Lecture 4 Water Passages Part - II

12/12/2023
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST

BENEFICENT, THE MOST MERCIFUL.
Hydropower Development
Special Topics
(CE-5190)
Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf
Department of Civil Engineering,

U.E.T Peshawar
1
12/12/2023
Hydropower Development Lecture # 4
Lecture # 4
Water Passages
Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 3
Intake structures Lecture # 4
➢ Design Criteria
▪ The hydraulics of intake structures are rather complex,

being three-dimensional and sometimes unsteady and so it
is not easy to discuss their design.
▪ Because the design is highly site-specific, most designers

commission a hydraulic model study to test, verify and
improve their design when possible.
2
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Intake structures Lecture # 4
❖ Design Parameters for intake Structures

➢ Velocity Profile.
▪ The flow through the intakes should be of uniform

velocity profile.
▪ The hydro-turbine is designed to operate with a

“relatively uniform” approach velocity profile.
▪ If the non-uniformities in the velocity profile are too

great, the turbine will not perform as anticipated.
▪ Deviation of the local flow velocity from the mean flow

velocity not greater than approximately ± 5%
Lecture # 4
Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ Velocity distribution should fall
inside of the lines drawn in the
given Figure.
▪ No air-entraining vortices in
the flow.
▪ Cross-flow velocities (CFV)
should be less than 5 % of the
average axial velocity at the
trash rack.
▪ Hydraulic Modelling study for investigating the velocity profile at
the intake and is compared with design criteria for the intake.
▪ If hydraulic modeling not done, the mean cross-flow velocity

should be less than 10% of the mean axial velocity
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Lecture # 4

➢ Head Losses
▪ The head loss through trash racks and intakes is a function
of the velocity head.
▪ The above equation is valid until the flow is fully

developed, which is not possible.
▪ For a converging flow at intakes, the trash rack head loss

should be multiplied by a velocity correction factor of
between 1 and 3 but usually a velocity correction of 2 is
conventionally taken for accelerating flow.
Lecture # 4

➢ Intake Vortices
▪ Free-surface vortices, are developed because of residual
angular momentum in the flow at a closed conduit intake.
▪ Free-surface vortices are a severe problem in large closed

conduit intakes, and must be avoided.
▪ Causes flow reductions, vibrations, structural damage, surging

and a loss of efficiency in turbines.
▪ Design of a turbines need a straight and uniform flow through

Penstock failing which causes the turbine to run beyond (+, -)
the design speed thus causing loss of its efficiency and thus
this free surface vortex replaces the water and reduce the
discharge through intakes.
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Lecture # 4

▪ While designing an intake, the major issue is the
specification of its submergence and its design
parameters to avoid the strong free vortex formation.
▪ An hydraulic model study is usually performed for a

given hydroelectric plant intake to investigate the
presence of vortices.
▪ No definite design guidelines are available to avoid

intake vortices.
▪ Currently Intakes are designed adopting thumb rule

guidelines and model studies if needed.
Lecture # 4

▪ Trash rack
▪ Required to protect the turbine runner from
impinging objects.
▪ The opening of the racks is commonly specified by

the manufacturer, as per the clearance between
gates and runner blades.
▪ Usually spacing varies between 1.5 and 4.
▪ The racks are made up of a number of long vertical

plates, 3 to 4 in parallel to the flow and 0.25 to 0.5 in
thick, perpendicular to the flow.
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Lecture # 4

▪ Trash rack
▪ Generally the submerged trash racks are trouble-

free and no racking required.
▪ For low-head installations, generally not feasible to

submerge the trash racks at greater depths, thus
arranged at the water surface to accommodate
raking.
▪ Usually slanted at 15° to 20° off vertical so that

trash can move to the water surface and can be
racked manually or automatically.
Lecture # 4

▪ The approach velocity to the trash racks should be
less than 3ft/sec when racked manually and 5ft/sec
when racked automatically.
▪ Designed to endure a certain head difference, at

least 6ft, caused by blockage of trash, leaves, or ice.
▪ Few also designed to trap any fish larger than finger

and brushes out of the penstock to turbine system.
▪ The primary spacing criterion is the size of an object,

the turbine will pass without damage.
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Water Passages Lecture # 4
• Water Conducting System

➢ The water passes through the water conducting system
either through closed conduit or an open-channels.
➢ The ideal location for the powerhouse or penstock intake

is not always at the dam structure.
➢ A long channel or a tunnel that is used to convey water

to the power plant, is often called a “power canal”.
Water Conducting System Lecture # 4
➢ 1. Power Canal/Tunnel (Head Race)

❖ For a simple low-head hydropower plant the water can be
conveyed in an open channel directly to the runner.
❖ Power canal for water supply to the turbines will require an

entrance with a trash rack.
Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf 12/12/2023 14

Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T
7
12/12/2023
Lecture # 4
Power Canal/Tunnel
❖ The principal problem to be solved is to provide swirling
and vortex free flow conditions for turbines when the
water approaches the turbine runner.
❖ Power canal can be provided for direct supply to

hydraulic turbines, when the heads do not exceed 6 m.
❖ Tunnels and canals are also used to convey water to

penstocks for turbine installations with higher heads.
❖ For High pressure power canals the entry to penstocks

would be either reinforced concrete lined or steel lined.
Power Canal/Tunnel Lecture # 4
▪ Open channels/ Canals

❖ Appropriate choice for moderate land topography with
gentle slopes.
❖ For very steep and rugged ground, it is uneconomical

to construct canals due to longer alignment, extensive
cross-drainage works and unbalanced cut & fill at a
number of locations.
❖ In such a situation, it is recommended to go for

tunnels or pipes, the one which is the most
economical especially when the topography of the
region presents special formations.
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➢ Design Criteria
❖ The canal cross section should be
such that there would be high ground
on one bank and falling ground on
the other bank (see figure).
❖ Stabilization of the uphill cut-slope is

important to prevent fallout of loose
blocks of stone into the canal.
❖ The extension of the canal should be

such that the bank with low ground
can be enhanced with an artificially
created embankment (see figure).
Canal Design:
The canal design involves the determination of
i) Carrying capacity, velocity of water in the canal &
roughness coefficient of the canal surface.
ii) Canal slopes
iii) Cross-sectional profile of the canal
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i) Carrying Capacity and Velocity:

❖ The discharge is computed from continuity equation as
Q=VA
❖ The roughness coefficient is specified from the bed material
type.
Chezy's equation:
❖ The value of C can be used from .
❖ Manning's Formula
❖ where n is Manning's roughness coefficient
❖ The Chezy's-Manning equation
❖ Kutter’s Formula
❖ The Agroskin’s formula
Flow velocities:
❖ The velocity of flow in the canal or other water

conduits in general are determined according to
economic point of views
❖ The velocity must be high enough to prevent

sedimentation.
❖ The flow velocity should be low in order to prevent bed

erosion for unlined channels and abrasion for lined
canals.
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Maximum Velocities:
Minimum Velocities:
11
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ii) Power Canal Slopes

❖ In plain areas, slope, 5 to 20 cm/km.
❖ In mountainous areas, slopes, 1 to 2 m/km.
❖ The canal bed slope, estimated by the equation:
❖ The slope founded by the equation should coincide with the

available natural topography.
❖ If not, then a different slope should be founded by choosing

other values for the permitted velocity until a satisfactory
result is obtained.
iii) Cross-sectional Profile

The common cross-sections used for canals are
❑ Rectangular: when excavation is undertaken in firm rock and when

the canal incorporates a masonry walls.
conveys the maximum flow but it is impractical to

❑ Semi-circular: excavate.
used for both lined and unlined canals excavated in

❑ Trapezoidal earth and banks of a lined canal resting on any free-
draining material requires slopes not steeper than 1:1.
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Freeboard Allowance:
❖ For earth canal the lower limit is 35 cm and the upper
limit is 140 cm. Generally the free board = [0.35+1/4h] m.
Where h is depth of flow.
❖ Allowances should be made for bank settlements.
❖ For lined canals, the top of the lining is not usually
extended for the full height of the free board.
❖ Usually it is extended to 15cm to 70cm above the design
water level.
Water Loss in Power Canals

Water losses are due to
❖ Seepage
❖ Evaporation
❖ Leakage at gates
3 12/12/2023 25
Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T
▪ Tunnels
➢ Underground conveyance structures constructed by
special tunneling methods without disturbing the natural
surface of the ground.
➢ In modern high head plants, tunnels is an important

engineering feature.
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12/12/2023
➢Popularity of tunneling as water conveyance system

Reasons:
❖ Provides direct & short route for the water passage, thus
reducing the cost
❖ Tunneling work can be started simultaneously at many

points reducing the construction period of the project.
❖ No change in natural land scape is not disturbed.
❖ Construction of Tunnel become easier using new

techniques and sophisticated Machinery.
❖ Confidence to engineers on stability of tunnels.
Categories of Tunnels
Service Water carrying

Tunnels Tunnels
Cable Head race or

tunnels Power
tunnels
Tail race
tunnels
Ventilation
Access or tunnels
approach Diversion
tunnels tunnels.
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12/12/2023
➢ Classification of Tunnels by
Tunnels (nearly horizontal)
❖ Alignment
Shafts (nearly vertical)
Circular
❖ Shape
Non-circular
Aspects of lining
❖ Design aspects.
Pressure condition
➢ Design Aspects of tunnels
Unlined (in good sound rock )

❖ Lining
Partially lined
Low-Head pressure tunnels (H < 10 m)
❖ Pressure condition Medium Head pressure tunnels (10 m < H < 100 m)
High-Head pressure tunnels (H > 100 m)

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12/12/2023
➢ Design Aspects of tunnels

(H < 10 m)
Low Head Tunnels: H
Lining
❖ Sufficient Trimmed rock surface with concrete or

cement mortar or granite layer on sealing with only
visible fissures.
❖ Full lining may be done if external rock load or

aggressiveness of water or reduction in the water
head loss justify it .
Design Aspects of tunnels Lecture # 4
Medium head Tunnels:
Lining
❖ Water tight lining concrete is provided since there

are high changes of seepage under increasing
head.
❖ If the lining has to provide only for water sealing

purposes, that is no load is carried by it, then the
allowed internal water pressure head is computed
by the depth of overburden and the quality of the
rock.
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12/12/2023
Lecture # 4
Design Aspects of tunnels
m = meter
Pressure head of
water in terms of
depth
Lecture # 4
Design Aspects of tunnels
High head Tunnels:
Lining and other Design Aspects
❖ Usually steel lining is used which is embedded in concrete, filling the

annular space b/n the steel lining & the rock.
❖ All voids are filled by grouting with cement mortar to provide proper
contact b/n tunnel material and lining.
❖ The roof of the tunnel should always be at least 1 to 2m below the
hydraulic grade line.
❖ Saddles should be provided for dewatering having summits with
outlets or shafts.
❖ To reduce construction costs, relatively high velocities are permitted
in tunnels.
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12/12/2023
❖ The permissible velocity depends upon the sediment

load carried by the water.
❖ Size of tunnels cannot be reduced arbitrarily.
❖ Requirement is the possible maximum size.
❖ Minimum size of Tunnel: Circular, 1.8 m in dia;
Rectangular, 2m x 1.6m.
❖ General design features are : alignment, geometric
shape, longitudinal slope, flow velocity, head loss,
rock cover ,lining requirements and economic x-
section.
Alignment:
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Points that should be taken in to account for

Alignment :
❖ Length of the tunnel: possible short route should be followed.
❖ Location of surge tanks: the alignment should provide
convenient points for surge tanks.
❖ Rock cover (overburden): availability of sufficient rock cover
along the alignment.
❖ Weak zones: the alignment should not pass through the
weakness zones, joint planes, etc as much as possible
❖ Rock quality: The tunnel should pass through the good quality
of rock mass.
Geometrical Shape:
The choice of the cross-section depends on:
❖ Hydraulic considerations: Circular section
❖ Stability considerations: Circular section
❖ Convenience for construction: Horseshoe section
❖ Availability of Tunneling equipment: If drilling rigs are
available, a horseshoe cross-section has to be adopted.

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Flow Velocity:
❖ In unlined tunnels, flow velocity upto 2 to 2.5 m/s is

permissible .
❖ In concrete lined tunnels 4 to 5 m/s is usually permitted.
❖ For the pressure shafts, steel lined, velocities are

usually higher than that in the power tunnel, ranging
from 5 to 8 m/s.
Longitudinal Slope:
❖ Slope is limited on the basis of dewatering
requirements.
❖ Longitudinal profile of the tunnel needs to be such
that the roof remains below the hydraulic gradient
line by 1 to 2 m.
❖ The slope of power tunnel is usually kept gentle till
the surge tank and then steeper (even vertical) for
the pressure shaft.
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❖ Rock Cover (overburden):
❖ For pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the

overburden on the roof of the tunnel serves to
balance the effect of upward force due to internal
pressure.
❖ The required depth of overburden may vary for lined

and unlined tunnels.
❖ In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internal

water pressure is resisted by the overburden rock
pressure.
❖ Where a steep valley side constitutes the

overburden above the tunnel, the rule of thumb
equation, H=(0.4 to 0.8)hr has to be modified and
given by:
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Where L is the shortest distance between the ground

surface and the studied point of the tunnel (or shaft) and 𝝱
is the average inclination of the valley side with the
horizontal (see figure below).
❖ In the case of concrete or steel lined tunnels, the

linings are usually designed to carry part or full load
of the internal water pressure, and the above
equations, given for unlined tunnels, are modified
accordingly in determining the required overburden
depth. For detail go through book25
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12/12/2023
THE END
23

Lecture 4 Water Passages Part - II

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12/12/2023

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST

Department of Civil Engineering,

Hydropower Development Lecture # 4

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 3

Intake structures Lecture # 4

▪ The hydraulics of intake structures are rather complex,

▪ Because the design is highly site-specific, most designers

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 4

Intake structures Lecture # 4

❖ Design Parameters for intake Structures

▪ The flow through the intakes should be of uniform

▪ The hydro-turbine is designed to operate with a

▪ If the non-uniformities in the velocity profile are too

▪ Deviation of the local flow velocity from the mean flow

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ If hydraulic modeling not done, the mean cross-flow velocity

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ The above equation is valid until the flow is fully

▪ For a converging flow at intakes, the trash rack head loss

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ Free-surface vortices are a severe problem in large closed

▪ Causes flow reductions, vibrations, structural damage, surging

▪ Design of a turbines need a straight and uniform flow through

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ An hydraulic model study is usually performed for a

▪ No definite design guidelines are available to avoid

▪ Currently Intakes are designed adopting thumb rule

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 9

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ The opening of the racks is commonly specified by

▪ Usually spacing varies between 1.5 and 4.

▪ The racks are made up of a number of long vertical

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ Generally the submerged trash racks are trouble-

▪ For low-head installations, generally not feasible to

▪ Usually slanted at 15° to 20° off vertical so that

Design Parameters for intake structures

▪ Designed to endure a certain head difference, at

▪ Few also designed to trap any fish larger than finger

▪ The primary spacing criterion is the size of an object,

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 12

Water Passages Lecture # 4

• Water Conducting System

➢ The ideal location for the powerhouse or penstock intake

➢ A long channel or a tunnel that is used to convey water

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 13

Water Conducting System Lecture # 4

➢ 1. Power Canal/Tunnel (Head Race)

❖ Power canal for water supply to the turbines will require an

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf 12/12/2023 14

❖ Power canal can be provided for direct supply to

❖ Tunnels and canals are also used to convey water to

❖ For High pressure power canals the entry to penstocks

Dr. Ateeq-ur-Rauf Department of Civil Engineering U.E.T 12/12/2023 15

Power Canal/Tunnel Lecture # 4

▪ Open channels/ Canals

❖ For very steep and rugged ground, it is uneconomical

❖ In such a situation, it is recommended to go for

Power Canal/Tunnel Lecture # 4

❖ Stabilization of the uphill cut-slope is

❖ The extension of the canal should be