Lecture Module no.

3
Equilibrium of Structures (Types of Supports and Support Reactions)
Sources:
Structural Analysis Fourth Edition – Kassimali
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www.mathalino.com
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AdU Civil Engineering Faculty

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT INTRODUCTION

The objective of this chapter is to review the basic concept of equilibrium of structures under
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the action of forces and to develop the analysis of reactions exerted by supports on plane
(two-dimensional) structures subjected to coplanar force systems.
 EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when
subjected to a system of forces and couples. If a structure is in equilibrium, then all its
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members and parts are also in equilibrium. In order for a structure to be in equilibrium, all
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the forces and couples (including support reactions) acting on it must balance each other,
and there must neither be a resultant force nor a resultant couple acting on the structure

For a plane structure lying in the x-y plane and subjected to a coplanar system of forces
and couples (see the figure), the necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium can
be expressed as:
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT EQUILIBRIUM OF STRUCTURES
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These three equations are referred to as the equations of equilibrium of plane structures.
The first two of the three equilibrium equations express, respectively, that the algebraic
sums of the x components and y components of all the forces are zero, thereby indicating
that the resultant force acting on the structure is zero. The third equation indicates that the
algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces about any point in the plane of the structure
and the moments of any couples acting on the structure is zero, thereby indicating that the
resultant couple acting on the structure is zero. All the equilibrium equations must be
satisfied simultaneously for the structure to be in equilibrium.
 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES
The forces and couples to which a structure may be subjected can be classified into two types, external
forces and internal forces.
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External Forces

External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure under
consideration. For the purposes of analysis, it is usually convenient to further
classify these forces as applied forces and reaction forces. Applied forces,
usually referred to as loads (e.g., live loads and wind loads), have a tendency
to move the structure and are usually known in the analysis. Reaction forces,
or reactions, are the forces exerted by supports on the structure and have a
tendency to prevent its motion and keep it in equilibrium. The reactions are
usually among the unknowns to be determined by the analysis. The state of
equilibrium or motion of the structure as a whole is governed solely by the
external forces acting on it.
 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES
Internal Forces
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Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or

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portion of the structure by the rest of the structure. These forces

develop within the structure and hold the various portions of it
together. The internal forces always occur in equal but opposite
pairs, because each member or portion exerts back on the rest of
the structure the same forces acting upon it but in opposite
directions, according to Newton’s third law. Because the internal
forces cancel each other, they do not appear in the equations of
equilibrium of the entire structure. The internal forces are also
among the unknowns in the analysis and are determined by applying
the equations of equilibrium to the individual members or portions of
the structure.
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS
Supports are used to attach structures to the ground or other bodies, thereby restricting
their movements under the action of applied loads. The loads tend to move the structures;
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but supports prevent the movements by exerting opposing forces, or reactions, to neutralize
the effects of loads, thereby keeping the structures in equilibrium.
 TYPES OF SUPPORTS

The types of supports commonly

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used for plane structures are

depicted in the figure. These
supports are grouped into three
categories, depending on the
number of reactions (1, 2, or 3) they
exert on the structures. The figure
also gives the types of reactions
that these supports exert, as well
as the number of unknowns that
the various supports introduce in
the analysis.
 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
Roller supports
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are free to rotate and translate along the

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surface upon which the roller rests. The surface can be

horizontal, vertical, or sloped at any angle. The
resulting reaction force is always a single force that is
perpendicular to, and away from, the surface. Roller
supports are commonly located at one end of long
bridges. This allows the bridge structure to expand and
contract with temperature changes. The expansion
forces could fracture the supports at the banks if the
bridge structure was "locked" in place. Roller supports
can also take the form of rubber bearings, rockers, or a
set of gears which are designed to allow a limited
amount of lateral movement.
 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
Pinned Supports
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A pinned support can resist both vertical and horizontal

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forces but not a moment. They will allow the structural member
to rotate, but not to translate in any direction. Many connections
are assumed to be pinned connections even though they might
resist a small amount of moment in reality. It is also true that a
pinned connection could allow rotation in only one direction;
providing resistance to rotation in any other direction. The knee
can be idealized as a connection which allows rotation in only
one direction and provides resistance to lateral movement. The
representation of a pinned support includes both horizontal and
vertical forces.
 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
Fixed Supports
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Fixed supports can resist vertical and horizontal

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forces as well as a moment. Since they restrain both

rotation and translation, they are also known as rigid
supports. This means that a structure only needs one
fixed support in order to be stable. All three equations
of equilibrium can be satisfied. A flagpole set into a
concrete base is a good example of this kind of support.
The representation of fixed supports always includes
two forces (horizontal and vertical) and a moment.
 REACTIONS ON SUPPORTS
Procedure shown in the sample problem can be used to determine the reactions of plane statically
determinate structures subjected to coplanar loads.
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Sample Problem 1:

Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown

Free Body Diagram

Given Problem
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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT REACTIONS ON SUPPORTS
 REACTIONS ON SUPPORTS
Sample Problem 2:
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Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown

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Given Problem Free Body Diagram

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT REACTIONS ON SUPPORTS
 REACTIONS ON SUPPORTS
Sample Problem 3:
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Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown

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Given Problem Free Body Diagram

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT REACTIONS ON SUPPORTS
 Lecture Module no. 3
Concept of Axial, Shear, Torsional, Flexural Rigidity and Stiffness of the
the Structural Members

Prepared By:

AdU Civil Engineering Faculty

 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM
STRESS
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Stress is defined as the strength of a material per unit area or unit strength. It is the force on a member divided by
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area, which carries the force, formerly express in psi, now in N/mm2 or MPa.

where P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The maximum stress in tension or compression
occurs over a section normal to the load.
 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Strain
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Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to the original
length.

where δ is the deformation and L is the original length, thus ε is dimensionless.

 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-

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compression-testing machine. As the axial load is

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gradually increased in increments, the total elongation

over the gauge length is measured at each increment of
the load and this is continued until failure of the
specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-
sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal
stress σ and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of
these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and
the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain
diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for
various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a
medium-carbon structural steel
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM
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Metallic engineering materials are classified as

either ductile or brittle materials. A ductile material is
one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point
of rupture like structural steel and aluminum, whereas
brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the
point of rupture like cast iron and concrete.
 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Key Terminologies
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Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a
straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first
noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional
limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or The constant of proportionality k is
called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young’s Modulus and is equal to the slope of the
stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then
 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Key Terminologies
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Elastic Limit

The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such
that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region
from P to R is called the plastic range.
 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Key Terminologies
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Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile
strength.

Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the
breaking strength.
 STRESS AND STRAIN DIAGRAM

Key Terminologies
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Modulus of Toughness

Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the
entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb
energy without causing it to break.

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the
stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the
figure).
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional to strain and is
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given by
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To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a uniform cross-sectional
area, and the stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation can be
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determined by considering a differential length and applying integration.

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where A = ty, and y and t if variable, must be expressed in terms of x.

For a rod of unit mass ρ suspended vertically from one end, the total
elongation due to its own weight is

where ρ is in kg/m3, L is the length of the rod in mm, M is the total mass of
the rod in kg, A is the cross-sectional area of the rod in mm2, and g = 9.81
m/s2.
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
Sample Problem 1:
A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended
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vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of
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steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 × 103 MN/m2, find the total elongation of the rod.
 AXIAL DEFORMATION
Sample Problem 2:
An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads applied at the positions as shown.
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Compute the total change in length of the bar if E = 10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral
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buckling.
 SHEARING DEFORMATION
Shearing Deformation
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Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change
in length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the Shear
Strain and is expressed as
 SHEARING DEFORMATION
The ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called the modulus of elasticity in
shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.
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The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is

where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.

 SHEARING DEFORMATION
Poission’s Ratio
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When a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there is an increase in length of the bar in the
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direction of the applied load, but there is also a decrease in a lateral dimension
perpendicular to the load. The ratio of the sidewise deformation (or strain) to the
longitudinal deformation (or strain) is called the Poisson's ratio and is denoted by ν. For
most steel, it lies in the range of 0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.

where εx is strain in the x-direction and εy and εz are the strains in the perpendicular
direction. The negative sign indicates a decrease in the transverse dimension when εx is
positive
 TORSION

Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the

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other end by a torque or twisting moment T equivalent to F ×d, which

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is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as shown in the figure.

Such a bar is said to be in torsion.

Torsional Shearing Stress, τ

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional
shearing stress τ at a distance ρ from the center of the shaft is

where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and r is the

outer radius
 TORSION

Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the

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other end by a torque or twisting moment T equivalent to F ×d, which

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is applied perpendicular to the axis of the bar, as shown in the figure.

Such a bar is said to be in torsion.

Torsional Shearing Stress, τ

For a solid or hollow circular shaft subject to a twisting moment T, the torsional
shearing stress τ at a distance ρ from the center of the shaft is

where J is the polar moment of inertia of the section and r is the

outer radius
 TORSION
For solid cylindrical shaft For hollow cylindrical shaft:
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Angle of Twist
The angle θ through which the bar length L will twist is

where T is the torque in N·mm, L is the length of shaft in mm, G is shear modulus in MPa, J is the polar moment
of inertia in mm4, D and d are diameter in mm, and r is the radius in mm.
 TORSION
Sample Problem 1
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A steel shaft 3 ft long that has a diameter of 4 in is subjected to a torque of 15 kip·ft. Determine the maximum shearing
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stress and the angle of twist. Use G = 12 × 106 psi.

 TORSION
Sample Problem 2:
What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist through more than 3° in a 6-m length when
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subjected to a torque of 12 kN·m? What maximum shearing stress is developed? Use G = 83 GPa.
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 FLEXURAL RIGIDITY
Flexural rigidity
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is defined as the force couple required to bend a fixed non-rigid structure in one unit of
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curvature or it can be defined as the resistance offered by a structure while undergoing

bending.
In a beam or rod, flexural rigidity (defined as EI) varies along the length as a function of x
shown in the following equation:
 FLEXURAL RIGIDITY
Flexural rigidity
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is defined as the force couple required to bend a fixed non-rigid structure in one unit of
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curvature or it can be defined as the resistance offered by a structure while undergoing

bending.
In a beam or rod, flexural rigidity (defined as EI) varies along the length as a function of x
shown in the following equation:
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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT BENDING STIFFNESS