FLUID DYNAMICS AND TURBOMACHINES

WEEK 4 : Solutions to the Additional Practice Problems

1. Illustrates flow behaviour of common fluids

The accepted transition Reynolds number for flow in a circular pipe is Red,crit ≈ 2300. Consider
a flow through a 5 cm diameter pipe. At what velocities will the transition occur at 20°C for
i. Air with  = 1.2 kg/m3 and μ = 1.8 x 10-5 N.s/m2
ii. Water with  = 1000 kg/m3 and μ = 0.001 N.s/m2
iii. Glycerol with  = 1120 kg/m3 and μ = 1.42 N.s/m2
iv. Lubricating Oil with  = 850 kg/m3 and μ = 0.2 N.s/m2

a. i. 0.7 m/s, ii. 0.046 m/s, iii. 58 m/s, iv. 10.8 m/s
b. i. 0.7 m/s, ii. 10.8 m/s, iii. 58 m/s, iv. 0.046 m/s
c. i. 58 m/s, ii. 0.046 m/s, iii. 0.7 m/s, iv. 10.8 m/s
d. i. 0.7 m/s, ii. 0.046 m/s, iii. 10.8 m/s, iv. 58 m/s
SOLUTION – a

GIVEN
Different fluids flowing through a 5 cm diameter pipe.

FIND
The velocity for which laminar to turbulent transition occurs.

SOLUTION
For circular pipe flow, Reynolds number is defined on the diameter scale.

The critical Reynolds number is usually taken as Red,crit ≈ 2300

The velocity for this transition is given by

,
=
i. For air
 = 1.2 kg/m3 and μ = 1.8 x 10-5 N.s/m2
2300 × 1.8 × 10
= = 0.69 /
1.2 × 0.05
ii. For water
 = 1000 kg/m3 and μ = 0.001 N.s/m2
2300 × 0.001
= = 0.046 /
1000 × 0.05
iii. For glycerol
 = 1120 kg/m3 and μ = 1.42 N.s/m2
2300 × 1.42
= = 58.32 /
1120 × 0.05
iv. For lubricating oil
 = 850 kg/m3 and μ = 0.2 N.s/m2
2300 × 0.2
= = 10.8 /
850 × 0.05

DISCUSSION
For the air and water, the critical velocity is very low, so most engineering flows are turbulent and
not laminar. We might expect laminar duct flows with more viscous fluids such as glycerol and
Lubricating oil.

2. Illustrates estimation of boundary layer thickness

A long thin flat plate is placed parallel to a 6 m/s stream of water ( = 1000 kg/m3 and μ =
0.001 N.s/m2). At what distance x from the leading edge will the boundary layer thickness be 25
mm.

U = 6 m/s
δ = 25 mm BOUNDARY
LAYER

x
 Use the following relations for boundary layer thickness, δ
5.5
= . , ( < 10 )

0.37
= . , ( > 10 )

a. 1.0 m
b. 1.2 m
c. 1.7 m
d. 2.0 m
SOLUTION – c
GIVEN
Free stream velocity, U = 6m/s
Fluid is water with  = 1000 kg/m3 and μ = 0.001 N.s/m2
FIND
Distance x from the leading edge where δ = 25 mm.
SOLUTION
Since the distance x is unknown, we cannot find the Reynolds No and determine whether
boundary layer is laminar or turbulent.

Let us assume BL to be laminar

5.5 5.5
= . = .

0.025 × 1000 × 6
= = = 124
5.5 5.5 × 0.001

Rechecking the Reynolds No

1000 × 6 × 124
= = = 7.44 × 10
0.001

So our assumption is wrong. ( > 10 )

Let us repeat the calculation for turbulent BL
0.37 0.37
= . = .

.
.
=
0.37
. . . .
0.025 1000 × 6
= = = 1.7
0.37 0.37 0.001

Rechecking the Reynolds No

1000 × 6 × 1.7
= = = 10 × 10
0.001

3. Illustrates high Reynolds number drag and a simple method to measure drag coefficient
The smooth sphere shown in figure has weight W and hangs from a hook by a rigid and
weightless wire of length L. A wind of velocity V∞ blows over the sphere. Develop an
expression relating the drag coefficient CD of the sphere, the velocity V∞, and the angle θ. The
air density is ρ and the sphere diameter is D.

V∞

W
 String
Tension

Drag

W
Free Body Diagram

a. =

b. =

c. =

d. =

SOLUTION – b

GIVEN
Sphere of weight W
Sphere diameter is D
Drag coefficient CD
Length of string L
Velocity of flow V∞
Air density ρ
Inclination angle of string θ

FIND
Expression for the drag coefficient CD
SOLUTION
Consider the free body diagram of sphere, we will have drag force acting along the direction of
flow (horizontal), weight in the direction of gravity (vertically downward) and string tension
along the string (upward at an angle of θ with vertical).

Free Body Diagram

String
Tension, T θ

Drag, D

Weight, W

Since the sphere is static, all the forces must balance.

Balancing vertical forces gives
W = Tcosθ Or T = W/cosθ
Balancing horizontal forces gives
Drag = Tsinθ
Substituting for T will give , Drag = Wxsinθ/cosθ = W tanθ
Drag = ½ CD ρ V∞2S
where S is the frontal projected surface area, S = πD2/4
Drag = ½ CD ρ V∞2 (πD2/4) = ⅛ CD ρ V∞2πD2
⅛ CD ρ V∞2πD2 = W tanθ

DISCUSSION
The drag coefficient is not constant for an object, it depends on the flow velocity and the
behavior is not very predictable. So experiments are conducted to determine CD of aerodynamic
objects at various flow velocities.
4. Illustrates road vehicle aerodynamics
A semitrailer with frontal area 6.2 m2, is fitted with an air deflector as shown in figure and the
drag coefficient is reduced from 0.96 to 0.76. What is the percentage saving in power required
to propel the vehicle at 10 m/s? Take density of air as 1.2 kg/m3.
a. 5%

Air Deflector

b. 16 %
c. 21 %
d. 35 %

SOLUTION – c
GIVEN
Semitrailer with frontal area, S = 6.2 m2
Vehicle velocity, = 10 m/s

FIND
Power saved by streamlining the vehicle with an air deflector

SOLUTION

Drag =

Power required to overcome drag, =

i. CD1 = 0.96
1 1
= = = × 1.2 × 0.96 × 10 × 6.2 = 3571
2 2
ii. CD2 = 0.76
1 1
= = = × 1.2 × 0.76 × 10 × 6.2 = 2827
2 2

Percentage saving = × 100 = × 100 = 20.8%

DISCUSSION
Since road vehicles operate at high Reynolds number (a typical passenger car traveling at 50
km/h has a Reynolds number of about 107, based on length) and are rather blunt bodies, most of
the drag on them is form drag. The primary method of reducing form drag is streamlining and
reduce frontal area. Olden automobiles had higher profile (large frontal area) and boxy shapes
that produced drag coefficient of about 0.9 – 1.0. Modern automobiles have a much more
streamlined shape with low profile and have drag coefficient of about 0.45 – 0.65.

5. Illustrates developing flow

A wind tunnel has a 3.0 m diameter, a 4.0 m long test section, and a flow rate of 300 m3/s, as
shown in figure. Estimate the size (diameter) of the inviscid core at the end of the test section.

δ BOUNDARY
LAYER

INVISCID
Q D d inviscid core
CORE

δ
4m
x

The entrance length or the development length, Le can be given by

≈ 0.06 , ( < 2300)

⁄
≈ 4.4 ( ) , ( > 2300)
Use the correlations given below for the boundary layer formed over a flat plate [external flow]
for your calculations. For laminar boundary layer take δl ~ x0.5, and for turbulent boundary layer
take δt ~ x0.8. Where δ is boundary layer thickness and x is axial distance from leading edge. {
NOTE : Since the internal flow will have pressure gradient, strictly speaking the above
correlation is not applicable }.
Use kinematic viscosity of air, ν = 1.5x10-5 m2/s.
HINT : δ at Le is D/2.
a. d inviscid core = 2.74 m
b. d inviscid core = 2.78 m
c. d inviscid core = 2.86 m
d. d inviscid core = 2.94 m

SOLUTION – c
GIVEN
Wind tunnel having 3 m diameter, and 4 m length test section and 300 m3/s flow rate.
FIND
Size of the inviscid core at the end of test section.
SOLUTION
The diameter dIC of the inviscid core is related to the wind tunnel diameter by, dIC = D - 2
δ, where δ is the boundary layer thickness.
The boundary layer thickness increases along the direction of flow, so the inviscid core
diameter decreases along the direction of flow. The limit of this process is reached when
the boundary layer fills the entire wind tunnel, that is, when the flow becomes fully
developed.

Average velocity, V = = = 42.4 /

×

. ×
Reynolds number, Re = = = 8.5 × 10
. ×

⁄
Since ReD > 2300, we use ≈ 4.4 ( )
⁄ ⁄
= 4.4 ( ) × = 4.4 (8.5 × 10 ) × 3 = 188.5 ≈ 190
The flow would require a length of 190 m to become fully developed. Boundary layer
increases as δt ~ x0.8 from a value of δ = 0 at x = 0 to a value of δ = D/2 at x = 190 m.
 The thickness at 4 m can be estimated as
.
= × = 0.068

The inviscid core diameter dIC = D - 2 δ = 3 – 2x 0.068 = 2.86 m.

DISCUSSION
Wind tunnel test sections are kept short so that a large region of uniform flow (inviscid core)
is available to simulate “free stream” conditions in the atmosphere.

6. Illustrates calculation of viscous losses and the difference between pressure loss and pressure
drop
Find the pressure loss (pLOSS) and pressure difference (p1 – p2) between inlet and outlet for the
conical expansion shown in figure. Water flows at 2 m3/s, Dinlet = 1 m, Doutlet = 2 m, L = 2.75 m
and θ = 30°. Head loss due to skin friction is 0.3 m.
a. pLOSS = 5 kPa , p1 – p2= -31 kPa

2 m3/s L

2
b. pLOSS = 3 kPa , p1 – p2= -20 kPa
c. pLOSS = 1 kPa , p1 – p2= -16 kPa
d. pLOSS = 3 kPa , p1 – p2= -27 kPa

SOLUTION – d
GIVEN
Flow rate, Q = 2 m3/s
Inlet diameter, D1 = 1 m
Outlet diameter D2 = 2 m
Length of pipe, L = 2.75 m and θ = 30°
Head loss due to skin friction, hL = 0.3 m.

FIND
i. The pressure loss (pLOSS) and
ii. pressure difference ( p1 – p2)
between inlet and outlet.
SOLUTION
i. The pressure loss (pLOSS) is the pressure energy dissipated to overcome wall friction. This
depends on viscosity of fluid alone for laminar flow and both viscosity and wall
roughness for turbulent flow. This value is given as 0.3 m.
The pressure loss, pLOSS = hL ρ g = 0.3 x 1000 x 9.81 = 2.943 kPa
ii. To find the pressure difference (p1 – p2) we can use modified Bernoulli’s equation taking
into consideration head loss due to friction.

+ + = + + + ℎ
2 2
2
= = = = 2.5 /
1
4 4
2
= = = = 0.64 /
2
4 4
Then pressure drop, − = ( − )+ ( − )+ ℎ

1
− = 1000 (0.64 − 2.5 ) + 1000 9.81 (−2.75) + 2943
2
− =− .
DISCUSSION
The pressure drop reflects the difference in the average static pressure as would be measured by
two gauges at section 1 and 2. It comprise of the energy dissipated as friction and energy
converted to other forms like pressure to kinetic energy.
The pressure loss is always positive for a real fluid flowing through a fitting, valve, or pipe. This
is true regardless of the orientation of the system.

7. Illustrates energy and pressure lose problem for turbulent flow

A horizontal pipe has an inside diameter of 1.0 m. Water at 20°C ( = 1000 kg/m3 and  = 8 
10-4 Ns/m2) flows through the pipe at the rate of 1.0 m3/s. Find the energy loss (Eloss) and the
pressure drop (p1 – p2) in a 75 m length of the pipe. Assume fully developed flow.
Following correlations can be used for finding Darcy’s friction factor,
64
= , ( < 2300)

.
= 0.182 ( ) , ( > 2300)
Properties of water are : ρ = 1000 kg/m3
μ = 8 x 10-4 Ns/m2
a. Eloss = 0.35 m2/s2, p1 – p2 = 350 Pa
b. Eloss = 0.42 m2/s2, p1 – p2 = 420 Pa
c. Eloss = 0.55 m2/s2, p1 – p2 = 550 Pa
d. Eloss = 0.63 m2/s2, p1 – p2 = 630 Pa

SOLUTION – d
GIVEN
Flow through a horizontal pipe of diameter, d = 1.0 m
Water flow rate, Q = 1.0 m3/s
Length of pipe, L = 75 m
Properties of water are : ρ = 1000 kg/m3
μ = 8 x 10-4 Ns/m2
FIND
i. Energy loss = g hL
ii. Pressure drop, (p1 – p2) = ρ g hL + ρ g (z2 – z1) + 0.5 ρ (V22 – V12)
SOLUTION
Flow velocity, V1 = V2 = Q/A = 4Q/πd2 = 4x1/πx12 = 1.27 m/s
× . ×
Reynolds number, Re = = = 1.6 × 10
×

Since the flow is turbulent,

. .
= 0.182 ( ) = 0.182 × (1.6 × 10 ) = 0.0104
. × × .
Head loss due to friction, h = = × . ×
= 0.064

i. Energy loss = g hL = 9.81x0.064 = 0.63 m2/s2

ii. Pressure drop, (p1 – p2) = ρ g hL + ρ g (z2 – z1) + 0.5 ρ (V22 – V12)
p1 – p2 = 1000x9.81x0.63 + 0 + 0 = 630 Pa

8. Illustrates velocity/flow rate problem for turbulent flow

Water flows steadily down the inclined, ¾ inch diameter pipe shown in figure. Two pressure
gauges 3 m apart indicates identical pressures. Find the volume flow rate. Assume flow is fully
developed. Take Darcy’s friction factor, f = 0.02.
a. 0.45 l/s
b. 0.26 l/s
c. 0.69 l/s
d. 0.82 l/s

SOLUTION – d

GIVEN
Water flow in an inclined pipe of diameter, d = ¾ inch
p1 – p2 = 0

FIND
Volume flow rate, Q
SOLUTION
p1 – p2 = ρ g hL + ρ g (z2 – z1) + 0.5 ρ (V22 – V12)
Since diameter of pipe is constant, V1 = V2

and head loss due to friction, h =

Then we obtain, = ( − )= ×

× × × ×
= or =

9.81 × 3 × sin(30) × 2 × 0.75 × 0.0254

= =3 /
0.02 × 3

= × = (0.75 × 0.0254) × 3 = 0.00082 /

4 4

DISCUSSION
Note that there is no net pressure drop in the direction of flow. This can be explained from either
energy considerations or force considerations.
In terms of energy, the work required to overcome the mechanical energy loss is provided by the
decrease in potential energy. In terms of forces, the gravitational forces exactly balances the
resisting force due to shear stress at the pipe walls.
In this example the static pressure at planes 1 and 2 are equal. It is possible that the pressure
could either increase or decrease from plane 1 to plane 2. If the pressure increases, the resisting
force at the walls is less than the gravitational force. If the pressure decreases, then both static
pressure drop and the gravitational force are needed to overcome the wall resistance.

9. Illustrates pipe sizing for turbulent flow

Find the minimum acceptable pipe size to permit the flow of 10 litre/s of water at 50°C ( =
1000 kg/m3) with maximum pressure drop of 500 Pa per metre of pipe. Assume the pipe is
horizontal. Take friction factor, f = 0.02.

a. 45 mm
b. 65 mm
c. 80 mm
d. 110 mm
SOLUTION – c
GIVEN
flow rate, Q = 10 litre/s
p1 – p2 = 500 Pa/m
FIND
Pipe diameter, d
SOLUTION
Since diameter of pipe is constant, V1 = V2
Then p1 – p2 = ρ g hL + ρ g (z2 – z1) + 0.5 ρ (V22 – V12)
gives
 2
 Q 
fL  
  2
d 
p1  p2 fLV 2  4  8 fLQ 2
hL     2 5
g 2 gd 2 gd  gd
1 1
5
 8  fLQ 2   8  1000  0.02  1 0.012  5
d  2     0.08m
   p1  p 2     2  500 