-- 5 .....

B -... H .... N -. T- Z --.. 6 -....
C -.-. I .. O --- U ..- 1 .--- 7 --...
D -.. J .--- P .--. V ...- 2 ..--- 8 ---..
 E. K -.- Q --.- W .--. 3 ...-- 9 ----.
F ..-. L .-.. R .-. X -..- 4 ....- 10 -----

Manner of Sending Messages.

Messages are sent by using the General Service Code and should
always be as short as possible. Every time a letter can be omitted,
the chance of error is reduced. A dot is made by a short flash of
about ½ second duration. A dash is a longer flash of about two
seconds duration. The interval between dot and dash is about ½
second duration. The interval between letters is about 2 seconds
duration. The interval between words is about 4 seconds duration. In
order that lamp signals may be easily read, it is necessary that the
signals be not too rapid, 15 to 20 characters per minute should be
taken as the upper limit. Successive letters must be well spaced. An
interval of 2 seconds between letters will enable the receiving
operator to call off each letter to his assistant as he receives it. In
general, two men for each shift are necessary to operate a lamp
station. At the sending station one man dictates the message letter
by letter, and watches the receiving station for breaks. The other
sends the message. At the receiving stations, one man receives the
message and calls it off by letter to his helper who writes it down. To
call a station, its call letter should be sent several times and at
intervals the station calling should signal its own call letter. As soon
as a station observes that it is being called, it will answer by
signaling its call letter and the signal BR, “go ahead.” The message
is then transmitted and the receiving station acknowledges receipt of
each word. By one dot, if it has been understood. By the
interrogation mark, if it has not been understood and repetition is
desired. (While the interrogation is official, two dots are invariably
used for this signal.) At the end of a message the sending station
signals AR, meaning, “end of message.” The receiving station sends
a dot if the message has been understood.
 Signaling by Means of Fireworks.
The use of fireworks in modern battles for sending signals has
been greatly developed and is now one of the most important means
relied upon to send a few fundamental signals from the front line of
the infantry to the supporting artillery within the division and between
the ground and the airplanes.

The Fireworks Code.

As the signals that are made by fireworks are always of the most
important character, it is essential that the system for their use be so
perfectly worked out that there will be no chance of confusion. The
smaller the number of signals to be sent by fireworks, the less
chance there is of confusion.

Classification of Fireworks.
The fireworks now being used by the American Army are divided
into the following classes:
1. Very Pistol cartridges.
2. VB cartridges (commonly called “Tromblons”).
3. Rockets.
4. Flares.
The complete directions for firing these various fireworks are
generally attached to the container or box in which they are packed.
They are fully discussed in Annex 14, Translation of the 1917
“Instruction on Liaison for Troops of all Arms, A. E. F.”

1. Very Pistol Cartridges.

The Very pistol cartridges are made in two sizes, a 25-mm size,
which is issued to the companies of infantry, and a 35-mm size,
which is used by the airplanes. These Very pistols fire both signal
and illuminating cartridges.

2. VB Cartridges.

The VB cartridges are fired from a cylinder which is attached to the

end of a rifle. This cylinder, on account of its resemblance to the old-
fashioned blunderbuss (which the French call “Tromblon”) has taken
the name of tromblon and now even the VB cartridges, which are
fired from this cylinder, are often spoken of as Tromblons.

3. Rockets.

The rockets comprise fireworks which are made in the form of

cartridges attached to a wooden stick and fired from a tube or
trough. They are used both for signaling and illuminating.

4. Flares.

Flares are used only in the front lines to mark the position of the
advanced troops when called for by an airplane.

THE USES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF

FIREWORKS.
It will be seen that the above classification of fireworks is an
arbitrary one, made according to the method of projecting them. The
same signal can be made by several different means. The means
employed depend upon the type of fireworks issued to the particular
unit using them and also upon the distance through which the signal
must be read.
Flares are not projected at all and consequently have the most
limited range of visibility in any but a perpendicular direction.
 The 25-mm Very pistol projects its signals about 200 ft. and can be
seen from the immediate vicinity.
The tromblon projects its signals to a height of 300 ft. and is next
in range of visibility.
The rockets which project a signal at the height of 1000 ft. or over
have the maximum range of visibility.
The 35-mm Very pistol projects signals which are larger than those
of the 25-mm pistol, but throws them a shorter distance (about 150
ft.). As its use is confined to the airplane this is not a factor in its
visibility.
The following are important uses that may be made of fireworks:
1. By the infantry platoon, company or battalion commander in
signaling to the artillery for a barrage, or otherwise directing the fire
of the artillery.
2. For signaling between the front line troops and the contact
airplane in an advance.
3. Warning of enemy gas attack given by the fireworks signaler
nearest to where the gas is discovered.
4. As a method of acknowledging various visual signals.
5. Occasionally, during the preparation of an attack and upon
orders from the General Staff, fireworks may be used in liaison
between the artillery and the artillery airplanes.

Signaling by Means of Panels.

The increasing use of the airplane in modern warfare has
necessitated the development of reliable communication between it
and the earth. This has gradually been worked out in the following
methods:
1. The direct dropping of messages by the airplane.
2. The use of radio apparatus.
 3. The use of visual signaling by means of lamps, fireworks and
panels.
Panels are pieces of cloth or other materials of various designs
which are spread out on the ground in a manner to be easily seen by
the airplane. They are for three purposes.
1. To signal to an airplane the identity and location of a unit’s
headquarters by the use of its distinctive panel, called its
“identification panel.” This is displayed either when the airplane
requests it (by means of radio) or when the headquarters desires to
attract the attention of the airplane.
2. To signal to the airplane other brief information by the use of
rectangular panels known as “signaling panels” and arranged in
various ways, either by themselves or in conjunction with the unit’s
identification panel.
3. To signal to the airplane the position of the front line in a
daylight advance by the use of special panels called “marking
panels.” These are displayed only when called for by the airplane.
All panels are removed as soon as an acknowledgment is
received from the airplane.
As the use of panels is always in conjunction with airplanes, all
panel signallers should understand some of the uses of the various
airplanes.

Miscellaneous Methods of Visual Signaling.

Wig-Wag Flags.—Flags for use in wig-wagging are now issued to
divisions under the name of “kits, flag, combination, standard.” Each
kit includes one wig-wag staff and two wig-wag flags, and also two
semaphore staff and two semaphore flags. A division is supplied with
1,022 of these kits. The use of the wig-wag flags is already fairly well
known in the American Army. Signals are transmitted by describing
an arc of 90 degrees to the right and left to form dots and dashes,
and spaces by a downward front motion. The general service can be
transmitted by this means. Wig-wag flag signaling should be
thoroughly understood and practiced by all signal men, as it forms an
excellent method for becoming familiar with the code. Signals can be
sent by this means merely by the use of the hand, and consequently
the system forms an excellent way for troops to put in their time
when traveling by train or on shipboard. Its use in the present war
has been limited, but it will undoubtedly be used more and more,
especially when open warfare is resumed.
Semaphore.—Signals by semaphore are transmitted by the arms,
either alone or with the semaphore flags that are issued in the
standard combination flag kits. It is a standard means of
communication in the American Navy and well known in the army. It
is not used by the armies of Europe, but it might serve a useful
purpose to linemen and others for intercommunication.

Radio Equipment.
The Radio receiving sets, type SCR-53 and SCR-54-A form the
standard units for the reception on the ground of signals from
airplanes, and in general, of all damped wave signals or modulated
wave signals. The use for these sets may perhaps be said to be that
in connection with the work of the fire control airplanes in directing
the fire of the artillery. But in addition, they are used for so many
other classes of radio work, that they may indeed be considered
among the most important radio sets.

Type SCR-54 Set.

 Circuit Diagram of
SCR-54A Radio Telegraph Receiving Set

The type SCR-54 set is very similar to the French type A-1
receiving set. The SCR 54-A set is an improved American product,
designed along the same general lines as the type SCR-54 but
differing in some respects, both mechanical and electrical, to
improve the operating characteristics. The type A-2 and A-2-B
antennae are fully described in Radio Pamphlet No. 2. With their use
the receiving sets have a wave length range of approximately from
150 to 650 meters. If properly operated, they afford quite sharp
tuning. This feature and their compact, rugged and simple
construction have made them of very considerable value on the
Western Front.
 As shown in the wiring diagram, Fig. 1, the type SCR-54A
receiving set comprises a primary (antenna) circuit and a secondary
circuit, both of which may be tuned by means of the variable
capacitance and variable inductance comprised in both circuits. The
secondary circuit may also be made aperiodic by placing the switch
M on the position marked “AP.” This connects the condenser in or
disconnects it from the circuit. A separate buzzer circuit is installed in
the cover of the box to excite the set when adjusting the crystal
detector.
The adjustable capacitance in each circuit is a variable air
condenser which is adjusted by means of an insulating handle,
marked “Primary” or “Secondary,” mounted directly on the rotating
shaft of the condenser. The relative amount of capacitance in the
circuit, corresponding to the various positions of these handles, is
indicated by a pointer fastened to the shaft, which moves over a dial
graduated from 0 to 90. The position 0 corresponds to the minimum
and the position 90 to the maximum capacitance of the condenser.
The two condensers are identical in design, and have a maximum
capacitance of 500 micro-mfd.
The primary and secondary inductances are varied by means of
two dial switches marked “P” and “S,” respectively. The primary
inductance comprises 60 turns of wire divided into six steps of 10
turns each, while the secondary inductance comprises 60 turns
divided into four steps of 15 turns each. These two inductance coils
are wound on separate wooden cylinders so arranged that their
relative positions may be readily varied. The coupling of the two
circuits, which is accomplished by the mutual induction effect of
these two coils, is varied by changing the relative mechanical
positions of the coils. The secondary coil may be rotated by means
of a handle marked “Coupling,” and a pointer moving over a scale
graduated from 0 to 90 indicates its position. When in the 0 position
the axes of the two coils are at right angles to each other, and the
degree of coupling is 0. When in the position “90” the axes are
parallel, and the coupling is a maximum.
The telephone and detector circuit shunts the secondary
condenser. This circuit consists of a crystal detector connected in
series with the telephone receiver which are shunted by so-called
stopping condensers. The latter is a .002 mfd. mica condenser. Two
crystal detectors are furnished with a set; one of them is enclosed in
a glass tube, which protects the crystal from dust or dirt. The other is
open, having no such protecting casing. Either one may be used by
screwing it to the two binding posts of the set marked “Detector.”
The buzzer is mounted in a compartment of set box cover, and
consists of a small buzzer connected in series with a dry battery type
BA-4, and a switch. The buzzer is energized when this switch is
closed. A spare dry for the buzzer, a screwdriver, the enclosed
detector, some spare wire and spare crystals are normally stored in
compartments or metal clips in the cover. Two type P-11 telephone
head sets are kept in a special compartment in the box. This set box
when closed may be carried by a leather strap attached to it.

Method of Operating.
The first step in putting the set in operating condition is to select a
suitable place and set up the antenna. The set box is then installed
in a dry and protected place, and the arial and ground (or
counterpoise) leads are connected to their respective terminals on
the operating panel, and the telephone head set plugged into the
jack with the installation thus completed the first step is to adjust the
crystal detector. To do this, place the “Coupling” handle near the
maximum position, and connect the short piece of wire from the
terminal clip in the buzzer circuit to the “Antenna” or “Ground”
terminal of the operating panel. Close the buzzer switch to energize
the buzzer, and carefully explore the surface of the crystal with the
spring contact point until a sensitive spot is found, as evidenced by a
good audible sound in the telephone receiver. The short wire running
from the buzzer to the panel is then removed and the buzzer
stopped by opening the buzzer switch. Care should be taken not to
disturb the crystal adjustment by mechanical vibration or shock. This
adjustment is very delicate, and if destroyed, it must be restored
before any signals can be received. With the crystal adjusted, the set
is then ready for tuning. The procedure varies somewhat according
to whether the wave length of the station it is desired to receive is
known or not.
(a) Wave Lengths of Signals Unknown.—The switch M in the
center of the panel is thrown to the position “AP” (aperiodic). This
disconnects the secondary condenser, and makes the secondary
circuit responsive to signals of any wave length. The coupling is
made a maximum, and the secondary inductance dial switch S
placed at the position “60.” The primary inductance switch P is then
placed successively at the positions marked 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and
60, and, at each point, the handle of the primary condenser is slowly
turned over its full range, until the loudest signals are obtained in the
telephone. The station is then identified by its call letters, and if it is
the station desired, tuning of the set is completed as explained
below. It may happen however, that in this search for signals, several
stations are heard, simultaneously or for different positions of the
handles. The process of searching is kept up until the desired
station, as identified by its call letters, is heard with the greatest
intensity.
The coupling pointer is then moved toward the minimum position,
so that the signals will be just loud enough to be easily read. The
switch M is placed in the position T (tune), which connects the
secondary condenser in the secondary circuit. The secondary circuit
is then tuned by operating the secondary inductance dial switch S
and the secondary in the same way that was followed in tuning the
primary. The secondary circuit is in tune when the signals are heard
loudest. The set is then ready for operation.
If necessary, the strength of the signals may be increased by
increasing the coupling, but this should not be done unless the signal
become too faint to be read, since increasing the coupling increases
the likelihood of interference by other sending stations. When the
coupling is changed, some slight adjustments of the primary and
secondary condensers will be found to improve the signals.
(b) Wave lengths of Signals Known.—When the receiving
operator has been advised of the wave length of the signals he is to
pick up, the process of tuning in is somewhat facilitated by the use of
the table of wave lengths which is pasted in the cover of the box.
The primary circuit of the set is first tuned, as explained above,
with the switch on “AP,” the secondary inductance on “60” and with
maximum coupling. After the signals have been identified and the
primary has been tuned to give maximum loudness, the coupling is
reduced as before and the switch M moved to T. The secondary
inductance setting to be used is then given in the table. Thus, for a
wave length of 280 meters, the setting may be 30 or 45. It is best to
use the higher value 45. The final secondary adjustment is then
made as before by means of the secondary condenser.

Use of a Vacuum Tube Detector with the SCR-54

Set.
It is sometimes desirable to use a vacuum tube detector in place
of the crystal detector supplied with the set. In this case, the
telephone stopping condenser of the set must be short circuited by
inserting a dummy brass plug in the telephone jack. The crystal
detector is then disconnected, and wires are connected from the
detector binding posts of the set to the proper terminals of the
vacuum tube detector set. The telephone receivers should not be
plugged in, as before, in the jack of the set box, but must be
connected to the proper terminals or jack of the vacuum tube
detector box.

Precautions, Sources of Trouble, Maintenance.

In using this set, care should be taken to always keep it in as dry a
place as possible. It should be kept in a clean condition, especially
the operating panel, the contacts, binding posts, dial switch studs,
and the telephone jacks. Oil or grease on these contacts will make
the connections uncertain and unsteady and impair or even prevent
the satisfactory operation of the set.
 The set should be handled carefully to avoid warping the
condenser plates or otherwise damaging the set. No foreign
substance should be placed in the set box. Care should be taken
that the telephone receiver cords do not get wet, for the resulting
leakage of current through them would considerably decrease the
strength of signals and introduce an annoying noise. The telephones
do not require any adjustment, and the earpieces should always be
kept screwed up tight. The telephone receiver should never be taken
apart, since their adjustment at the factory is very accurate and
permanent. If it becomes necessary to remove the cord connections
from either the telephones or the plug, the wires must be connected
as found, according to their different colors. This is important since
otherwise the permanent magnets will be partially demagnetized and
the efficiency of the telephone receivers will be seriously impaired. In
packing the set for transportation the telephone head set receivers
are placed face to face so that the diaphragms will be protected and
kept free of mud and dirt. The telephone cord is then wound around
the head band in such a way as to hold the receivers together. The
telephone plug is finally slipped inside the coil thus formed by the
connection cord, and the entire set is carefully placed in its
compartment in the set box. Among the troubles most frequently
encountered are those considered below. It may happen that the
buzzer does not work. This may be due to a poor adjustment of the
buzzer vibrator, or to a run down dry battery. If the radio does not
work it may be because the crystal detector is not making contact
with the sensitive spot. Readjust it with the aid of the buzzer. No
sound in the receiver may be due to the fact that the telephone is not
all the way in the jack, or that it is dirty. In this case see that the plug
is clear in, or remove it and wipe it off with a clean cloth. Also, the
dummy brass plug may be in the telephone jack. This would prevent
operation entirely with the crystal detector.
Scratching noises in the telephone may be the result of wet
connection cord, or the connection at the plug or either telephone
receiver may be loose.
If the antenna or ground connections is loose, or if the ariel or lead
in wire is grounded through a branch of a tree, or in some other way,
the set will fail to operate. Make sure of good insulation all around. It
sometimes happens that a wire will break inside the set box. This
generally occurs to one of the wires connecting the secondary
induction coils to the various taps to the secondary dial switch. One
way to discover this fault is to turn the “Coupling” handle back and
forth; the signals may then suddenly stop for a certain position of the
handle, although they will be audible with the handle on either side of
this position. Finally, a plate of one of the variable air condensers
may become warped and short circuit the condenser. This is
generally evidenced by the fact that the condenser, when varied over
its whole range, does not change the loudness of the signals. In
active service, the receiving sets are required to be in continuous
working condition. To insure this, spare parts must be kept on hand
at all times in order to replace defective parts with the least possible
delay. Such spare parts should include spare crystals, telephones
and telephone cords. Complete extra set should always be in stock
at the central Radio supply station to provide for replacement
promptly when sets are destroyed. The sets in use should also be
frequently tested to determine and readiness for an intensive and
continuous activity. The condenser and inductance circuits should be
tested to make sure that each part of each circuit is in perfect
working condition. Testing of circuit parts may be simply done with a
head phone and dry cell, a click through closed circuits, and the
absence of a click through the condenser circuits, being the
indication which should be noted.
 CHAPTER XVI.
SMALL ARMS.

Notes on the Automatic Pistol, Cal. 45, Model

1911.
The pistol is known as the Automatic Pistol, Cal. 45, Model 1911.
By caliber is meant the caliber of the bore. All pistols used in the
service are marked on the left side of the receiver, “United States
Property,” and on the right side with the serial number, which must
be memorized by the person to whom the pistol is issued.
It is important that every man have a thorough knowledge of the
nomenclature, care and repair, method of assembling and
dismounting the pistol as well as its use and operation.
The principal parts of the pistol are the receiver, the barrel and
the slide.
To Dismount and Assemble the Pistol:—Press the magazine
catch and remove the magazine. Press the plug inward, turn the
barrel bushing to the right and by easing off on the spring let the plug
and spring protrude gradually. Draw the slide to the rear until the
small recess is opposite the thumb piece of the slide stop. Press
gently against the end of the pin of the slide stop on the opposite
side and remove the slide stop. This releases the link and allows the
barrel and the slide with all its parts to be slid forward off the guide
rails of the receiver.
To Disassemble the Slide:—Remove the plug by turning it to the
left and withdraw the recoil spring with its guide from the rear; or
remove the recoil spring guide and withdraw the coil spring with its
plug from the front. Turn the barrel bushing to the left and withdraw it
forward from the slide. The barrel may now be withdrawn from the
slide. To remove the firing pin, press the rear end of the pin forward
until it clears the firing pin stop. Then withdraw the stop downward
from its seat, whereupon the firing pin, the firing pin spring, and the
extractor are removed by withdrawing them to the rear.
For ordinary cleaning, no further dismounting will be found
necessary and no disassembling of the receiver should be permitted
except by permission of an officer. When the interior of the pistol has
been exposed to water, or when it is desired to make repairs, the
receiver may be completely dismounted as follows:
Cock the hammer, move the safety lock to a position half way
between its upper and lower position. Press the end of the safety
lock pin on the opposite side and withdraw the safety lock. Now
lower the hammer by pressing the trigger. Push out the hammer pin
and take out the hammer and strut. Next push out the housing pin.
This may require a little extra pressure. It is the only pin pushed out
by pressure from the left side of the receiver. The main-spring
housing may then be withdrawn downward and the grip safety
withdrawn to the rear. This exposes the sear spring, which is easily
removed. By pushing out the sear pin, the sear and the disconnector
are released.
The main-spring housing is disassembled by compressing the
main spring, pushing out the small main-spring cap pin, whereupon
the main-spring cap, the main spring and the housing pin retainer will
come out. The main spring may be easily compressed by using the
pin of the slide stop.
THE AUTOMATIC PISTOL, CALIBER 45, MODEL 1911.
RECEIVER, BARREL AND SLIDE.
 To remove the magazine catch, press the button inward. By
means of a small screw driver or the short leaf of the sear spring,
give the screw head of the magazine catch lock a quarter turn to the
left and remove the magazine catch. The trigger can then be
withdrawn to the rear.
The hammer strut, a small nail or the long arm of the screw driver
may be used to push out all pins except the main spring cap pin and
the ejector pin. To remove these a tack or pin may be found
necessary.
To assemble the pistol proceed in the reverse order, except that
the main spring housing should be left to project about one-eighth
inch. Do not push the main-spring housing home and insert the
housing pin until after the safety lock is replaced and the hammer
lowered.
The Operation of the Pistol.—The act of drawing back the slide
in loading cocks the hammer, compresses the recoil spring,
permitting the magazine follower to raise the upper cartridge into the
path of the slide. Upon releasing the slide, the recoil spring forces
the slide forward, carrying the first cartridge into the chamber of the
barrel. As the slide approaches its forward position, it encounters the
rear end of the barrel, forcing the latter forward. Since the front of the
barrel pivots in the barrel bushing and the rear end is free to swing
upward on the link, the rear end of the barrel is raised, causing the
locking ribs on the outside of the barrel and the inside of the slide to
engage, thus positively locking the barrel and the slide together. The
joint forward movement of the barrel and the slide (about three-
eights of an inch) is stopped when the barrel lug encounters the pin
of the slide stop.
The pistol is then ready for firing. When the hammer is cocked, the
hammer strut moves downward, compressing the main spring. The
sear, under the action of the long leaf of the sear spring, engages its
nose in the notch of the hammer. Upon pulling the trigger and
pressing on the grip safety, the sear is moved, thus releasing the
hammer. The latter then strikes the firing pin which transmits the
blow to the primer of the cartridge. The explosion of the cartridge