Chap: 3

Swelling Properties
Swelling:

When a fibre absorbs water, they change in dimension (length, width). Swelling is occurred in
transversely (widthwise) and axially (lengthwise). It may be expressed in terms of the increase in
diameter, area, length or volume.

Types of swelling/ change in fibre dimension:

The swelling may be expressed in terms of the increased in dia, area, length or volume.

I) Transverse diameter swelling:

Factional increase in diameter of fibre is transverse diameter swelling. It is expressed by,

D
SD =
D

Where,

D = Original dia of fibre

D = Swelling of fibre

II) Transverse area swelling:

Fractional increase in area of the fibre is transverse area swelling. It is expressed
by,

A
SA =
A

Where, A = Original area of fibre.

A = Increased swollen area of fibre.

III) Axial swelling:

Fractional increase in length of fibre is axial swelling. It is expressed by,

L
SL =
L
Where, L = Original length of fibre

L = increased length of fibre

IV) Volume swelling:

 Fractional increase in volume of fibre is volume swelling. It is expressed by,

V
SV =
V

Where, V = Original volume of fibre

V = increased volume of fibre

All are expressed by percentage.

Swelling phenomenon in fibres:

In a highly oriented fibre, the molecular chains are lying parallel to the fibre axis. As a result fibre has a
low molecular space between the chains and swelling will be lower.

So, Orientation swelling due to lower molecular space

and Amorphous region swelling

When the fibres are immersed into water, the water molecules enter into the molecular space of fibre and
pushed the fibre chain and these will be considerable increase in diameter but very little increase in
length.

Typical value of swelling of swelling% of different fibres:

Fibre Area swell% Diameter Axial swelling Volume

Cotton 40 20 0.1 —

Jute 40 20 — —

Viscose 67 35 3.7 119

Wool 25 14.8 — 37

Silk 19 16.5 16 30
Water proof fabric by swelling phenomenon:

When fibres absorb water, this have technical consequences in the dimensional stability of fabrics, the
predominant traverse swelling usually resulting in a shrinkage of twisted or interlaced structures. The
pores of closely woven fabrics will be completely blocked when the fibres are swollen and they may be
impermeable to water.

Viscose swelling is greater than Nylon swelling:

Nylon is more oriented than viscose. In Nylon, the molecules are lying parallel to the fibre axis. So Nylon
has a low molecular space between the chains and in viscose high molecular space. In when the fibres are
immersed in water, the water molecules can easily penetrate in molecular space of viscose than Nylon and
in Nylon show resistance to penetrate water.

Relation between SV, SL & SA:

We know,

A
Transverse area swelling, SA =
A

L
Transverse axial swelling, SL =
L

V
Volume swelling, SV =
V

If the fibre is uniform along its length, we have original volume of fibre, V = Al where, L is the
original length and A is the original area of the fibre.

After swelling, the swollen volume of fibre,

V + ∆V = (A + ∆A). (L + ∆L)

Now we get from the definition,

V V + V −V
SV = =
V V

( A + A).(L + L) − AL
=
AL

AL + AL + AL + AL − AL

=
AL
 AL AL AL AL
= + + + −1
AL AL AL AL

A L A L
= + + 
A L A L

= SL + SA + SA. SL

So, SV = SL + SA + SA. SL

Relation between SA & SD:

A
We know, Transverse area swelling, SA =
A
D
Transverse diameter swelling, SD =
D

For circular cross-sectional fibres, we have original area of fibre,

 D 2
A = r =  
2

2

Where D = dia of fibre

Similarly, for the swollen fibre,

Cross-sectional area of the fibre,

A + ∆A =  ( D + D )
2


=
4
( D 2 + 2D.D + D2 )

D2 DD D2

= + +
4 2 4

A
Now we get, SA =
A

A + A - A
=
A
  D2  DD D2  D2
+ + −
= 4 2 4 4
 D2
4
D D2
=1+2 + -1
D D2

= 2 SD + SD2

So, SA = 2 SD + SD2

Measurement of volume swelling:

If we consider a specimen of mass 1 gm when dry,

1
We get, Volume, V =
0

1+ m
And Swelling volume, V + ∆V =
s

Where, O = Density of the specimen when dry

S = Density of the specimen when swollen

m = Mass of water absorbed

and r = Regain%

r
1+
So, V + ∆V = 100
s

V (V + V) - V
Hence, SV = =
V V
r
1+
100
s
= -1
1
o
 r
1+
= 100  o −1
s

o  r 
= 1+ −1
s  100 
Thus volume of swelling may be measured from the value of ρo, ρs and r.

Measurement of Transverse swelling:

As fibres have such a small diameter, measurements of changes in it are not easy to make. Microscope is
used to determine the diameter of a fibre. But may be and error of 25%. If a fibre of 20 mm diameter is
examined, it will be possible distinguish detail down to one fortieth of the fibre diameter. If diameter fibre
swelling is 10%, it will be swelling to measure this to an accuracy of only 0.5 in 2.

Microscopic methods are used either for examining the fibre profile and measuring the apparent diameter
of for examining sections and measuring diameter of the area of cross-section.

Diameter swelling is not a sound way of expressing the transverse swelling with an irregular cross-
section.

Effect/ Importance of Swelling:

1. Improve the absorption of dyes and chemicals.

2. Increase the dimensional stability of the fabric.
3. Due to swelling, the pores of closely interlaced woven fabric will be completely blocked and
they may produce water proof fabric.
4. Improve fastness of dyed mtls.
5. Elastic properties changed.
Swelling recovery:

When a fibre is wetted, it usually extends owning to swelling but welling recovery may cause a net
contraction. Viscose rayon shows almost complete recovery in water, as does silk in steam, but acetate
shows only partial recovery.

Swelling recovery may be useful as a reason of restoring the original fibre properties.
Relation between swelling and relative humidity

Fig: Swelling of fibres between dryness and saturation

a = Cotton (SA) swelling is absorption and desorption

b = Wool (SD) diameter

c = Nylon (SA) area swelling

d = Nylon (SD) diameter swelling

e = Cotton (SL) length swelling.

 Chap: 4
Optical Properties
Birefringence:

When a beam of light falling on a textile fibre, it splits up into two refracted beam, one polarized parallel
to the fibre axis and the other polarized perpendicular to fibre axis.

In general, an anisotropic mtl will have three principal refractive indices, but fibres are usually axially
symmetrical so that the refractive indices perpendiculars to the fibre axis are all the same. The difference
between the refractive index for light polarized parallel to the fibre axis and light polarized perpendicular
to the fibre axis is called Birefringence of that fibre. Let n|| and n┴ are the refractive index for light
polarized parallel and perpendicular to the fibre
axis respectively.

So, Birefringence value = n|| - n┴

The birefringence of a fibre is due to the

orientation of the crystal axis in the crystalline
regions and of the individual molecules in the non-
crystalline regions.

Greater the value of birefringence indicate the

most of molecules are lined up parallel to the fibre
axis & it will be zero if they are randomly
directed.

Refractive Index:

The velocity with which light is transmitted varies with the medium through which it is passing.
Refractive index ‘n’ is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in
the mtl.

Alternative definition is,

sine of angle of incidence

Refractive index, n =
sine of angle of refraction

The refractive index of a mtl varies with the temp and with the wave length of the light being transmitted.

Birefringence property depends on following factor:

1. The degree of orientation.

2. The degree of asymmetry of molecular chain.
 Highly oriented fibres will have high Birefringence value. Ideally oriented fibres have different
birefringence value.

The magnitude of birefringence which ranges from 0.005 for Triacetate to 0.188 for Terylene.

If all the atoms in a molecule are arranged in a straight chain as fig. (a) the bond polarizabilities are
greatest along the line joining the atoms, and then will be get high birefringence value. However the
actual molecules in fibres do not have this form and their birefringence will be reduced for two reasons.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig: (a) Straight chain, (b) Zigzag chain & (c) Chain with sidegroup

Firstly, most main chains have a zigzag form as in fig (b) provided that the bonds diverge from the main
axis by less than about 55˚; this will still gives a positive birefringence value. The coiling of the keratin
molecule will have a similar effect in wool.

Secondly there will be side groups attacked to the main chain as in fig(c), and these will have the effect of
providing atomic bonds at right angles to the main axis. In this case, n┴ value is higher than n|| value and
reduces the Birefringence value. In acrylic fibre, side groups have a greater effect than the main chain and
the Birefringence value will be negative.

Optical orientation factor:

Birefringence depends on the relation between the direction of polarization of light and the direction of
alignment of the molecular chain. Birefringence value will be greatest when the molecules are all lined up
parallel to the fibre axis. Hermans has defined an optical orientation factor, f, as t6he ratio of the
birefringence of the fibre to that of an ideal fibre in which the molecules are perfectly oriented parallel to
the fibre axis.
3
11 −⊥ = 1− Sin2 ................. ( i )
f = 
 −  2
11 ⊥

Where, n||́ and n┴́ refer to the ideally oriented fibre an imaginary fibre in which all the molecules are
arranged at the same angle and which has the same B.F. as the actual fibre.

In the ideally oriented fibre, f = 1 and Ф = 0

In an isotropic fibre, f = 0 and Ф = 55 ˚

 Where there is no B.F.

Measurement of Refractive Indices:

There are various methods for measuring the refractive index of textile fibres.

I) The Becke line method (Heyn).

II) Wavelength varying technique.
III) Fibre refractometer (Rapid).
IV) Interference technique (Faust).
I) The Becke line method:

In this method, the fibre is immersed in a liquid and compared the refractive index. If the index is same,
then its boundary ceases to be visible. By trial and error with a series of liquid mixtures of varying
composition, the observation of this effect may be used as a mean of measuring the refractive index of
fibre. It is necessary to use polarized light so that only one ref4active index is concerned; it gives the
refractive index of the surface layer of the fibre.

If the refractive index of the fibre is different, a bright line can be seen at the boundary between them.
When the objective of the microscope is raised the line moves towards the medium of higher refractive
index.

IV) Interference technique:

In this technique both double beam and multiple – beam interference technique used.

In double beam fig (a) method the light is split into two beams, one of which passes through the
specimen, while the other by passes it. The two are then combined and give an interference pattern.

(b) Multiple-beam Inter ferometry.

(a) Schematic representation of

Double-beam Inter ferometry.

In multiple beam method fig (b), the specimen is placed between two partly silvered mirrors. A series of
beams, which have passed through the specimen for a differing number of times, depending on the
number of reflections are transmitted by the system and combine to give the interference pattern.
Measurement of Birefringence:

The Birefringence of a fibre can be measured directly by determining the retardation or difference in
optical path length. Since the optical path length equals the product of the refractive index and the
thickness of the specimen through which the light passes.

So, Optical path retardation = ( N +  N )

= (11 −⊥ )t ................ ( i )

Where, (N + δ N) = Total number of wave length.

λ = Wave length.

t = Thickness.

So, from the equation (i),

Optical path retardation = Birefringence x Thickness

( N +  N )
Birefringence =
t

Where, n|| = Refractive index for light polarized parallel to the fibre axis.

⊥ = Refractive index for light polarized

Perpendicular to the fibre axis.

Relation among Refractive index, Density & Swelling:

Refractive Indices of a material is determined by an appropriate summation of the polarizabilities of the

bonds present in each of its molecules. So R.I. will increase if no of molecules i.e. density increases.

By Gladstone and Dale’s law,

(n −1) = Cons tan t



Where, ρ = density of the mtl

n = R.I. of the mtl.

1
 V (n-1) = constant; [where = V; m = 1]

A similar relation applies to mixtures.

If Vm and nm are the volume and R.I. respectively of a mixture and V1, V2, V3,… .......... and n1, n2,
n3,… ................. Are the corresponding quantities for the individual components, the relation is,

Vm (nm – 1) = V1 (n1 – 1) + V2 (n2 – 1) + V3 (n3 – 1) +…………..

For the two components cellulose and water with the refractive index of water taken 1.33333.

So, Vr (nr – 1) = Vo (no – 1) + 0.3333r

Where, Vo is the volume of 1 gm of dry cellulose

Vr is the volume of the specimen at a fractional regain r.

and no and nr are the R.I. of the dry and swollen cellulose.

This equation applies to both the Refractive Indexes n|| and n┴.

The equation is,

Vr (n11 − n⊥ ) r = V0 (n11 − n⊥ )

Dichroism:

The variation in the absorption of radiation by a coloured fibre (by dyeing) with the direction of
polarization of the light is called Dichroism which may result in the differences in the depth of shade or
even in the actual colour.

We get,

k11
Dichroic or Dichroitic ratio or constant, Ф =
k⊥

Where, k|| = Absorption coefficient for light polarized parallel

to the fibre axis.

k ⊥ = Absorption coefficient for light polarized

pserpendicular to the fibre axis.

Requirements of Dichroism:

1. The dye molecule must be asymmetrical so that its absorption of radiation varies with the
direction of the electric field exciting the characteristics vibration.
2. The dye molecule must be absorbed on to the fibre molecule in a particular direction so that
all the dye molecules make the same angle (or a limited range of angles) with the axis of the
chain molecules.
3. The chain molecules must be preferentially oriented.
Cross fibre absorb more radiation than parallel fibre:

When light passes through the two Dichroic fibres, there is a greater total absorption if they are crossed
than there is if they are parallel.

The reason is fairly obvious:-

If the fibres are crossed, the first fibre absorbs a large part of one component and the second fibre absorbs
a large part of the perpendicular component. But if the fibres are parallel, the same component is
transmitted through both little absorption.

Dichroic constant for direct dyes on cellulose:

Fibre Dichroic constant

Ramie 9

Viscose rayon 1.4 – 2.3

Cellophane 1.5

Reflection & Luster:

Luster is an important aesthetic property of textile fibre or fabric. If a beam of light falls on a surface, it
may be reflected spectacularly along
 Combination of specular
Specular reflexion Diffuse reflexion
& diffusion reflexion

the angle of reflection as fig (a); diffusely in varying intensity over a hemi-sphere as in fig (b) or in a
combination of both as in fig(c).

The reflection may vary with the angle of incidence and with the colour and polarization of light. The
total visual appearance resulting from these reflections determines the Luster of the mtl.

Luster depends on:

1. Incident angle of light:

If the light falls across the fibre or along the fibre.

If a fibre behaved as a perfect reflecting circular cylinder, it would reflect light as like fig (a) and fig (b).

It is clear that if the light falls across the fibre, it is reflected at various angles. Where as if it falls along
the fibres, here it reflect at constant angle.

i r i=r

Reflexion of light
Axis in incident plane
Axis normal to incident plane

2. Fineness of fibre:
The fibre the fibres incorporated in a fabric, the greater is the number of individual reflecting surfaces per
unit area of the fabric. Therefore, fibre fineness affects the Luster for the same types of smoothness and
regularity, the coarser fibres will have more Luster than fiber one.

3. Irregularity of the fibre surface:

Irregularity on the surface of the fibre and in its cross-sectional shape will cause light to be reflected in
various directions and will reduce the Luster. It is essential that fibre should be uniform along its length.
For this reason, Luster is greatest in regular filaments, such those of silk and the M.M.F.

4. Fibre shape:
Fibre shape is an important factor for Luster. The particular types of Luster associated with nylon, rayon
and silk must be vary due to (the influence on) the pattern of light reflection of their respective circular,
serrated and triangular shape.
 Circular → More lusture → → Nylon

Serrated → Dull lusture →

Tirangular → Less lusture → → Rayon

5. Presentation of small particles on fibre like TiO2 or Minimize the Luster of M.M.F:
When a beam of light falls on the falls on the fibre, it is not only reflected but also transmitted. Some of
this transmitted light will reflect from the internal surfaces as fig (a).

If the fibre contains small particles e.g. TiO2 or Cavities as fig (b), these will scatter the transmitted light
at varying angles and cause it to emerge as particularly diffuse reflection.

TiO2 is used as de - Lusterants in MMF to reduce its Luster.

(b)
(a) Scattering of transmitted light
Internal reflexion in delustred fibre

6. Maturity of fibre:
If the maturity is high then the reflection will be high and with these the Luster will also be high.

Maturity Reflection Luster

Immature fibre Mature fibre