Professional Documents
Culture Documents
8
Academic in Events in the Faculty of Management at Bournemouth
University and regularly publishes in the areas of tourism, culture,
events and project management. Her most recent research projects
focused on festival management and development. She has also been
a visiting lecturer for the Stenden University of Applied Sciences in
Leeuwarden, the Netherlands, and the Haagaa University of Applied
Sciences in Porvoo, Finland. She holds a PhD in Culture, Media and
Creative Industries from King’s College London, and an MSc in
Marketing and a BA in English, both from the University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine.
Emelie Forsberg
is originally from Sweden. Currently she is an event professional
working and living in London as an Events Executive at the British
Private Equity and Venture Capital Association. She graduated from
Bournemouth University in 2015 with a Distinction in her MSc
Events Management. Her research focused on the experiences of
CrossFit athletes at competitive events.
Rumen Gechev
is a Full Professor in Economics at the University of National
Economy in Sofia, Bulgaria, and Director of its Research Centre on
Sustainable Development. Currently he is a member of the National
Parliament and Vice-Chairman of its Budgetary and Finance
Committee. Rumen is a former Deputy Prime Minister of Bulgaria
(1995–97) and Chairman of the 4th Session of the UN Commission
on Sustainable Development. Dr. Gechev was a visiting/guest
professor at universities in the US, UK, France, Denmark,
Kazakhstan, FRY Macedonia, Cyprus, Greece and Belize.
Alessandro Inversini
is originally from Italy. He is Associate Professor of Marketing at
Henley Business School (University of Reading). Before joining
Henley Business School, Alessandro has been Senior Lecturer and
member of the eTourism Lab at Bournemouth University, Executive
Director of webatelier.net (the research and development eTourism
Lab of Universitá della Svizzera italiana), and Managing Director of
Ticinoinfo SA, the regional competence centre for digital technology
and tourism of Ticino (Switzerland).
Bruce Johnson
is an experienced senior manager, trainer and change agent, with a
track record of success in diverse environments, both blue chip and
public sector, specialising in effective HRM to support performance
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improvement. Servant leadership and effective diversity practices
underpin his approach. His objective is always to help organizations
achieve strategic success by ensuring that all staff can and do succeed
in their jobs. Prior to becoming an independant consultant Bruce held
the roles of Academic Dean and Prinicipal Lecturer at the London
School of Business and Management, and Senior Lecturer in Human
Resource Management at London Metropolitan Business School.
Paul Kitchin
is originally from Tasmania, Australia. He is a lecturer in Sport
Management in the School of Sport at Ulster University. He is also
responsible for employability within the School of Sport, the
coordination of undergraduate and postgraduate placement students
as well as enhancing other aspects of the student experience. Paul is a
graduate of the University of Tasmania and Deakin University in
Australia and completed his PhD at Loughborough University, which
investigated organizational change in disability sport. Paul’s research
is focused at the intersection of sport management and organizational
theory and he has experience in successfully raising funds to support
this endeavour.
Albert Postma
is Professor of Scenario Planning at the European Tourism Futures
Institute, Centre of Expertise of the School of Leisure and Tourism
Management at Stenden University of Applied Sciences in the
Netherlands. His core business is to develop, disseminate and apply
knowledge in strategic foresight, i.e. futures studies and scenario
planning. Strategic foresight offers a fascinating and inspiring
approach for businesses to deal with uncertainty and to develop
innovative strategies, concepts, or business models. He gives lectures
and keynotes at academic and business conferences to share the
findings of the studies he has conducted. Albert is also co-editor of
the Journal of Tourism Futures. He holds an MSc and PhD degree in
Spatial Sciences, awarded by the University of Groningen. His PhD
thesis focused on critical encounters in the development of tourism
through the eyes of residents.
Sacha Reid
is a Senior Lecturer at the Griffith Business School, Griffith
University and a member of the Griffith Institute for Tourism. Prior to
this, Sacha was the founding Director of Research and established the
research capacity of DTZ, a global property advisor firm. She was
instrumental in working with clients to provide strategic decision-
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making to support investment decisions and development advice in
planning for commercial and residential communities in Australia and
New Zealand. Her research interests are in vertical communities and
high-rise living, community development and planning, and the social
consequences of rural tourism and events. This has resulted in a
number of active research projects such as ‘Community rising:
Determinants of “sense of community” in vertical communities in
suburban Brisbane’ and ‘Crime in High Rise Buildings: Planning for
Vertical Community Safety’.
Brent Ritchie
is a Professor in Tourism Management at the UQ Business School.
His research interests are associated with tourism risk management.
His research has focused on understanding risk from an individual
and organizational perspective, and he examines the factors that
influence the formation of risk attitudes and behaviour by using social
and organizational psychology theory and concepts. He has given
over 50 journal papers and is on eight editorial boards including the
Journal of Travel Research. He has secured over $1 million of grant
funding and supervised 15 PhD students to completion.
Stephen Shaw
is originally from London, UK. He has been Emeritus Professor at
London Metropolitan University and Associate of the Stockholm
Environment Institute, University of York since 2015. He has over 25
years’ experience in the field of urban studies. In recent years, his
research has informed the development of more inclusive public
spaces, especially for tourism and events in major cities.
Jo-anne Tull
is originally from Barbados. She has extensive experience lecturing in
the fields of creative industries development, festival management
and cultural entrepreneurship. She has also worked for more than ten
years as a creative industries consultant in the Caribbean, with
particular focus on strategy development and festival impact analysis.
Yi-Fang Wang
is originally from Taiwan. Her background is in the third sector and
she is focused on helping vulnerable populations by combining social
work with event activities. She currently works as a project planner
for a charitable foundation in her native Taiwan. She holds an MSc in
Events Management from Bournemouth University and her research
was focused on the motivations of young Taiwanese people to
participate in road running events.
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Simone Wesner
is a Lecturer in Arts Management and the Programme Director for the
MA Arts Policy and Management in the Department of Film, Media
and Cultural Studies at Birkbeck, University of London. She worked
as curator and cultural producer in her native Germany and Austria
before joining the UK HE sector and she has continued to collaborate
with artists and researchers in Europe and in South East Asia ever
since.
Christian White
is a BA Events and Marketing graduate from Bournemouth
University. He has a diverse employment background and has worked
on a number of B2C events in the motorsport and charity sectors.
During his final year at university, his research investigated the
potential of Twitter as an evaluation tool in the identification of the
social impacts at music festivals.
Nigel Williams
is a Senior Academic in Project Management at Bournemouth
University. Nigel also holds the Project Management Professional
(PMP) qualification from the Project Management Institute. He leads
units at the undergraduate and postgraduate level as well as
supervising PhD students in the area of Project Management. His
research examines project management in a variety of contexts
including NGOs, festivals and mega projects.
Rob Wilson
is a Principal Lecturer in Sport Business Management at Sheffield
Hallam University. He has been involved in the Sport Management
Industry since 1998 and has taught at Sheffield Hallam University
since 2002. His main research interests are in the finance and
economics of sport and leisure and his MPhil was based on the
economics of sport events. Rob is an active researcher with the Sport
Industry Research Centre and has published three books: Finance for
Sport and Leisure Managers: An introduction in 2008, Managing
Sport Finance in 2011 and Sport Management: The basics in 2016;
numerous chapters on finance and financial management in sport and
a number of peer reviewed journal articles. Follow him on Twitter
using the @financeinsport handle.
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Preface
So what does this text offer to these students? Like the first edition, it takes
an explicit international approach to the study of the subject. It seeks to
prepare students for the realities of working in a sector that is becoming
increasingly international. As is the case with businesses in other sectors of
the economy, the increased mobility of workers, the breaking-down of
trading barriers, and developments in information and communications
technologies have meant that many event organizations are now competing
in a global marketplace. The text therefore seeks to highlight key critical
global issues affecting events, with a special emphasis being placed on
international events, and demonstrate that local forces and cultural issues
within event destinations must be addressed if an event is to be successful.
In this second edition of the text we also focus on some of the key drivers
of change within the events industry and explore new theoretical advances
that have occurred in the study of the subject. In lieu of the extended case
studies, we have added four new chapters to the text. Social media and its
impact on event consumption and production is now the focus of one of
the new chapters of the text, as well as a key theme that is developed
throughout. There is also a more deliberate focus on the strategic use of
international events in tourism, which is achieved by introducing a new
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chapter on the subject in the contemporary issues section (Part 3) of the
text, as well as by emphasizing this topic in chapters in previous sections.
This second edition also closes with a chapter seeking to look ahead to the
future of international events management.
Editors
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Companion Website
For Students
Online readings: access to a selection of free SAGE journal articles
providing students with a deeper understanding of the topics covered in
each chapter.
Xerte interactive resources: learning objects for each chapter which can
be used as self-test materials, for in-class interaction or teaching in flipped
lecture mode.
For Lecturers
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Instructor’s manual: a range of teaching materials for each section of the
book including:
Section overviews
Teaching notes
Tasks
Video links
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Part 1 Introducing an International
Approach to Events Management
We are now living in a digital age which has led to a state of hyper-
connectivity, in which individuals, especially the current generation of
young people, described as millennials, are always on and connected to an
endless array of media generated from a 24/7 online community. For both
attendees and event organizers this has created a number of opportunities
and challenges. For individuals this has meant they have more choices than
ever before about events and other happenings that they can attend.
However, it also means that they are being bombarded with more images
of events than would ever be possible for any one person to participate in.
The result has been the creation of feelings of jealously and anxiety about
missing out, especially when individuals can see friends and other people
they know having a great time at events without them in photos and videos
posted on social media websites such as Facebook and Instagram. For
event organizations, this new reality has provided a number of alternative
platforms for them to stay in touch with and also understand the needs of
their customers. At the same time, it means customers have become more
demanding, and thanks to new media platforms such as those provided by
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review sites, hundreds or even thousands of people can be informed of a
single customer’s displeasure with an event or event organization with the
click of a button.
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global migration patterns, social trends and also local population dynamics
are creating opportunities and also challenges for event organizers.
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1 Understanding International Events
Nicole Ferdinand
Stephen J. Shaw
Emelie Forsberg
Learning Objectives
By reading this chapter students should be able to:
Introduction
Events have been a part of human civilizations since ancient times. They
have marked changing seasons, heralded the appointment of new leaders,
celebrated religious rites and rituals and also signified births and deaths. In
today’s societies they continue to serve these functions but they have
become significantly more complex and elaborate and their audiences have
grown exponentially. The 2009 inauguration of the 44th American
President Barack Obama set records for being the most-viewed
presidential inauguration by attracting a live viewing audience of over 2
million and an online audience of over 45.5 million viewers (Heussner,
2009). It was an elaborate production costing over US$170 million (£104
million) to stage (Mayerowitz, 2009). The 2008 Beijing Olympics was
viewed by a record 4.7 billion television viewers (Neilsen, 2008) and cost
over US$40 billion (£25 billion) to stage, making it the most expensive
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Olympic Games of all time (CBC News, 2008). As enormous as these
budgets were, both these events will be dwarfed in expenditure by the
Qatar World Cup in 2022, which professional services firm Deloitte
estimated will cost US$220 billion to stage (Bobel, 2013). These examples
demonstrate how drastically the roles of events in societies have changed.
Each of them can be considered global events, captivating the attention of
people far beyond their host cities or nations. The potential for events to
capture the hearts and minds of viewers around the world continues to
make international sporting events, exhibitions and celebrations of arts and
culture increasingly sought after by governments across virtually every
continent.
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shared interests and ideals or are staged purely for commercial reasons and
target an international audience. The last two decades have also been
marked by the rise of ‘Eventful Cities’, as international events have
become central to strategies for change in cities. They are now
increasingly being recognised for their potential to achieve a broad range
of economic, social, cultural and environmental benefits when they form
part of urban development plans (Richards and Palmer, 2010).
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Third, they attract international or global media attention. Finally, these
events have specific economic imperatives such as increasing tourism
visitors, job creation and providing new business opportunities. Thus,
international events may be described as large-scale events which attract
international audiences and media attention and meet a variety of
economic objectives for the destinations in which they are hosted. So how
are they different from other events? Using their key characteristics it is
possible to distinguish them from events which are described as local or
community events. See Table 1.1.
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aristocratic classes of the United Kingdom and other parts of northern
Europe to continental Europe for educational and cultural purposes
(Towner, 1985). These tours were not regarded as strictly leisure pursuits
as they were seen as educational and cultural experiences that were vital
for anyone seeking to join the ranks of the elite. They eventually gave way
to simple sight-seeing and began to include aspiring members of the
middle classes as well as aristocrats (Weaver and Lawton, 2006). For these
travellers, attending cultural events and religious festivals were important
features of Grand Tours and accounted in some part for the seasonal
variations of visits to certain city centres. Rome, for instance, was
particularly popular during Christmas, Easter and Carnival celebrations
(Towner, 1985). These events, although rooted within the communities in
which they were staged, became international because of the presence of
these travellers on Grand Tours. It should be noted however that at this
point events attracting international audiences and tourism generally would
not have been widespread. The cost of travel, along with the lack of
tourism infrastructure, made travelling to other countries an expensive,
difficult and often dangerous affair.
Thomas Cook, a former preacher turned tour operator, has been credited
with revolutionizing tourism travel by pioneering packaged tours. In so
doing he democratized and also dramatically expanded tourism
opportunities by making it much easier and cheaper for those wishing to
travel, by charging fixed prices for accommodation, travel and even food
for a given route. He and later his company Thomas Cook and Sons
(officially established in 1871) negotiated much cheaper rates in block
than would be possible for individuals to do on their own. Thomas Cook
was also responsible for taking British tourists to some of the early modern
international events such as the Great Exhibition hosted in London’s Hyde
Park in 1851 (the first ever World’s Fair or exhibition) and the
International Exhibition hosted in 1855 in Paris (Thomas Cook Retail
Limited, n.d.).
World’s Fairs and international exhibitions were among the first examples
of international events as they are contemporarily understood. Britain and
France were the principal sponsors of these events which were established
between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as these countries
were the dominant colonial powers at the time. These events served to
display their colonies, or their internally colonized peoples, to their home
population, to their rivals and to the world at large (Benedict, 1991). The
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United States also hosted some of these early fairs and exhibitions, such as
Chicago’s World Columbian Exhibition in 1893 (Trennert, 1993) and the
Louisiana Purchase Exposition (also known as the Saint Louis World’s
Fair) in 1904 (Benedict, 1991). Other notable international events
established during this early period include the modern Olympic Games
held in Athens in 1896 and Test Cricket, which was first played in 1877
(ESPN Sport Media Limited, n.d.).
25
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
pays du Don en appelaient aux principes de l’indépendance, du
fédéralisme, de la solidarité entre les peuples de l’ancienne Russie
contre le centralisme des Grands-Russiens. Voulant rester neutre
dans ce conflit, le gouvernement ukrainien ne laissa pas passer les
troupes bolchévistes en marche vers le Don, mais il n’avait aucune
raison d’arrêter les cosaques de ce pays qui rentraient chez eux en
quittant le front. On vit là la preuve d’une alliance avec la réaction.
On en arrivait à une guerre ouverte, qui pouvait devenir d’autant
plus funeste à l’Ukraine qu’il se trouvait, comme nous l’avons vu, sur
son territoire des éléments tout disposés pour les soviètes. La
paralysie qui avait frappé l’industrie, l’arrêt du travail dans les mines
et encore plus la désagrégation du front avaient inondé le pays
d’une masse de gens arrachés à leurs conditions habituelles
d’existence, inquiets et travaillés par la propagande. Ils ne rentraient
point dans leurs foyers — cela eût été du reste assez difficile et ils
n’auraient probablement pas pu s’y nourrir — ils s’amassaient dans
les villes, dans les gares de chemin de fer, se dispersaient dans les
villages et répandaient l’insécurité. La propagande bolchéviste
trouvait en eux sinon des adeptes du moins des agents bénévoles et
inconscients qui portaient les calomnies, lancées contre le
gouvernement ukrainien, jusque dans le fond des campagnes.
Dans la population ukrainienne elle-même, dans les partis
s’élevaient des doutes. Ne vaudrait-il pas mieux engager le
mouvement national dans la voie du bolchévisme ? Le système des
conseils n’avait pas été inventé par les bolchéviks, ils se l’étaient
seulement habilement adapté ; ne pourrait-on pas l’accommoder aux
circonstances de la vie ukrainienne, en donnant, par exemple, voix
prépondérante aux paysans ? La Rada Centrale elle-même était-elle
autre chose qu’un soviète unifié d’ouvriers, de soldats et de
paysans, avec prépondérance de ce dernier élément ? Ne serait-il
pas logique d’organiser au-dessous d’elle des conseils locaux et de
remettre à ces corps élus tout le pouvoir ?
Telles étaient les idées qui devaient reparaître avec beaucoup
plus de force un an plus tard, après la chute de l’hetman, mais pour
lors elles n’étaient partagées que par une minorité. Car, à la
première apparition qu’il fit en Ukraine, le bolchévisme était
fortement teinté d’un impérialisme grand-russien qui effrayait
d’autant plus les gens conscients de leur nationalité, qu’ils venaient
à peine de secouer le joug de Pétersbourg [38] . Suivre leurs
directions, cela semblait retourner sous la domination russe. Et ce
n’était pas seulement le sentiment des intellectuels, mais aussi des
gens du peuple dont les dispositions cadraient parfaitement de par
ailleurs avec les tendances bolchévistes. « Camarades russes, »
disaient-ils, « nous vous prions de ne pas vous immiscer dans nos
affaires ; nous, bolchéviks ukrainiens, nous travaillerons à atteindre
notre but — mais nous vous en prions, ne vous mêlez pas de nos
affaires. » Ces paroles, on les a entendues bien des fois dans les
meetings d’alors sortir de la bouche de nos soldats et de nos
ouvriers. Il faut connaître ces dessous psychologiques si l’on veut
comprendre l’acharnement avec lequel les socialistes ukrainiens ont
lutté contre les bolchéviks russes à la fin de 1917.
[38] Un exemple caractéristique est celui du leader
bolchéviste ukrainien, Al. Neronovytch, qui presque seul
avait défendu les principes soviétistes à la Rada
Centrale. Pendant l’occupation de Kiev par les
bolchéviks, il se rangea de leur côté, mais après
quelques semaines il s’aperçut qu’il était impossible pour
un nationaliste ukrainien de collaborer avec eux. Il les
quitta et se rendit au front à l’armée ukrainienne, où le
commandant le fit fusiller — pour bolchévisme !