(eBook PDF) BTEC Level 2 Technical

Certificate Adult Care

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BTEC Level 2 Technical Certificate
Adult Care
Learner Handbook
Support for your BTEC Level 2 Technical Certificate in
Adult Care
This handbook is the ideal course companion. It
contains support for all the units in your Certificate
and will enable you to:
• understand the importance of the six ‘Cs’: care,
compassion, courage, communication, competence
and commitment
• develop the attributes and behaviours you need to
support users of service in adult care settings
• explore in detail key areas such as health, safety
and safeguarding
• learn and practise a broad range of skills including
effective communication and reflective practice
techniques.
CVR_ADUL_HB_BTEC_7845_CVR.indd 1
BTEC Level 2 Technical Certificate Adult Care Learner Handbook
BTEC Level 2 Technical Certificate
Adult Care
Learner Handbook
Support for your assessment
Special features help you understand
what you will need to know and
demonstrate to be successful in your
assessments.
Building your technical skills
Work-related tasks and activities
throughout give you the opportunity
to practise a range of technical and
professional skills.
Linking learning with the workplace
‘Work focus’ page at the end of each
unit helps you develop the skills and
behaviours employers look for and
provides handy pointers to support
progress in your chosen career.
ActiveBook
This book includes access to a
digital ActiveBook version, ideal for
personalising your learning and
perfect for revision.
www.pearsonschoolsandfe.co.uk line digital
on
myorders@pearson.com
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12/09/2017 09:09
 BTEC Level 2 Technical Certificate

Adult Care
Learner Handbook

Carolyn Aldworth
Marilyn Billingham
Colette Burgess
Nicola Matthews

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 Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL.
www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk
Copies of official specifications for all Pearson qualifications may be found on the website:
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Text © Pearson Education Ltd 2018
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Cover photo/illustration © Audrius Merfeldas, Dmitry Zimin, Green Apple, Naihei, Roman Sigaev,
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The rights of Carolyn Aldworth, Marilyn Billingham, Colette Burgess and Nicola Matthews to be identified
as authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents
Act 1988.

First published 2018

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
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ISBN 978 1 292 19784 5 (Print)
ISBN 978 1 292 19773 9 (PDF)
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1.
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 Contents

How to use this book IV

1 Principles and Practices of Working in Adult Care Settings

Marilyn Billingham 2

2 Communicate and Handle Information in Adult Care Settings

Nicola Matthews 58

3 Contribute to Health, Safety and Safeguarding in

Adult Care Settings Colette Burgess 98

4 Develop Professional Practice Skills for Work in

Adult Care Settings Carolyn Aldworth 136

Answers 171

Glossary 175

Index 179

III

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 How to use this book

This handbook is designed to support you in developing the skills and

knowledge to succeed in your BTEC Level 2 Technical course. It will help you
to feel confident in taking the next step and be ready for your dream job.
The skills you will develop during the course include practical skills that
you’ll need in your chosen occupation, as well as a range of ‘transferable’
skills and behaviours that will be useful for your own personal
development, whatever you do in life.
Your learning can be seen as a journey which moves through four phases.

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4

You are introduced You explore the You apply your You reflect on your
to a topic or topic or concept knowledge and learning, evaluate
concept; you start through different skills to a practical your efforts,
to develop an methods (e.g. task designed to identify gaps in
awareness of what watching or demonstrate your your knowledge
learning and skills listening to a tutor understanding and look for ways
are required. or a professional and skills. to improve.
at work, research,
questioning,
analysis, critical
evaluation) and
form your own
understanding.

During each phase, you will use different learning strategies. As you go
through your course, these strategies will combine to help you secure the
essential knowledge and skills.
This handbook has been written using similar learning principles, strategies
and tools. It has been designed to support your learning journey, to give
you control over your own learning and to equip you with the knowledge,
understanding and tools to be successful in your future career or studies.

Getting to know the features

In this handbook, you’ll find lots of different features. They are there to
help you learn about the topics in your course in different ways and to help
you monitor and check your progress. Together these features help you:
• build your knowledge and technical skills
• understand how to succeed in your assessment
• link your learning to the workplace.
In addition, each individual feature has a specific purpose, designed to
support important learning strategies. For example, some features will:
• get you to question assumptions around what you are learning
• make you think beyond what you are reading about
• help you make connections across your learning and across units
• draw comparisons between the theory you are learning about and
realistic workplace environments
• help you develop some of the important skills you will need for the
workplace, including planning and completing tasks, working with
others, effective communication, adaptability and problem solving.
iV

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 HOW TO USE THiS BOOK

Features to build your knowledge and technical skills

Key terms
Terms highlighted LIKE THIS , are ‘Key terms’. It is important that you
know what they mean because they relate directly to your chosen subject.
The first time they appear in the book, they will be explained. If you see
a highlighted Key term again after that and can’t quite remember its
definition, look in the Glossary towards the end of the book – they are
all listed there! Note that these key terms are used and explained in the
context of your specialist subject or the topic in which they appear, and are
not necessarily the same definitions you would find in a dictionary.
Practise
These work-related tasks or activities will allow you to practise some of
the technical or professional skills relating to the main content covered in
each unit.

Practise

Read the health and safety policy for your care setting. What are your
responsibilities if:
• the entrance area in your workplace hall is wet and slippery?
• a shelf is insecure and could fall down?
• the electric kettle seems faulty?

Skills and knowledge check

Regular ‘Skills and knowledge check’ boxes will help you to keep on track
with the knowledge and skills requirements for a unit. They will remind you
to go back and refresh your knowledge if you haven’t quite understood
what you need to know or demonstrate. Tick off each one when you are
confident you’ve nailed it.

Skills and knowledge check

I can be caring and compassionate.
I can wash my hands properly.
I can respond to a fire emergency.
I can report changes in a user of services’ condition.

I know how cognitive impairment can make an individual more vulnerable

to harm.
I know about the different agencies that protect vulnerable people
from harm.
I know about failings in adult care services and the improvement plans
in place.
I know what is expected of me in my job role as an adult care worker.

What if…?
Employers need to know that you are responsible and that you understand
the importance of what you are learning. These ‘What if…?’ scenarios will
help you to understand the real links between theory and what happens in
the workplace.
V

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 B T E C L E V E L 2 T E C H N i C A L C E R T i F i C AT E A D U LT C A R E

What if…?

Nicki has been living in a small group residential care setting for
individuals with mental ill health. She is on medication that controls her
mood swings and is making good progress. She now takes responsibility for
most routine day-to-day activities independently. Soon she will be moving
into her own accommodation and wants to get a job. There is to be a care
planning meeting to discuss support for this transition.
1 Name two health or care workers who might be at the care
planning meeting.
2 Which care worker might help Nicki in her applications for work?
3 Describe the steps that the care team should take to update Nicki’s
care plan.
Link it up

For more on
communication Link it up
barriers relating to Although your BTEC Level 2 Technical is made up of several units, common
the environment themes are explored from different perspectives across the whole of your
and what you could course. Everything you learn and do during your course will help you in
do to remove them, your final assessment. This kind of assessment is called ‘synoptic’. It means
see B2 later in that you have the opportunity to apply all the knowledge and skills from
this unit.
the course to a practical, realistic work situation or task.
The ‘Link it up’ features show where information overlaps between units or
within the same unit, helping you to see where key points might support
your final assessment or help you gain a deeper understanding of a topic.
Step-by-step
This practical feature gives step-by-step descriptions of processes or tasks,
and might include a photo or artwork to illustrate each step. This will help
you to understand the key stages in the process and help you to practise
the process or technique yourself.

Checklist
These lists present information in a way that is helpful, practical and
interactive. You can check off the items listed to ensure you think about each
one individually, as well as how they relate to the topic as a collective list.

Features connected to your assessment

Your course is made up of several units. There are two different types
of unit:
• externally assessed
• internally assessed.
The features that support you in preparing for assessment are below. But
first, what is the difference between these two different types of unit?
Externally assessed units
These units give you the opportunity to present what you have learned
in the unit in a different way. They can be challenging, but will really give
you the opportunity to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding,
or your skills, in a direct way. For these units you will complete a task, set
by Pearson, in controlled conditions. This could take the form of an exam
or onscreen test, or it could be another type of task. You may have the
opportunity to research and prepare notes around a topic in advance,
which can be used when completing the assessment.

Vi

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 HOW TO USE THiS BOOK

Internally assessed units

Internally assessed units involve you completing a series of assignments or
tasks, set and marked by your tutor. The assignments you complete could
allow you to demonstrate your learning in a number of different ways,
such as a report, a presentation, a video recording or observation
statements of you completing a practical task. Whatever the method, you
will need to make sure you have clear evidence of what you have achieved
and how you did it.
Ready for assessment
You will find these features in units that are internally assessed. They
include suggestions about what you could practise, or focus on, to complete
the assignment for the unit. They also explain how to gather evidence for
assessment from the workplace or from other tasks you have completed.

Ready for assessment

To do well in this unit you need to complete the Placement Experience

Assessment Workbook. This booklet is set out so that you can complete
communication tasks and have them signed off.
Make sure that you can:
• identify communication barriers and opportunities to reduce them
• recognise and use alternative forms of communication
• demonstrate that you can handle information confidentially and in line
with the policies of your care setting.
By reflecting on your experiences while you are on placement, you should
find that your understanding of why you are doing what you are doing
increases. This will help you and your users of services to have a more
effective professional relationship.
It is important that you think about how to make your communication more
effective, because communication is the basis of practical care.
Make sure that you reflect on your practice fully, examining the things that
went badly as well as the things that went well. By discussing the things
that did not go so well with more experienced staff on your placement, you
may learn some tips to help you improve your practice. This should help you
fill in form TC-AC 1 in your Placement Experience Assessment Workbook.
You may also like to include a short written piece explaining how you have
supported a user of services through a planned activity. Take time to think
about how you think this went.
Don’t forget to include evidence in your booklet, such as:
• plans • designs • notes • conversations.
The key things are to plan, to support the user of services and to reflect on
what happened.

Assessment practice
These features include questions similar to the ones you’ll find in your
external assessment, so you can get some experience answering them. Each
one relates to one or more Assessment Outcomes, as indicated in the top
right-hand corner of this feature box. Suggested answers are given at the
back of this book. Where Assessment practice features require you to carry
out your own research or give individual answers or opinions, however, no
answers are provided.

Vii

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 B T E C L E V E L 2 T E C H N i C A L C E R T i F i C AT E A D U LT C A R E

Assessment practice AO1

You are working as a care assistant in a residential home for older people.
1 Identify two tasks that care assistants may be responsible for in this care
setting. (2 marks)
2 Describe the role of a care manager in this care setting. (2 marks)

Getting ready for assessment

This section will help you prepare for external assessment. It gives
information about what to expect in the final assessment, as well as
revision tips and practical advice on preparing for and sitting exams or a set
task. It provides a series of sample questions and answers that you might
find, including helpful feedback, or ‘verdicts’, on the answers and how they
could be improved.

Features that link your learning with the workplace

Each unit ends with a ‘Work focus’ section which links the learning from the
unit to particular skills and behaviours that are required in the workplace.
There are two parts in each Work focus section:
1. Hands on – gives suggestions for tasks you could practise to develop the
technical or professional skills you’ll need on the job.
2. Ready for work? – supports you in developing the all-important
transferable skills and behaviours that employers are looking for, such
as adaptability, problem solving, communication or teamwork. It will
give you pointers for showcasing your skills to a potential employer.

HANDS N
There are some skills linked to this unit that Responding to changes in users of services’
you need to develop to become an effective conditions.
adult care worker. You need to be able to work Showing that I can support individuals in a
with others confidently, prepare for work and person-centred way.
show good thinking skills, as well as being
adaptable and able to manage information Passing on information.
effectively. Behaving in a way that shows that I care.
1 Tick the boxes that you feel confident about Showing that I can help to keep the
in your work placement, then give one workplace safe.
example for each.
Making sure that the workplace knew that I 2 Are there any that you are not so confident
was safe to be with vulnerable people. about? Put a cross next to these ones.

Noticing hazards and reporting them. 3 Who can help you to develop the skills you
are less confident about? Make a note.
Following procedures and instructions.

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Ready for work?
D avid is 19 years old, and has just
completed the Care Certificate. He is
quite new to his job role as a DOMICILIARY
care worker, supporting individuals in their
own homes.
David is going to visit Ron, who is in his eighties
and is recovering from a fractured hip. Ron’s
main care worker, Julie, is off sick.
David introduces himself and asks permission
to help Ron to get out of bed and shower. David
makes sure that he gives Ron privacy when
he uses the toilet, and encourages him to do
as much as possible for himself, as well as to
choose the clothes he wants to wear. David
thinks about how he would feel if he were in
Ron’s position and understands that it must be
embarrassing.
They have a good chat while David helps Ron.
David listens and is really interested in Ron’s
life. Ron says that he really enjoyed David’s
company.
As David is getting ready to leave, Ron asks
David if he could be his regular care worker.
A02_BTEC_L2T_AC_SB_7845_How_To_Use.indd 9
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
Ron tells David that Julie comes into his home
and hardly talks to him. She charges her phone
without asking and talks to her friends. Ron also
says that Julie talks him out of having a shower
and often goes outside and has a cigarette, then
fills in the daily record and leaves. Ron says that
she doesn’t do what is stated in his daily record.
David listens to what Ron has to say and assures
him that he is doing the right thing by telling
him and he will need to speak to his supervisor.
When David leaves, he notices a pile of cigarette
ends on the ground and rings his supervisor.
He also writes an account of what Ron has said
while it is fresh in his mind.
1 Which of the six ‘Cs’ did David
demonstrate? Can you explain how?
2 How did David promote person-centred
values?
3 What would you have done if you were in
David’s situation?
4 Role play the scenario with a partner. You
could each have a turn at being David.
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 Principles and Practices
1 of Working in Adult Care
Settings

Try to imagine that you needed help with everyday activities such
as getting dressed in the morning, having a shower or going to the
shops. How would this make you feel? What help might you need to
ensure that life was good?
In this unit you will learn about the work of a wide range of health
and care professionals that support individuals who need help with
tasks just like this. You will also learn what it means to provide care
to the highest standard, and what to do if you see that those high
standards are not being met.
With this knowledge, you will be able to move ahead confidently to
ensure that your users of services receive the professional support
that they deserve.

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 U N I T 1 P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E S O F W O R K I N G I N A D U LT C A R E S E T T I N G S

How will I be assessed?

This unit is assessed externally using an onscreen test. The test contains
different types of questions, and is set and marked by Pearson.
When you take the test, you will need to show that you understand and
can describe the roles and responsibilities of adult care workers and a wide
range of other professionals who work in the health and care services. You
will also need to show that you understand the principles and values that
underpin their professional practice. You will show that you understand
how relevant legislation – such as health and safety, food hygiene laws and
their linked regulations – govern and guide care practice. You will need
to explain how care for users of services is planned to ensure that it meets
their individual needs. Finally, you will need to be able to outline how your
own further training and professional development will help to make sure
that users of services receive high standards of care.

Assessment outcomes

AO1 Demonstrate knowledge of the principles and practices of working in adult

care settings
AO2 Demonstrate understanding of how adult care workers apply their personal
attributes and behaviours, their importance and the impact of these on the
lives of users of services
AO3 Analyse and evaluate codes of conduct, health and safety legislation, food
safety and hygiene legislation, and continuing professional development, and
how they impact positively and negatively on users of services
AO4 Make connections between a user of services’ experiences, outcomes and
care plan, and an adult care worker’s development as documented in their
professional development plan

What you will learn in this unit:

A Adult care workers’ roles and responsibilities in residential care, day care
and domiciliary care settings
B Duty of care in adult care settings
C Care planning in adult care settings
D Working professionally as an adult care worker

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 A Adult care workers’ roles and
responsibilities in residential
care, day care and domiciliary
care settings

A1 Roles, tasks and responsibilities of adult

care managers, adult care assistants and
personal assistants
Providing a high standard of care for adults involves a lot of different skills
and knowledge – far more than one person could have on their own. In
adult care settings you will find a wide range of care worker roles, involving
different tasks and different responsibilities. Together, these workers help
adults who have difficulty carrying out everyday tasks and support them to
live well.

Link it up The care setting for this work could be:

• RESIDENTIAL – in a care home or facility where individuals live full time
For more • DAY CARE – where USERS OF SERVICES (people who use health and care
information on the services to help them carry out everyday tasks) spend the day, but go
different types of home in the evening
care settings, see • DOMICILIARY – in individuals’ own homes supported by staff who visit.
Table 4.1 in Unit 4,
A1. The basics of adult care are the same, whatever the setting. However, you will
eventually need to choose which type of care setting you want to work in.
In this section you will learn about the most important professionals who
contribute to adult care.

The main adult care workers in different care settings

The three key roles you will come across are:
1 adult care manager
2 adult care assistant
3 personal assistant.
Adult care managers
The role of an adult care manager has an important leadership element
in care settings. Adult care managers may manage residential or day care
services for older people, individuals with learning difficulties or individuals
with mental health difficulties. Care managers are responsible for:
• the day-to-day orderly running of the care setting
• appointing suitable staff
• managing staff teams
• managing the budget
• making sure that the quality of care meets the required standard.
Adult care managers are the ones who manage and monitor the care
assistants working in their care setting.
Adult care assistants
Practical care and support for individuals who have difficulties with
everyday activities is provided by adult care assistants. Care assistants work
in a wide range of settings, including residential and nursing homes, day
care settings, individuals’ homes and sheltered housing complexes. Their
4

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 U N I T 1 P R I N C I P L E S A N D P R A C T I C E S O F W O R K I N G I N A D U LT C A R E S E T T I N G S

specific responsibilities will vary according to the care setting and the
individuals they care for, but often include:
• helping with personal care, such as washing, dressing, feeding and
using the toilet
• helping users of services stay MOBILE , which means that they can get
about in their everyday lives
• general household tasks such as cleaning, cooking, ironing and shopping
• writing and posting letters, using the phone, paying the bills and
completing forms
• LIAISING with other health and care professionals, which means
meeting or connecting with them in order to work together effectively.
Personal assistants
A personal assistant is normally directly employed by users of services. They
carry out many of the tasks of an adult care assistant, as agreed with the
individual to meet their needs. Personal assistants may live in their user of
services’ home or may be called on as and when they are needed. Like other
care workers, personal assistants contribute to CARE PLANS and records
by attending care plan meetings and discussing care needs with the user
of services and other individuals. A care plan is a written statement of the
ways in which an individual will be helped, supported and cared for. This is
a relatively new and expanding area of care support.

Assessment practice AO1

You are working as a care assistant in a residential home for older people.
1 Identify two tasks that care assistants may be responsible for in this care
setting. (2 marks)
2 Describe the role of a care manager in this care setting. (2 marks)

The main tasks of adult care workers

When it comes to adult care, we often talk about people having four
different types of needs (see Figure 1.1):
1 physical 3 social
2 intellectual 4 emotional.

Physical needs
Our most basic needs for food
and water, shelter, sleep and
keeping warm

Human
Emotional needs Social needs
needs
The need to feel The need to have
essential
secure, to be loved friends and
for our
and valued company
wellbeing

Intellectual needs
Our need for activities to keep the
brain active, such as interests and Figure 1.1: Our basic human
hobbies that involve thinking needs can be divided into
and planning physical, intellectual, social
and emotional

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 B T E C L E V E L 2 T E C H N I C A L C E R T I F I C AT E A D U LT C A R E

As an adult care worker, you have a responsibility to help make sure all
the needs of your users of services are met, and that this is done to a high
standard. Here are some of the routine activities you will be involved in.
Monitoring health
Measuring and monitoring temperature, pulse rate and blood pressure
or observing changes in skin colour can tell you a great deal about
the health and wellbeing of your users of services. When you are
taking measurements, as far as possible, make sure that the individual
understands what you are doing and agrees to it (known as giving their
CONSENT ). You should always record, in writing, the results of health checks
you carry out on individuals in your care.
Assisting with eating and drinking
A good diet is vital for maintaining good health, but eating and drinking is
also a social activity. Your role is to make sure that meal times are pleasurable
and to help individuals be as independent as possible. This may include:
•• providing specially adapted cutlery and crockery for independent
eating and drinking
•• cutting up food so that it is easier to digest
•• making sure food is at the right temperature
•• providing a pleasant environment for meals
•• when necessary, feeding the user of services with a fork or a spoon.

Cutlery with thicker handles

can make it easier for
some individuals to feed
themselves

Assisting with mobility

MOBILITY is the ability to move around and take exercise whenever you
choose (or need to). It is important for staying healthy and also encourages
a sense of dignity and independence. There are many different types of
equipment that can help individuals stay mobile and carry on with their
daily lives, such as:
•• walking sticks and walking frames
•• wheelchairs
•• stair lifts
•• mobility scooters
•• handrails and ramps
•• simply lending an arm for support.
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All equipment, such as

this stair lift, needs to be
matched to the individual’s
needs and kept in good
working order

Individuals need to have the correct equipment for their needs: for
example, walking sticks need to be matched to an individual’s height.
Individuals also need to understand how to use the equipment in the right
way. For example, someone using a mobility scooter needs to know how
to drive it safely and confidently, and have arrangements for repairs and
general maintenance in place.
Assisting with personal care
The personal areas of daily living – such as washing, dressing, using the toilet,
shaving, bathing or showering, brushing your hair or putting your make-up
on – are activities that most of us take for granted. Most users of services
would prefer to do these things for themselves, and in private. However, for
many of the individuals you will support, doing these things for themselves is
a challenge. You can encourage them to be independent, but if they do need
your help, you should discuss their individual routines and preferences with
them. This helps individuals maintain their dignity and SELF-ESTEEM (their
sense of self-worth and how they value and feel about themselves).
Assisting with shopping
Most users of services supported by adult carers would prefer to do their
own shopping and manage their own budget. Mobility aids, transport to a
shopping centre and equipment such as special trolleys make this possible
for many individuals with disabilities and older people who are frail. For
others, online shopping is the answer. If users of services have problems
with memory or managing their money, you can help them to write
shopping lists, prioritise their needs and manage their money.

Assessment practice AO2

You are a personal assistant supporting Mohammad, who has learning

difficulties. He is very shy and rarely goes out. He has no friends and no
family nearby. He has not been shopping for more than two weeks. He is not
very good at managing his money.
1 Identify two ways you could help Mohammad to become more
independent. (2 marks)
2 Explain how this support would help Mohammad to develop independent
living skills. (2 marks)

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Assisting with social activities

You can encourage and support users of services to keep up their hobbies and
develop new interests, which can enhance their quality of life and improve
their sense of wellbeing. For example, playing cards, going to a lunch club,
joining a walking group or volunteering in the community can contribute to
physical, social and emotional health and enrich individuals’ lives.

Playing games can help

users of services to keep
their minds active, as well
as encouraging them to mix
with other people
Assisting with home management
Adult care workers, particularly domiciliary care staff, aim to support their
users of services to live in the community, normally in their own homes,
rather than having to make the significant move to residential care. In
order to continue living independently, individuals may need help with
household activities such as cleaning, cooking, tidying and gardening. You
will need to discuss with individuals what help they need to manage these
tasks. This may include providing them with adapted tools and equipment
or having extra help from care workers. Also, it is important to ensure
that your users of services keep on top of their utility bills, such as gas
and electricity.
Contributing to a care plan and record keeping
A care plan is a written statement of the specific ways in which an
individual will be helped, supported and cared for. It should include ways to
help that individual meet their physical, intellectual, social and emotional
needs. Care plans are reviewed on a regular basis to make sure that they
are still appropriate, and changes will be made when necessary. It is vital
that you attend any care plan meeting that is scheduled for an individual
in your care and, also, you should include the individual themselves in the
process of creating or updating care plans.
Assessment practice AO1

Which of the following are adult care assistants responsible for? (1 mark)
Select one option.
Link it up Managing budgets for the care setting

There is more Providing practical support for people who have difficulty with
information on care everyday activities
plans in Learning Leading staff teams in a care setting
aim C later in this
unit. Giving users of services welfare benefits advice

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Responsibilities of different care workers

Adult care workers usually work as a team to meet the individual needs of
their users of services. The team will include paid staff, but may also include
INFORMAL CARERS – family, friends and often neighbours, usually unpaid,
who provide day-to-day support. They will work together and share
responsibility in a number of areas.
Encouraging independent behaviour
The aim of care assistants, their managers and of personal assistants is to
support each user of services to live as independently as possible. The support
needed to achieve this will vary depending on the individual’s personal needs
and how much support they have from family and friends. Simple adaptions
to the home (such as installing a bath rail or a raised toilet seat), buying a
shopping trolley or accompanying a user of services on their first visit to a day
centre may be all that is needed to support independent living.
In other circumstances, the individual may need the support of specialists
with specific expertise. One example of a specialist is a PHYSIOTHERAPIST ,
who works with people to improve their physical movement using
techniques such as exercise routines and massage. Another example is an
EMPLOYMENT ADVISER , who can help a user of services find work.

Providing care and support

The care an individual needs varies greatly from person to person, and
will change throughout an individual’s life. If a user of services becomes
frailer or their medical condition gets worse, they may gradually need more
support. On other occasions, this will not be the case. For example, a user of
services may need your help with shopping because they cannot manage
their money. However, with appropriate guidance, they may not need this
help for long and may be able to shop independently.
Knowing any dietary needs and preferences
Many users of services have specific DIETARY REQUIREMENTS (a need to avoid
particular foods that will cause harm) and preferences. These may be linked
to religious beliefs or medical reasons, but they may also simply be a matter
of personal choice. Table 1.1 shows some examples.

Need or preference What this involves Table 1.1: Examples

of dietary needs and
Vegetarians Do not eat fish, meat or meat-based products preferences
Vegans Do not eat meat or any animal-related
products including eggs, cheese or milk
Muslims and Jews Do not eat pork and require their food to be
prepared in a particular way
Muslims eat halal meat
Jews eat kosher food
Individuals with COELIAC DISEASE (a Require a gluten-free diet, which means
common digestive condition) or a wheat avoiding foods containing wheat, rye and
allergy barley
Individuals with ALLERGIC REACTIONS May need to avoid specific foods. Allergies
(including symptoms such as rashes to nuts, dairy products, strawberries and
and difficulty breathing, which can shellfish are common
occasionally be fatal)

Eating food that we enjoy is important to us all, including the individuals

you support. Knowing and respecting your users of services’ food
preferences and requirements can make a huge difference to the quality of
their lives.
9

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Ensuring the safe handling of property and equipment

All users of health and care services need to feel safe, but in care settings
and individuals’ homes there is a lot of equipment and property that could
cause harm if not put away or maintained properly (see Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Possible hazards

in a home setting

You can help users of services feel safe in two main ways.
1 Dealing with HAZARDS as soon as you notice them – for example, drying
a slippery floor and putting a warning sign in place.
2 Informing your manager of other hazards that you cannot put right
because they are beyond your level of COMPETENCE (your ability to do
something well) or responsibility (the requirements of your job role) –
for example, mending electrical equipment.
Note that a hazard is any potential health and safety danger or risk in your
workplace, while a RISK is the likelihood that something will cause harm to
an individual.
Maintaining good communication
Care staff and all those supporting users of services need to communicate
clearly and effectively, both with the user of services and with each other.
This may include communicating with family and friends, cleaners and
other visitors to the care setting. Communication will normally be face to
face but sometimes it will be by phone, text or email, or through letters or
other written records.
Face-to-face communication involves both VERBAL COMMUNICATION (using
words to communicate thoughts, ideas and feelings) and NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION (such as facial expressions and the way people stand),
which often provide a better idea of someone’s feelings and attitudes.
Developing effective working relationships
As you read earlier, adult care workers will almost always work as part of
a team. The care team may include those who work regularly in their care
setting – care managers, care assistants, cleaners and volunteers – but will
also include other professionals who contribute to care. For example, the
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care manager and care assistants in a residential home may work with
doctors, nurses, social workers, physiotherapists and SPEECH THERAPISTS .
Speech therapists advise and treat individuals with language problems to
help them communicate more effectively.
These other workers may only visit occasionally and may require the
residential team to carry out routine tasks to improve users of services’
health and wellbeing, such as giving medicines or helping with regular
exercise. It is essential that all members of the team understand what is
required and work respectfully together to make sure that this happens.

Maintaining detailed and accurate records of care and support given

Giving and receiving information and then making accurate records
with that information is of vital importance in all adult care settings. The
information must be stored in a neat, orderly way so that any member of
the care team can find it quickly and easily.
There will be a wide range of information that comes in different forms,
both written and from conversation, as Figure 1.3 shows.

Face-to-face conversations
with the users of services,
other care workers, family
members or friends
Care plans and Telephone
other users of conversations
services’ records

Sources of
information

Electronic
Filling in
messages via text,
forms
email, fax, etc.
Letters

Figure 1.3: How many

different ways are there
to get information about
someone in your care?

In care settings, at the end of each shift, those finishing work and those
beginning their shift will have a HANDOVER MEETING , during which necessary
information about the users of services and the care setting is shared. You will
need good communication skills, a good rapport with colleagues and accurate
records to make sure that these handover meetings are effective.
Whatever the purpose of the information and however important it may or
may not seem, it must be:
• recorded accurately
• easily available to other members of the team
• where necessary, passed on swiftly to anyone who needs to know.
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Protecting the confidentiality of all information

Individuals who are cared for by the health and care services need to know
that the personal information shared about them, their family and their
friends is secure. This information is CONFIDENTIAL – to be kept private –
and should not be passed on to anyone who does not have the right to
know about it. Passing on personal information is often against the law,
and passing it on to others who have no right to know will undermine the
trust that is vital for a good relationship between care providers, the user
of services and their family.
However, there are times when confidentiality needs to be broken. These
include if the user of services or some other person:
•• is at risk of coming to harm
•• is at risk of causing harm to others
•• has broken or is about to break the law.

Recognising signs of abuse

ABUSE refers to the intentional mistreatment of a person, which leads to
harm, injury or even death. Everyone has a right to feel safe and live free
of abuse and NEGLECT (not being cared for properly). However, there have
been many cases where carers, including family members, have abused
those in their care. This can have a devastating impact on the user of
services, their family and others using those care services.
Abuse in care settings can take many forms and is sometimes difficult to
see. Care workers play a key role in spotting and reporting abuse. In your
day-to-day work, you must look out for any signs and symptoms of abuse,
and report any concerns you have to your manager. Your manager will
ensure that it is investigated and that appropriate action is taken. Table 1.2
identifies examples of abuse and what to look out for.

Table 1.2: The main types

Type of abuse Definition
of abuse, and the signs and
symptoms to look for Physical abuse Aggressive acts including
hitting or pushing, force
feeding or causing injury
by abusive behaviour, e.g.
washing or bathing users of
services in very hot water
Emotional Continually saying hurtful
abuse things, threats of punishment
or withdrawing support,
deliberately belittling the
users of services
Sexual abuse Forcing a person to take part
in sexual activity against
their will. This may be by
touching or viewing genitalia
(private parts) but can be
by forcing people to read
pornographic literature or
watch pornographic films
Signs and symptoms
• A number of unexplained falls
or injuries
• Bruising in unusual places
• Burns in unusual places
• Bed sores
• Unexplained blood on clothes
• Changes in behaviour, such as
becoming withdrawn or anxious
• Problems with sleeping
• Changes in eating patterns, such as
refusing food or overeating
• Depression
• Recurring genital infections
• Torn, stained or bloody underwear
• Being overly interested in anything
sexual
• Problems with sleeping
• Unexplained changes in behaviour

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Table 1.2: – continued

Type of abuse Definition Signs and symptoms
Financial A form of theft that refers • Unexplained bank withdrawals or
abuse to either directly stealing shortage of money
money from users of services • Unpaid bills
or defrauding them, e.g. • Reluctance on the part of a person
forging their signature on responsible for managing the user
cheques, depriving them of of services’ money to provide basic
an inheritance food, clothes, etc.
Neglect A pattern of not meeting a • Recurring infections and other
user of services’ basic needs signs of poor general health
for food and water, shelter, • Low levels of cleanliness and poor
warmth and love general hygiene
• Evidence of mental ill health
including depression, high levels of
anxiety or being socially withdrawn

Using reporting procedures

You will need to keep records and write reports that are very important
for the wellbeing of users of services, their visitors and other colleagues
working in the care setting. Your employer will provide guidance to make
sure that, as far as possible, all records are clear and accurate, and you will
be trained to follow the PROCEDURES (rules for particular situations) in your
workplace. The sorts of events you may need to record on a form or write
notes about include:
•• accidents, health emergencies and dangerous incidents in the
care setting
•• signs that users of services are at risk of abuse, or are being abused
•• instances of discrimination you have observed, such as racial or sexual
discrimination, or discrimination on account of SEXUAL ORIENTATION –
who someone is attracted to and wants to have relationships with
•• changes in users of services’ choices and preferences.
You should write your report as soon as possible after the incident or
DISCLOSURE – when someone makes information, usually that had been
kept secret, known – has taken place, or as soon as new information is
available. Your workplace will usually have a form for recording such
information.

STEP BY STEP RESPONDING TO A DISCLOSURE OF ABUSE

STEP 1 Remain calm – do not appear shocked.

STEP 2 Listen to the user of services carefully and let them lead the discussion.

STEP 3 Reassure them that it was right to tell you. Remember not to make promises you cannot keep.

STEP 4 Report immediately to your manager.

STEP 5 Write down exactly what the user of services said to you. Remember to sign and date your account and
any paperwork required by your care setting.
STEP 6 Do not discuss the disclosure with anybody else, not even other members of your team.

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Assessment practice AO4

What is the purpose of a care plan? (1 mark)

Select one option.
To record the support, care or treatment that will be provided for a user
of services
To describe the services provided in a care setting
To outline the future plans for a care setting
To describe the role of an adult care assistant

Avoiding harm to yourself and others

All employers and employees have a legal duty to provide, as far as
possible, a safe care setting for users of services, staff and visitors.
Employers and managers will have POLICIES in place. These are written
descriptions of the procedures that must be followed by everyone in their
care setting. There will always be a health and safety policy.
It is important that you become good at spotting health and safety risks in
the course of your daily work. When you are at work, look around and check
for hazards. You may have a mental checklist that includes things such as:
a Are the floors wet?
b Are there any trailing wires?
c Are the corridors and doorways clear?
d Is the kitchen clean and tidy?
e Has the visitor signed in?
Personal attention of this sort can play a huge part in ensuring a safe and
secure environment for all, and making these checks can soon become
second nature.

Practise

Imagine that one of your users of services has tripped over a trailing wire
and knocked her head. She seems to be confused. An ambulance is called.
1 Ask for a copy of the accident reporting form used at your care setting.
2 Complete the form as if the above incident had just happened.
3 Ask your tutor or a senior care worker at your care setting to check
the report.
• Is it clear? • Is it accurate? • Is it detailed enough?

Users of adult care services

Adult care workers help a range of VULNERABLE PEOPLE (individuals who
are at risk of harm or abuse) to manage their day-to-day activities and to
live as independently as possible. The four main groups are:
1 individuals with learning disabilities
2 individuals with physical disabilities
3 individuals with mental ill health
4 older people with sensory (hearing or sight), mobility or COGNITIVE
conditions (those relating to intellectual understanding and thought
processes).
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Individuals with learning disabilities

Individuals with learning difficulties have restricted and reduced intellectual
skills that will be with them for their whole lives. This may lead to difficulties
with activities such as carrying out household tasks, shopping and managing
money. The level of support and help required will vary from one person to
another, so you will need to respond to their individual needs.
Individuals with physical disabilities
Physical disabilities include any type of physical or bodily condition that
limits someone’s ability to carry out routine life activities. Such conditions
include poor mobility, poor sight or hearing loss, serious lack of energy
or organ failure (for example, a heart, kidney or liver condition). Adult
care workers who support individuals with physical disabilities are likely
to work as part of a team with other professionals such as doctors,
nurses, OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS (people who help to adapt the home
environment of a user of services to make it easier for them to do every day
tasks) or physiotherapists.
Individuals with mental health difficulties
Mental ill health can affect the way we think, feel and behave. Mental ill
health can take many forms, including depression, anxiety and excessive
worry, eating disorders and difficulties in communicating with people.
It can impact on an individual’s ability to carry out routine activities such
as going to work, mixing with friends and family, attending to personal
hygiene and going to the shops.
Older people
Most older people are physically fit and busy with work, family and other
social activities. Many make important contributions to their community
through voluntary and paid work. However, in later adulthood, physical
and emotional changes may limit these activities. For example, the ageing
process often brings a lack of stamina and energy. Visual and hearing
problems may interfere with daily life, at home and in the community.
Older people can be more likely to have falls or accidents as their mobility
decreases. Memory loss is also more common in older people.
These limitations to older people’s daily routines may, of course, lead to
emotional problems, including depression and excessive anxiety. Adult care
workers will work with other professionals to support frail older people to
maintain their independence as long as possible.

What if…?

You are working in a residential care setting for individuals with learning
difficulties. You notice that there has been a change in the behaviour of one
of your residents, Rona, who is 35 years old. She is not eating well and is
beginning to lose weight. She is also spending most of her spare time in her
room. She rarely speaks to the other residents. You think that she might be
depressed. This is unusual as she had always been outgoing and sociable.
There is a care plan meeting due for Rona and you think that these changes
in behaviour must be discussed.
1 Describe the changes in Rona’s behaviour that you think should be
discussed at the meeting.
2 Why is it important to keep records of Rona’s daily routines and how she
relates to others in the care setting?
3 What are the potential dangers of not keeping accurate daily records?
4 Why is it important to report this information clearly at the care plan
meeting?
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Limnaea stagnalis, about 15,000 in Helix aspersa (that is, about
400,000 to the square inch), about 30,000 in Limax maximus, and as
many as 40,000 in Helix Ghiesbreghti, a large species from Mexico;
they are very numerous also in Nanina, Vitrina, Gadinia, and
Actaeon. But Umbrella stands far and away the first, as far as
number of teeth is concerned. In both U. mediterranea and U. indica
they entirely baffle calculation, possibly 750,000 may be somewhere
near the truth.
The teeth on the radula are almost invariably disposed in a kind of
pattern, exactly like the longitudinal rows of colour in a piece of
ribbon, down the centre of which runs a narrow stripe, and every
band of colour on one side is repeated in the same relative position
on the other side. The middle tooth of each row—the rows being
counted across the radula, not longitudinally—is called the central or
rachidian tooth; the teeth next adjacent on each side are known as
the laterals, while the outermost are styled uncini or marginals. As a
rule, the distinction between the laterals and marginals is fairly well
indicated, but in the Helicidae and some of the Nudibranchiata it is
not easy to perceive, and in these cases there is a very gradual
passage from one set to the other.
The central tooth is nearly always present. It is wanting in certain
groups of Opisthobranchiata, some of the carnivorous Pulmonata,
and in the Conidae and Terebridae, which have lost the laterals as
well. Voluta has lost both laterals and marginals in most of the
species, and the same is the case with Harpa. In Aeolis, Elysia, and
some other Nudibranchiata the radula consists of a single central
row. Other peculiarities will be described below in their proper order.
The extreme importance of a study of the radula depends upon
the fact, that in each species, and a fortiori in each genus and family,
the radula is characteristic. In closely allied species the differences
exhibited are naturally but slight, but in well-marked species the
differences are considerable. The radula, therefore, serves as a test
for the distinction of genera and species. For instance, in the four
known recent genera of the family Strombidae, viz. Strombus,
Pteroceras, Rostellaria, and Terebellum, the radula is of the same
general type throughout, but with distinct modifications for each
genus; and the same is true, though to a lesser extent, for all the
species hitherto examined in each of the genera. These facts are
true for all known genera, differences of the radula corresponding to
and emphasising those other differences which have caused genera
to be constituted. The radula therefore forms a basis of classification,
and it is found especially useful in this respect in dealing with the
largest class of all, the Gasteropoda, and particularly with the chief
section of this order, the Prosobranchiata. Thus we have—
Prosobranchiata Monotocardia (a) Toxoglossa
(b) Rachiglossa
(c) Taenioglossa
(d) Ptenoglossa
(e) Gymnoglossa

Diotocardia (f) Rhipidonlossa

(g) Docoglossa[324]
(a) Toxoglossa.—Only three families, Terebridae, Conidae, and
Cancellariidae, belong to this section. There is no central tooth, and
no laterals, the radula consisting simply of large marginals on each
side. In Conus these are of great size, with a blunt base which
contains a poison-gland (see p. 66), the contents of which are
carried to the point by a duct. The point is always singly and
sometimes doubly barbed (Fig. 116). When extracted, the teeth
resemble a small sheaf of arrows (Figs. 113, 115). A remarkable
form of radula, belonging to Spirotropis (a sub-genus of Drillia, one
of the Conidae), enables us to explain the true history of the radula
in the Toxoglossa. Here there are five teeth in a row, a central tooth,
and one lateral and one marginal on each side, the marginals being
very similar in shape to the characteristic shafts of the Conidae (Fig.
114). It is evident, then, that the great mass of the Toxoglossa have
lost both their central and lateral teeth, and that those which remain
are true uncini or marginals. Spirotropis appears to be the solitary
survival of a group retaining the primitive form of radula.
 Fig. 113.—Radula of Bela
turricula Mont. × 70.

Fig. 114.—Portion of radula of Spirotropis

carinata Phil., Norway. × 70.
 Fig. 115.—Eight teeth from
the radula of Terebra
caerulescens Lam. ×
60.
The arrangement of teeth in all these sections is expressed by a
formula applicable to each transverse row of the series. The central
tooth, if present, is represented by 1, and the laterals and marginals,
according to their number, on each side of the central figure. Thus
the typical formula of the Toxoglossa is 1.0.0.0.1, the middle 0
standing for the central tooth which is absent, and the 0 on each side
of it for the absent laterals; the 1 on each extreme represents the
one uncinus in each row. Thus the formula for Spirotropis, which has
also one lateral on each side and a rachidian or central tooth, is
1.1.1.1.1. Often the formula is given thus: where 30
and 42 stand for the average number of rows of teeth in Conus and
Spirotropis respectively; the same is sometimes expressed thus:
1.0.0.0.1 × 30; 1.1.1.1.1 × 42.
 Fig. 116.—A tooth from
the radula of Conus
imperialis L., S.
Pacific, × 50, showing
barb and poison duct.

Fig. 117.—Portion of the radula of Melongena

vespertilio Lam., Ceylon. × 30.
 Fig. 118.—Portion of the radula of Eburna japonica Sowb.,
China. × 30.

Fig. 119.—Portion of the radula of Murex regius Lam.,

Panama. × 60.
(b) The Rachiglossa comprise the 12 families Olividae, Harpidae,
Marginellidae, Volutidae, Mitridae, Fasciolariidae, Turbinellidae,
Buccinidae, Nassidae, Columbellidae, Muricidae, and
Coralliophilidae. Certainly most and probably all of these families are
or have been carnivorous, the Coralliophilidae being a degraded
group which have become parasitic on corals, and have lost their
teeth in consequence. The characteristics of the group are the
possession of a central tooth with from one cusp (Boreofusus) to
about fourteen (Bullia), and a single lateral more or less cuspidate,
the outer cusp of all being generally much the largest. Thus in
Melongena respertilio (Fig. 117) the central tooth is tricuspid, the
central cusp being the smallest, while the laterals are bicuspid; in
Eburna japonica (Fig. 118) the central tooth is 5-cusped, the two
outer cusps being much the smallest. The teeth, on the whole, are
sharp and hooked, with a broad base and formidable cutting edge. In
the Olividae, Turricula, Buccinopsis, and the Muricidae the laterals
are unicuspid and somewhat degraded (Fig. 119). In Mitra and the
Fasciolariidae they are very broad and finely equally toothed like a
comb (Figs. 120, 121). The whole group is destitute of marginals.

Fig. 120.—Portion of the radula of Imbricaria marmorata

Swains. × 80.

Fig. 121.—Three rows of teeth from the radula of Fasciolaria

trapezium Lam. × 40.
Fig. 122.—Six teeth from
the radula of
Cymbium diadema
Lam., Torres Strait. ×
25.
 Fig. 123.—Examples of
degraded forms of
radula: A, Cantharus
pagodus Reeve,
Panama (nascent end),
× 40; A´, same radula,
central and front portion;
B, Columbella varia
Sowb., Panama, × 50.

Fig. 124.—Three rows of the radula of Sistrum spectrum Reeve, Tonga, × 80.
The laterals to the right are not drawn in.
Several remarkable peculiarities occur. Harpa loses the radula
altogether in the adult. In the young it has lost only the laterals, and
consists of nothing but the central tooth. Marginella has no laterals;
the central tooth is small and comb-shaped, with blunt cusps. In
Voluta the laterals are generally lost, but in Volutomitra and one
species of Voluta[325] they are retained. The central tooth usually
has three strong cusps, and is very thick and coloured a deep red or
orange (Fig. 122); in the sub-genus Amoria it is unicuspid, in shape
rather like a spear-head with broadened wings; in Volutolyria it is of a
different type, with numerous unequal denticulations, something like
the laterals of Mitra or Fasciolaria. Of the Mitridae, Cylindromitra has
lost the laterals. Among the Buccinidae, Buccinopsis possesses a
curiously degraded radula, the central tooth having no cusps, but
being reduced to a thin basal plate, while the laterals are also
weakened. This degradation from the type is a remarkable feature
among radulae, and appears to be characteristic, sometimes of a
whole family, e.g. the Columbellidae (Fig. 123, B), sometimes of a
genus, sometimes again of a single species. Thus in Cantharus (a
sub-genus of Buccinum) the radula is typical in the great majority of
species, but in C. pagodus Reeve, a large and well-grown species, it
is most remarkably degraded, both in the central and lateral teeth
(Fig. 123, A). This circumstance is the more singular since C.
pagodus lives at Panama side by side with C. ringeus and C.
insignis, both of which have perfectly typical radulae. It is probable
that the nature of the food has something to do with the
phenomenon. Thus Sistrum spectrum Reeve was found to possess
a very aberrant radula, not of the common muricoid type, but with
very long reed-like laterals. This singularity was a standing puzzle to
the present writer, until he was fortunate enough to discover that S.
spectrum, unlike all other species of Sistrum, lives exclusively on a
branching coral.
The dental formula for the Rachiglossa is thus 1.1.1, except in
those cases where the laterals are absent, when it is 0.1.0.
Fig. 125.—Portion of the radula of Cassis sulcosa Born., × 40. The marginals to
the right are not fully drawn.
(c) The Taenioglossa comprise 46 families in all, of which the
most important are Tritonidae, Cassididae, Cypraeidae, Strombidae,
Cerithiidae, Turritellidae, Melaniidae, Littorinidae, Rissoidae,
Paludinidae, Ampullariidae, Cyclophoridae, Cyclostomatidae, and
Naticidae. The radula is characterised by a central tooth of very
variable form, the prevailing type being multicuspid, the central cusp
the largest, on a rather broad base; a single lateral, which is often a
broad plate, more or less cusped, and two uncini, rather narrow, with
single hooks, or slightly cusped. The accompanying figures of
Cassis, Vermetus, and Cypraea, and those of Littorina and
Cyclophorus given on pp. 20, 21, are good examples of typical
taenioglossate radulae.

Fig. 126.—Four rows of teeth from the radula of

Vermetus grandis Gray, Andamans. × 40.
In Homalogyra the radula is much degraded, the central tooth is
large and triangular on a broad base, the lateral is represented only
by a thin oblong plate, and the uncini are absent. In some species of
Jeffreysia the uncini are said to be absent, while present in others.
Lamellaria has lost both its uncini, but the radula of the allied
Velutina is quite typical. A peculiar feature in this group is the
tendency of the marginals to increase in number. A stage in this
direction is perhaps seen in Ovula, Pedicularia, and the
Cyclostomatidae. Here the outermost of the two marginals is by far
the larger and broader, and is strongly pectinated on its upper edge;
in the Cyclostomatidae the pectinations are rather superficial; in
Ovula (where both marginals are pectinated) they are decidedly
deeper; in Pedicularia they are deeper still, and make long slits in the
tooth, tending to subdivide it altogether. In Turritella the number of
marginals is said to vary from none (in T. acicula) to three (T.
triplicata), but the fact wants confirmation. Solarium is an aberrant
form, possessing simply a number of long uncini, which recall those
of Conus or Pleurotoma, and is therefore hard to classify; the allied
Torinia has a radula which appears allied to Ovula or Pedicularia. In
Triforis the teeth are identical throughout, very small, about 27 in a
row, tricuspid on a square base, cusps short.
The normal formula of the Taenioglossa is 2.1.1.1.2; in Lamellaria,
1.1.1; in Triforis, 13.1.13, or thereabouts.

Fig. 127.—Two rows of the radula of Cypraea tigris

L. × 30.
 Fig. 128.—Portion of the radula of Ianthina
communis Lam. × 40.
(d) Ptenoglossa.—This section consists of two families only, which
certainly appear remarkably dissimilar in general habits and
appearance, viz., the Ianthinidae and Scalariidae. In all probability
their approximation is only provisional. The radula, which in Ianthina
is very large, and in Scalaria very small, possesses an indefinite
number of long hooked teeth, of which the outermost are the largest.
The central tooth, if present (it does not occur in Ianthina), is the
smallest in the series, and thus recalls the arrangement in some of
the carnivorous Pulmonata (p. 232). In Ianthina the radula is formed
of two large divisions, with a gap between them down the middle.
The formula is ∞.1.∞ or ∞.O.∞ according as the central tooth in
Scalaria is or is not reckoned to exist.
(e) Gymnoglossa.—In the absence of both jaw and radula it is not
easy to classify the two families (Eulimidae and Pyramidellidae)
which are grouped under this section. Fischer regards them as
modified Ptenoglossa; one would think it more natural to
approximate them to the Taenioglossa.
 Fig. 129.—Portion of the radula of Margarita umbilicalis
Brod., Labrador. × 75 and 300.
(f) Rhipidoglossa.—This section consists of seventeen families,
the most important being the Helicinidae, Neritidae, Turbinidae,
Trochidae, Haliotidae, Pleurotomariidae, and Fissurellidae. The
radula is characterised by—
(1) The extraordinary development of the uncini, of which there
are so many that they are always reckoned as indefinitely numerous.
They are long, narrow, hooked, and often cusped at the top, and
crowded together like the ribs of a fan, those at the extreme edge not
being set straight in the row, but curving away backwards as they
become smaller; in Solariella alone, where there are from five to ten,
can they be counted.
 Fig. 130.—Portion of the radula of Nerita albicilla L., Andaman Is.,
with central tooth highly magnified: c, c, the capituliform tooth.
× 40.
(2) The varying number of the laterals. The average number of
these is five on each side; in some cases (Livona) there are as many
as nine, in some (Neritopsis) only three. The lateral next to the uncini
(which is specially large in the Neritidae, and is then known as the
capituliform tooth) is regarded by some authorities as the first
uncinus, by others as the sole representative of the laterals, the
teeth on the inner side of it being reckoned as multiplied central
teeth. According to this latter view, Livona will have as many as
seventeen central teeth. Taking five as the average number of
‘laterals,’ we shall have the following different ways of constituting
the rhipidoglossate formula, the first being that to which preference is
given, viz.:—
(1) ∞.5.1.5.∞, i.e. one central, five laterals, including the ‘last lateral’
tooth.
(2) (∞.1).4.1.4.(1.∞), regarding the ‘last lateral’ as first uncinus, but
specialising it by a number.
(3) ∞.1.(4.1.4).1.∞, regarding the ‘last lateral’ as the only lateral.
In the Neritidae and the derived fresh-water genera (Neritina,
Navicella) the first lateral, as well as the capituliform tooth, is very
large, and in shape rather like the blade bone of a shoulder of
mutton; the intervening laterals are very small. In Neritopsis (a
degraded form) the central tooth and first lateral are entirely wanting.
In the neritiform land-shells (Helicina, Proserpina) the first lateral is
no larger than the others, while the capituliform tooth is enormous.
Hydrocena is a very aberrant and apparently degraded form; the
laterals between the first and the capituliform tooth are all wanting. In
Haliotis, Scissurella, and Pleurotomaria the five laterals are of fairly
equal size; in Fissurella we again meet with a large capituliform
tooth, with very small laterals.
(g) The Docoglossa are in direct contrast with the Rhipidoglossa
in possessing few and strong teeth, instead of many and weak.
There are only three families, Acmaeidae, Patellidae, and Lepetidae.
In some of the Acmaeidae there are not more than two teeth in a
row, while in no species are there more than twelve. The radula is,
however, very long; there are as many as 180 rows in Patella
vulgata. The teeth are thick, generally of a very deep red horn colour,
rather opaque. The cartilage in which they are set is remarkably
thick, and in some species whose teeth are very few a considerable
portion of this cartilage is left quite bare.

Fig. 131.—Portion of the radula of

Patella cretacea Reeve, seen in
half profile. × 40.
 Although the teeth are so few, the arrangement is by no means
simple. The special feature of the group is the multiplication of
identical centrals. Of these there are two in Acmaea, and four, as a
rule, in Patella. Thus in these two genera there is seldom an
absolutely central tooth. Either laterals or marginals are liable to be
lost, but there are never more than two of either in Acmaea, and
never more than two laterals and three marginals in Patella. Thus
the formula varies from 0.0.(1 + 0 + 1).0.0 in Pectinodonta, 2.2.(1 + 0
+ 1).2.2 in Collisellina (both Acmaeidae), to 3.2.(1 + 0 + 1).2.3 in
Patinella, and 3.1.(2 + 0 + 2).1.3 in Patella proper. In the Lepetidae
there is an absolutely central tooth, which appears to be made up of
the coalescence of several teeth, no laterals, and about two
marginals; formula, 2.0.1.0.2.

Fig. 132.—Two rows of the radula of Pterotrachea

mutica Les., Naples. × 60.
The radula of the Heteropoda is quite characteristic, and shows
no sign of affinity with any other Prosobranchiate. The central tooth
is large, broad, tricuspid, and denticulated on a broad base; the
single lateral is strong, often bicuspid; the two marginals simple,
long, falciform; formula, 2.1.1.1.2 (Fig. 132).
 Fig. 133.—A, Portion of the radula of Chiton
(Acanthopleura) spiniger] Sowb., Andamans, × 30;
B, portion of the radula of Dentalium entalis L.,
Clyde, × 50.
Amphineura.—(a) Polyplacophora.—The radula of the
Chitonidae is quite unique. It resembles that of the Docoglossa in
being very long, and composed of thick and dark horn-coloured
teeth. The number of teeth, however, is considerably greater,
amounting almost invariably to seventeen in each row. There are
three rather small central teeth, the two outer of these being similar;
next comes a very large lateral (the major lateral), usually tricuspid,
which is followed by two much smaller laterals, which are scarcely
more than accessory plates; then a very large and arched marginal
(the major uncinus), at the outer side of which are three accessory
plates. Some consider there is only one central tooth, and count the
two small teeth on each side of it as laterals.
Thus the formula is either (3 + 1).(2 + 1).3.(1 + 2).(1 + 3) or (3 +
1).(2 + 1 + 1).1.(1 + 1 + 2).(1 + 3).
(b) Aplacophora.—Of this rather obscure order, Chaetoderma has
a single strong central tooth, Neomenia has no radula, Proneomenia
and Lepidomenia have about twenty falciform teeth, much larger at
one end of the radula than the other; formula, 0.1.0.
Opisthobranchiata.—The radula of the Opisthobranchiata is
exceedingly variable in shape, size, and number and character of
teeth. Not only do allied families differ greatly from one another, but
allied genera often possess radulae widely distinct in plan. Thus,
among the Polyceridae, Goniodoris has no central tooth, one large
lateral and one marginal (form. 1.1.0.1.1); Doridunculus the same,
with five marginals (form. 5.1.0.1.5); Lamellidoris one each of
median, laterals, and marginals (1.1.1.1.1); Idalia, Ancula, and
Thecacera the same as Goniodoris; Crimora several each of laterals
and marginals. Even species of the same genus may differ; thus the
formula for Aeolis papillosa is 0.1.0, but for Ae. Landsbergi 1.1.1; for
Philine aperta 1.0.1, but for Philine pruinosa 6.0.6.

Fig. 134.—Two teeth from the radula of Aeolis

papillosa L. × 55.
It must not be forgotten, however, that a simple repetition of the
same tooth, whether lateral or marginal, does not necessarily
constitute an important characteristic, nor does the presence or
absence of a central tooth. In most of the cases mentioned above,
the difference in the number of laterals and marginals is due to the
multiplication of identical forms, while the central tooth, when
present, is often a mere plate or narrow block without cusps, whose
presence or absence makes little difference to the character of the
radula as a whole.
There appear to be three well-marked types of radula among the
Opisthobranchiata.
(a) Radula with a single strong central tooth, rows few. This form
is characteristic of the Aeolididae, Fionidae, Glaucidae, Dotoidae,
Hermaeidae, Elysiidae (Fig. 135), and Limapontiidae. In the
Aeolididae it is sometimes accompanied by a single lateral. The
same type occurs in Oxynoe, and in Lobiger (= Lophocercus).
(b) Radula with the first lateral very strongly developed. This type
may take the form of (1) a single lateral, no central or marginals, e.g.
Onchidoris, Scaphander (Fig. 137, A), Philine (certain species),
Ringicula, or (2) first lateral strongly developed, and repeated in
succeeding laterals (2–6) on a smaller scale, e.g. Philine (certain
species). A few marginals are sometimes added, e.g. in Polycera,
Lamellidoris (where there is a degraded central tooth, Fig. 137, B),
Idalia, and Ancula.

Fig. 135.—Radula of
Elysia viridis Mont. ×
40. Type (a).