Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

The velocity of a wave can be defined in many different ways,

partly because there are different kinds of waves, and partly
because we can focus on different aspects or components of any
given wave.

The wave function depends on both time, t, and position, x, i.e.:

A = A(x,t) ,
where A is the amplitude.

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 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

At any fixed location on the x axis the function varies sinusoidally

with time.

The angular frequency, , of a wave is the number of radians (or

cycles) per unit of time at a fixed position.
 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

Similarly, at any fixed instant of time, the function varies

sinusoidally along the horizontal axis.

The wave number, k, of a wave is the number of radians (or

cycles) per unit of distance at a fixed time.
 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

A pure traveling wave is a function of w and k as follows:

A(t, x) = A0 sin(ωt − kx) ,

where A0 is the maximum amplitude.

A wave packet is formed from the superposition of several such

waves,€with different A, , and k:

A(t, x) = ∑ An sin(ω n t − k n x) .
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 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

Here is the result of superposing two such waves with

A1 = A0
and
k1 = 1.2k 0 (or ω1 = 1.2ω 0 ) :

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 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

Note that the envelope of the wave packet (dashed line) is also a
wave.
 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet
Here is the result of superposing
two sine waves whose
amplitudes, velocities and
propagation directions are the
same, but their frequencies differ
slightly. We can write:
A(t) = Asin(ω1t) + A sin(ω 2 t) =
⎛⎛ω1 − ω 2 ⎞ ⎞ ⎛⎛ω1 + ω 2 ⎞ ⎞
2Acos⎜⎜ ⎟t ⎟sin⎜⎜ ⎟t ⎟ .
⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠ ⎝⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎠
While the frequency of the sine Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell,
Kettering University
term is that of the phase, the
frequency of the cosine term is
that of the “envelope”, i.e. the
group velocity.
 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

The speed at which a given phase propagates does not coincide

with the speed of the envelope.

Note that the phase velocity is

greater than the group velocity.
 Waves: Phase and group velocities of a wave packet

The group velocity is the velocity with which the envelope of the
wave packet, propagates through space.

The phase velocity is the velocity at which the phase of any one
frequency component of the wave will propagate. You could pick
one particular phase of the wave (for example the crest) and it
would appear to travel at the phase velocity.

Question: Is the P-wave speed a phase or a group velocity?

 Waves: Dispersive waves

A wave packet is said to be dispersive if different frequencies

travel at different speeds.

Surface waves are dispersive!

 Waves: Dispersive waves

Calculated dispersion curves for Love and Rayleigh waves (from

Shearer's text book):
 Waves: Dispersive waves

Question: Why do the longer periods travel faster than shorter

periods?

Reply: Surface waves are dispersive because waves with longer

wavelengths (lower frequency)are traveling deeper than short
wavelengths (higher frequency). Since in general, seismic speed
increases with depth, longer wavelengths travel faster than shorter
wavelengths.
 Waves: Fersnel zone

The Fresnel zone is a circular region surrounding the ray path with
a diameter A-A'.

Figure from www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com

Subsurface features whose dimensions are smaller than the

Fresnel zone cannot be detected by seismic waves.
 Waves: Fersnel zone
Consider a direct wave traveling in a straight line from the source,
S, to the receiver, R. Other waves that travel slightly off the direct
path may still arrive to the same receiver if they bump into
“something”.

S
R

If they are out of phase with the direct wave they will have wave
canceling effect.
 Waves: Fersnel zone

Each Fresnel zone is an ellipsoidal shape as shown below. In

zone 1 the signal will be 0 to 90 degrees out of phase in zone 2,
90 to 270 degrees in zone 3, 270 to 450 degrees and so on.

S R
 Refraction: reminder on a horizontal interface
The refracted wave traveling along the interface between the
upper and the lower layer is a special case of Snell's law, for
which the refraction angle equals 900. We can write:

sinic sin90 V0
= ⇒ sinic = ,
V0 V1 V1
where ic is the critical angle. The refracted ray that is returned to
the surface is a head wave.
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The travel time of the refracted wave is:
2 2
2h0 X − 2h0 tanic 2h 0 V 1 − V0 X
t= + = + .
V0 cosic V1 V0V1 V1
So this is an equation of a straight line whose slope is equal to
1/V1, and the intercept is a function of the layer thickness and the
 Refraction: reminder on a horizontal interface

Refracted waves start arriving after a critical distance Xcrit, but they
overtake the direct waves at a crossover distance Xco.

The critical distance is:

X crit = 2h0 tanic .
The crossover distance is:
2 2
X co X co 2h0 V − V 1 0
= + ⇒
V0 V1 V1V0
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V1 + V0
X co = 2h0 .
V1 − V0
 Refraction: an inclined interface

For the down-dip we get:

2zd V02 x
td = 1− 2 + sin(ic + α ) .
V0 V1 V0

The apparent head velocity in

the down-dip direction is thus:
V0
Vd = .
sin(ic + α )
Similarly, for the up-dip we get:
2zu V02 x
t =
€ u V 1− 2
+ sin(ic − α ) ,
0 V1 V0

and the apparent head velocity

in the up-dip direction is:
V0
Vu = .
sin(ic − α )
 Refraction: an inclined interface

V0, Vu and Vd are inferred

directly from the travel time
curve.

To solve for V1 and  we write:

1 ⎛ −1 V0 −1 V0
⎞
ic = ⎜sin + sin ⎟
2⎝ Vd Vu ⎠
and:
1 ⎛ −1 V0 −1 V0
⎞
α = ⎜sin − sin ⎟ .
2⎝ Vd Vu ⎠