EPD Unit 1 Slides

ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES
AND DEVICES
Purushotham U
Department of Electronics and Communication.
ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND DEVICES
Basic Circuit Elements:
Basic circuit elements are:
1.Passive Elements: Resistor, and Inductor and Capacitor
2. Active Elements: Voltage Source and Current Source
Resistor
Resistor: It resists the flow of current

through it. It will have a voltage drop
when measured across it.
Passive Elements
Inductor Inductor: It holds the charge in the form

of magnetic field
Capacitor Capacitor: It holds the

charge in the form of electric
field
Active Elements:
Active elements :
Voltage Source: Dependent and Independent voltage

sources
Current Source: Dependent and Independent current

sources
Voltage – Current (V-I) Characteristics of a Resistor
Voltage is directly proportional to Current and the

proportionality constant is called Resistance (R).
It has the units of Ohms (Ω)

1 Ω= 1 V/A
According to Ohm’s law : V=IR

Voltage-Current Relation in a Capacitor
Voltage is proportional to the integral of

Current and its constant is called
capacitance, has the units of Farads (F)
i
dv
i=C
dt
t1
1
v =  idt + v -
C to
Voltage-Current Relation in an Inductor
Voltage is proportional to the differential of the current in

the inductor and its constant is called inductance
di
vL = L + v -
dt
t1
1
iL =  vL dt i
L to
Solved Problem on a Resistor
Based on the table below, the between

relation voltage (V), electric current (I). Calculate the
resistance (R)
Solution :
Ohm’s law : V = I R or R = V / I
R1 = V / I = 1.50 / 0.08 = 18.75 Ohm

R2 = V / I = 2.80 / 1.50 = 2.87 Ohm
R3 = V / I = 3.99 / 2.10 = 1.9 Ohm
ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES AND DEVICES – UE20EC101
Solved Problem on a Capacitor
Solution: Capacitor voltage is related to

capacitor current by,
Solved Problem on an Inductor
Introduction to Semiconductors
atomic number of silicon=14 atomic number of germanium=32
1s22s22p63s23p2 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2.
Introduction to Semiconductors
An n -type material is created by introducing
impurity elements that have five valence
electrons ( pentavalent), such as antimony ,
arsenic , and phosphorus.
The p-type material is formed by doping a with

impurity atoms having three valence electrons(
trivalent) such as boron , gallium , and indium.
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AND DEVICES (UE23EC141A)
Dr. Purushotham U
(UE23EC141A)
Class 2 – Diode Characteristics
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An Introduction to Semiconductor Diode
Diode : Diode : Two – electrodes

➢ p-type and n-type material
sandwiched together to form a
depletion region between the two.
➢ Semiconductor diode may be either
of Silicon or Germanium material
Biasing of diodes :
➢ Forward Bias: A material type
connected to the same polarity terminal
of the voltage source
➢ Reverse Bias: A material type
connected to the opposite polarity
terminal of the voltage source
Diode under different Biasing Conditions
No bias
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
Semiconductor Diode – Forward & Reverse Characteristics
• Knee voltage (Vk) is also known as cut

in voltage. The minimum amount
of voltage threshold inspections
required for conducting the diode is
known as knee voltage or cut
in voltage.
• The forward voltage at which the
current through PN junction starts
increasing rapidly is known as knee
voltage.
Semiconductor Diode’s Characteristics & Parameters
From the characteristics curve of a

semiconductor diode the following
parameters have been observed
under,
Forward Bias
• Knee Voltage
• Forward Current Rating
• Maximum Power Dissipation
Reverse Bias
• Reverse Saturation Current
• Break down Voltage
• Peak Inverse Voltage Rating
Ideal and Practical Diode Characteristics:
Ideal Diode: When an ideal diode is

forward biased, it offers no
resistance & acts like an open
switch. Likewise the ideal diode
under reverse bias offers infinite
resistance hence, it acts like open
switch.
Practical Diode: A diode which is said
to be forward biased it starts
conducting at knee voltage & under
reverse bias no current due to
majority charges hence a practical
diode is considered to be open switch
(minority charges current ignored).
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Unit 1 – Class 3 – Shockley’s Equation,

Zener and Avalanche Breakdown
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Diode’s Current Expression (Shockley's Current Equation)
Shockley’s Equation also called the

diode equation helps us determine
the current at a given temperature k = 1.380 649 . 10^-23 Joule/Kelvin.
knowing the diode voltage and
saturation current q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb
Types of Diode Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown : In the reverse

bias condition as the voltage increases
the free charge carriers obtain velocity
and associated kinetic energy and release
additional carriers through collision with
other atomic structures.
Hence Covalent bonds are broken and

electron–hole are generated.
These charge carriers acquire energy

from the applied potential and produce
more and more free charge carriers. This
cumulative process is called Avalanche
multiplication or ionization process.
A covalent bond is formed by the equal

sharing of electrons from both the
participating atoms. The pair of
electrons participating in this type of
bonding is called a shared pair or
bonding pair. Covalent bonds are also
called Molecular bonds
Source – https://byjus.com
Zener breakdown :
Zener break down occurs when both P and
N type material are heavily doped in a
semiconductor diode.
Hence the depletion layer region is narrow

down.
When a small reverse bias voltage is

applied across a diode a very strong electric
fied is produced.
Due to this electric fied covalent bond

breaks and produces large number of free
charge carriers.
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Unit 1 – Class 4 – Temperature effects

& Diode Resistance
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Temperature Effects on V-I Characteristics of a Diode
• The Effect of variation in temperature across a

semiconductor diode is observed both in the forward as well
as in reverse characteristics
• Rise in temperature generates more electron-hole pair thus

conductivity increases and thus increases in current
• PN junction diode parameters like reverse saturation current,

bias current, reverse breakdown voltage and barrier voltage
are dependent on temperature.
• Increase in the temperature increases carrier concentration.

As a result, knee voltage & breakdown voltage decreases while
reverse saturation current increases
Temperature Effects on V-I Characteristics of a Diode
Under Forward Bias the Change in Temperature

across the diode: Barrier voltage is dependent
on temperature hence it decreases by
2.5mV/1ºC for rise in temperature for both
germanium and silicon.
Under Reverse Bias the Change in Temperature

across the diode: Reverse saturation current (IS)
of diode increases with increase in the
temperature the rise is 7%/1ºC for both
germanium and silicon and approximately
doubles for every 10ºC rise in temperature.
Reverse breakdown voltage (VR) also increases

as the temperature increases
An Example - Temperature Effects on A Semiconductor diode
The Reverse saturation current of silicon diode at 20 degree

is 0.1µA. Determine its value if the temperature is increased
40 degree.
ANS:
Given Data at T = 20 o C : I s = 0.1A
T = 30 o C : I s = 0.2 A
T = 40 o C : I s = 0.4 A
T = 50 o C : I s = 0.8A
T = 60 o C : I s = 1.6 A
Resistance of a Semiconductor Diode
• An actual diode offers a very small resistance (not zero) when

forward biased and is called a forward resistance
• Whereas, it offers a very high resistance (not infinite) when
reverse biased and is called as a reverse resistance
• Type of applied voltage or signal will define

the following resistance levels
i. DC or Static Resistance
ii. AC or Dynamic Resistance
iii. Average AC Resistance
DC or Static Resistance
• The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode

will result in an operating point on the semiconductor diode characteristic
curve.
• Finding the corresponding levels of VD and ID at particular operating point
gives the DC resistance.
• Typically, the dc resistance of a diode in:

Forward bias : 10 Ω to 80 Ω
Reverse Bias: 10 MΩ
AC or Dynamic Resistance
• The application of a small AC voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor

diode offers AC resistance.
• A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q –point will define a
particular change in voltage and current determines the ac or dynamic resistance
for this region of the diode characteristics.
AC or Dynamic Resistance
• Dynamic resistance can be found simply by substituting the quiescent value of
the diode current into the equation also
•Where rB is body resistance

Typically, the ac resistance of a diode in the active region will range from 1 Ω to
100 Ω.
Average AC Resistance
If applied input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing and the
resistance determined by a straight line drawn between the two
intersections established by the maximum and minimum values of input
voltage is called Average AC Resistance
Summary of Resistances
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Unit 1 – Class 5 – Diode Equivalent

Circuits
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Diode Equivalent Diagrams/Diode Approximations
Diode approximation is a mathematical method used to

approximate the nonlinear behavior of real diodes to enable
calculations and circuit analysis.
There are three different approximations used to analyze the

diode circuits, namely
I. First Approximation (Ideal Diode Characteristics)

II. Second Approximation (Simplified Diode Characteristics)
III. Third approximation (Linear Piece-wise Diode Characteristics)
Diode Approximations: Ideal diode Characteristics
first approximation method, the diode is considered as a

forward-biased diode and as a closed switch with zero voltage
drops and reverse biased diode as an open switch
Diode Approximations: Simplified Diode Characteristics
In the second approximation, the diode is considered as a forward-biased

diode in series with a battery to turn on the device. For a silicon diode to
turn on, it needs 0.7V. A voltage of 0.7V or greater is fed to turn on the
forward-biased diode. The diode turns off if the voltage is less than 0.7V.
Diode Approximations: Linear Piece-Wise Diode
Characteristics
The third approximation of a diode includes voltage across the
diode and voltage across bulk resistance, RB.
The voltage drop across the diode is calculated using the
formula Vd = 0.7V + Id *RB
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Unit 1 – Classes 7 & 8 – Series diode &

Parallel diode configurations
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Series Diode Configuration with a resistor
• It’s assumed that the forward resistance of the diode is

usually so small compared to the other series elements
of the network that it can be ignored.
• In general, a diode is in the “on” state if the current
established by the applied sources is such that its
direction matches that of the arrow in the diode symbol.
Forward Bias Analysis (for silicon)

Constants
• Silicon Diode: VD = 0.7 V • VD = 0.7 V (or VD = E
if E < 0.7 V)
• Germanium Diode: VD = 0.3 V
• VR = E – VD
• ID = IR = IT = VR / R
Series Diode Configuration with a resistor
Reverse Bias
Diodes ideally behave as open circuits
Analysis
VD = E; VR = 0 V & ID = 0 A
Series Diode Configuration – A Solved Problem
Determine Vout and Id for the given series diode

Circuit. Assume the LED Voltage as 1.8 V.
Solution: Re-draw the given circuit based on

simplified diode’s configuration, we get
Parallel Diode Configuration - A Solved Problem
Determine Vo , I1 , ID1, and ID2 for the parallel diode

configuration of Figure below
Solution:
Series-Parallel Diode Configuration
Determine I1, , I2 , and ID2 for the series- parallel diode

Hint: Where Diodes D1 & D2 are forward Biased.

Series-Parallel Diode Configuration – An Excise Problem
Determine I1, , I2 , and ID2 for the series- parallel diode

Series Diode Configuration
Solution: Re-draw the given circuit based on simplified

diode’s configuration, we get
2. Determine I,V1,V2 and V0
Parallel Diode Configuration - A Solved Problem
2. Determine I for the parallel diode configuration of
Figure below
Solution:
4
5.
6.
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Unit 1 – Class 9 – Logical Operations

using Diode
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Logical Operations
Logical operations:
It is an Operation that acts on binary numbers to

produce a result according to the Laws of Boolean
Logic.
A
A Logic Gate is an basic building block of Digital circuits. F(A,B) Y
Logic gate is considered as a device that has the ability B

to produce one output level with the combinations of
input levels.
Example : AND,OR and NOT functions

Logical Operations
Logical operations:
Logic gates are implemented by using diodes, transistors,

and by other several devices.
Hence logic gates can also be considered as electronic

circuits.
The logic gates obtained by Diode is called Diode Resistor

Logic.
Inputs and outputs of logic gates are in two levels which

are termed as HIGH and LOW, or TRUE and FALSE, or ON
and OFF, or simply 1 and 0.
Logical Operations
For all Logical gates a Table with all combinations are list out.
The combination of input variables and the corresponding
output variables is termed as “TRUTH TABLE”.
It explains how the logic circuit output responds to various
combinations of logic levels at the inputs.
AND: Operation is explained by the following Truth Table
A B Y=A.B A B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Logical Operations
An OR gate may also have two or more inputs but produce only
one output.
The OR gate produces an output of logic 1 state even if any of
its inputs is in logic 1 state and also produces an output of logic
0 state if any of its inputs is in logic 0 state.
OR Operation is explained by the following Truth Table

A B Y=A+B A B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Logical Operations
A (V1) B(V2) Y (Vo)

OR Operation Illustrated using Diode 0 0 0
0 10 V 9.3 V
10 V 0 9.3 V
10 V 10 V 9.3V
Logical Operations
A (V1) B(V2) Y(Vo)
AND Operation Illustrated using Diode 0 0 0.7 V
0 10 V 0.7V
10 V 0 0.7V
10 V 10 V 10V
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Unit 1 – Classes 10 & 11 – Numerical

on Shockley’s equation
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Shockley’s Equation also called the

diode equation helps us determine
the current at a given temperature
knowing the diode voltage and
saturation current k = 1.380 649 x10^-23 Joule/Kelvin.
q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb

UNIT - I: Numerical on Diode’s Current Equations
Q. No 1 Calculate the thermal voltage when the temperature

is 25°C
Solution:
k = 1.380 649 x10^-23 Joule/Kelvin.
Thermal voltage VT =k T/q
q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb
Where k is the Boltzmann constant and q is the charge of
electron. This can be reduced to
VT = T/11600 q/k=11600
Therefore, VT = 298/11600 = 0.0257V
VT = 25.7mV
Q.No.2 Calculate the forward bias current of a Si diode when

forward bias voltage of 0.4V is applied, the reverse saturation
current is 1.17×10-9A and the thermal voltage is 25.2mV.
Solution: where Is = reverse saturation current
η = ideality factor, VT = thermal voltage, VD = applied voltage
Since in this question ideality factor is not mentioned it can be

taken as one.
Is = 1.17 x 10-9A, VT = VT =k T/q =0.0252V, η = 1, VD = 0.4V
Therefore, Is= 1.17×10-9x(e0.4/0.0252 -1)

Is= 9.156mA.
Numerical on Diode’s Current Equations
Q. No 3 Given a diode current of 8 mA and n=1, find the reverse saturation

current (Is) if the applied voltage is 0.5 V and the room temperature is 25°C.
Solution: Equation for diode current (Shockley’s Equation)
Given: ID = diode current = 8 mA, η = ideality factor = 1, VD = Applied voltage = 0.5V
Find VT = Thermal voltage and Reverse saturation current IS
Numerical on Diode’s Current Equations
Q. No 4: Calculate the applied voltage VD, if diode current is 6 mA, Thermal
Voltage is 26 mV, Ideality factor is 1, and Reverse saturation current is 1 nA.
Solution: Given: ID = 6 mA, VT = 26 mV, η = 1, IS = 1 nA, VD = Applied voltage = ………V
Equation for diode current (Shockley’s Equation)
Q. No 5 Consider a silicon diode with η=1.2. Find change in

voltage if the current changes from 0.1mA to 10mA.
Solution: Equation for diode current I=I0×(e(V/ηVT)-1)
Where I0 = reverse saturation current, η = ideality factor

VT = thermal voltage, V = applied voltage
η = 1.2, I2 = 10mA, I1 = 0.1mA and take VT = 0.026V

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Unit 1 – Class 13 – Numerical on

Temperature effects
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Temperature Effects: Numerical
1. The reverse saturation current Is will just about double in magnitude for
every 10°C increase in temperature.
Reference :ELECTRONIC DEVICES
AND CIRCUIT THEORY ROBERT
BOYLESTAD LOUIS NASHELSKY
.
2. Knee voltage shift left at a rate of 2.5mV per centigrade degree

increase in temperature
1. The knee voltage of a Si diode is 0.7V and its reverse Saturation

current is 20nA at 25oC. Determine these values at 40oC.
Solution:
.
Knee voltage shift left at a rate of 2.5mV per centigrade degree increase
in temperature.
Therefore for a Change in temperature is = 40oC-25oC =15oC
Change in knee voltage will be =2.5mV X 15= 0.0375V
Hence VK at 40oC = 0.7-0.0375= 0.6625 V,
Reverse Saturation Current doubles for every 10oC rise in Temperature

IS at 40oC = 2^ (40-25/10) X 20nA = 2.82X20nA = 56.56nA.
2.The reverse saturation current of a Germanium diode is 200µA at room

temperature of 27oC. Calculate the current in forward biased condition, if
forward biased voltage is 0.2V at room temperature. If temperature is
o
.
increased by 30 C, calculate the reverse saturation current and the forward
current for the same forward voltage at new temperature.
Solution:
VT= kT/q= 25.9mV k = 1.380 649 . 10^-23 Joule/Kelvin. q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb
I=Is×(e(VD/ηVT ) -1)= 200µA x =0.451A
If the temperature is increased by 30oC New temperature is 27+30= 57oC

Therefore Is= 200µ X2^3= 1600 μA therefore at new VT at 57oC is 28.4mV
Hence ID at 57oC = 1.83A.
3. A Ge diode has a reverse saturation current of 5µA at temperature 300K find

diode current at 40oC . When forward bias voltage is 0.27.
Solution: .
q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb
Given Is at 27oC is 5µA
k = 1.380 649 . 10^-23 Joule/Kelvin.
Therefore Is at 40oC is = 5µ x 2(40-27/10)
= 5µ X 2.462
=12.31 µ A
Hence VT at 40oC = kT/q= 26.9mV
Therefore I=Is×(e(VD/ηVT ) -1)= 12.31µA x e(VD/ηVT ) = 281.49mA

4. The reverse saturation current of a Si diode is 2pA at 27oC. Determine the

forward biased voltage across the diode at 57oC, if the forward current through
the diode at 57oC is 50mA.
Solution: .
Reverse saturation current doubles for every 10oC rise in temperature
Hence at if reverse saturation current at 27oC is 2pA
Then reverse saturation current at 37oC is 4pA
q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb
Then reverse saturation current at 47oC is 8pA
k = 1.380 649 . 10-23 Joule/Kelvin.
o
Then reverse saturation current at 57 C is 16pA
Therefore VT 57oC is =k x 330/q= 28.42mV
Hence by using ID=Is×(e(VD/ηVT ) -1) = 50mA
50/16= eVD/ηVT →ln(50/16)=VD/28.42m → VD = 0.686V at 57oC.
5.The reverse saturation current of a Germanium diode is 100µA at room

temperature of 28oC. Calculate the current in forward biased condition, if
forward biased voltage is 0.3V at room temperature. If temperature is
o
.
increased by 25 C, calculate the reverse saturation current and the forward
current for the same forward voltage at new temperature.
Solution:
VT= kT/q= 25.9mV k = 1.380 649 . 10^-23 Joule/Kelvin. q=1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb
I=Is×(e(VD/ηVT ) -1)= 100µA x =
If the temperature is increased by 30oC New temperature is 28+25= 53oC

Therefore Is= 100µ X2^2.5= ______ μA therefore at new VT at 53oC is _____mV
Hence ID at 53oC = ____ A.
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Unit 1 – Class 14 – Problems on Diode

Resistance
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Resistance of a Semiconductor Diode
• An actual diode offers a very small resistance (not zero) when

forward biased and is called a forward resistance
• Whereas, it offers a very high resistance (not infinite) when
reverse biased and is called as a reverse resistance
• Type of applied voltage or signal will define

the following resistance levels
i. DC or Static Resistance
ii. AC or Dynamic Resistance
iii. Average AC Resistance
Diode Resistance: Numerical
1) For the characteristics of Fig: Reference :ELECTRONIC DEVICES

AND CIRCUIT THEORY ROBERT
(a) Determine the ac resistance at ID 2 mA. BOYLESTAD LOUIS NASHELSKY
(b) Determine the ac resistance at ID 25 mA.
(c) Compare the results of parts. (a) and (b) to the dc resistances at each current level.
a) c)
b)
Diode Resistance: Numerical
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance: The derivative of a function at a

point is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at that point.
.
3. Calculate the dc and ac resistance for the diode of Fig. at a

forward current of 10 mA and compare their magnitudes.
.
4. Using Average Resistance Equation. Determine the ac resistance at a current of 1

mA and 15 mA for the diode of fig Compare the solutions general conclusion
.
5. Find the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit for the diode of Fig. Use a
straight line segment that intersects the horizontal axis at 0.7 V and Best
approximates the curve for the region greater than 0.7 V.
.
6. Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Fig.at

(a) ID =2 mA (b) ID =20 mA (c) VD = -10 V
.
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Unit 1 – Class 15 – BJT Transistor construction & its

operation

Unit 1 – Class 15 – BJT Transistor construction & its

operation – Text book reference – T 1 – 3.1 – 3.2- Page
129 - 130

Unit 1 – Class 15 - BJT Transistor: Construction
Transistor: BJT ( Bipolar Junction Transistor)
Introduction & Construction
➢A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device consisting of either

a p-type semiconductor or n-type semiconductor sandwiched between opposite
types .It has two p–n junctions connectedback-to-back.
➢In a BJT, the operation depends on the active participation of both the majority
carrier, and the minority carrier; hence, the name “bipolar” is rightly justified.
➢ The combination of two terms transfer + resistor results in TRANSISTOR as the

current is transferred from a low to a high-resistance circuit.
➢ The three terminals of a Bipolar junction transistor are Emitter, Base & Collector.
Transistor Symbol
➢The Emitter (E) is the portion of the transistor that supplies charge carriers
(either electrons or holes) and it is a heavily doped region. The area is moderate
in size.
➢The Base (B) is the middle portion of the transistor that forms two PN junction
between the emitter and the collector and it is a lightly doped region. It is the
smallest in width of all the three regions.
➢ The Collector (C) is the portion of the transistor that collects charge
carriers (either electrons or holes) and it is a moderately doped region. It is the
widest of all the three regions as maximum heat is dissipated in this region.
Unit 1 – Class 15 - BJT Transistor: Two Types of
transistor
1. pnp transistor:
2. npn transistor:
Unit 1 – Class 15 - BJT Transistor: Biasing
Transistor biasing : Modes of operation
➢ A Transistor has two p-n junction.
1) Emitter-base (EB) Junction
2)Collector-base (CB) Junction
➢ Each junction can either be forward or reverse biased independently.
➢Hence we have the following region of operationof the transistor.
Regions of Operation Emitter base Junction Collector-base Junction Application
Active region(commonly Forward biased Reverse biased Transistor works as an
used) Amplifier
Saturation region Forward biased Forward biased Transistor works as a switch
(ON)– Digital Application
Cut-off region Reverse biased Reverse biased Transistor works as a switch
(OFF)– Digital Application
Inverse active region(rarely Reverse biased Forward biased Transistor works as an
used) Attenuator
Transistor biasing
Unit 1 – Class 15 - BJT Transistor: Operation
The transistor is operated in Common Base configuration. With the external

sources, VEE and VCC, connected as shown:
▪ The emitter-base junction is forwardbiased
▪ The base-collector junction is reverse biased
Forward Bias Reverse Bias The currents in a BJT Transistor

- Refer figure (a) - The pnp transistor has been redrawn without the base-
to-collector bias.
- The depletion region has been reduced in width due to applied bias,
resulting in a heavy flow of majority carriers from the the p-type to n-
type material

- Refer figure (b) – The base-to-emitter bias of the pnp transistor has
been removed. The flow of majority carriers is zero, resulting in only a
minority carrier flow

Currents in a transistor
➢ Emitter current is the sum of the collector and base currents:
IE = IC + IB
➢ The collector current is comprised of twocurrents:

IC = IC (Majority) + ICO(Minority)
The current directions in a BJT Transistor

Unit 1 – Class 15 - Summary
1. The transistors are the basic building blocks of electronic circuits,

they find applications as switch and amplifiers.
2. For better control of the device, the transistors has three terminals.
3. The Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a current controlled device.
4. The BJT biasing requires two voltage sources, hence one terminal acts as
common between the input and the outputside. Therefore, we have:
▪ Common Base (CB) Configuration.
▪ Common Emitter (CE) Configuration.
▪ Common Collector (CC) Configuration.
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Unit 1 – Class 16 – Transistor Configurations – Common Base

Configurations – input & output characteristics
BJT ( Bipolar Junction Transistor)

Electronic Principles and Devices
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base Configuration
➢ The arrow in the diagram,indicates the direction of the emitter current.
➢ Easy way to remember matching the letters npn of the transistor type and with the
appropriate letters of the phrases “not pointing in”
➢The NPN BJT requires two voltage sources VBE and VCB to bias the two junctions
respectively.
VBE VCB
A NPN transistor used in Common Base (CB) configuration
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common
Base Configuration
➢The arrow in the diagram, indicates the direction of the emitter current and
matching the letters pnp of the transistor type and with the appropriate letters
of the phrases “pointing in permanentely”
➢ The PNP BJT requires two voltage sources VBE and VCB to bias the two junctions
respectively.
VBE VCB
A PNP transistor used in Common Base (CB) configuration
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base
Configuration
The biasing of PNP and NPN transistor to operate in active region
➢Since the analogy of transistor is two diodes connected back-to-back. One diode
is forward biased and the other is reverse biased for the device to operate in
active region.
➢Hence, biasing the emitter base junction (EB Jn) in forward bias condition, gives
the input characteristic of the device, keeping the output voltage constant.
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base Configuration (Input
Characteristics)
For the transistor in CB configuration, IE is the input current (usually in mA)
and VBE is the input voltage. Hence, a plot of IE v/s VBE is called the input
characteristics.
The input characteristic of BJT (Si)

(Input Characteristics)
For the transistor in CB configuration, when the output voltage VCB is
increased(keeping fixed voltage VBE =0.7V(for Silicon diode)), this high voltage
initiates an increase in the current through the device and hence the graph
shifts inwards or towards the left.
Depletion Region
n p n
Narrower Base width

(Less chances of recombination)
Base Width Modulation
The input characteristic of BJT (Si) with varying output voltage VCB
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base Configuration (Input Characteristics)
Base Width Modulation or Early Effect :

➢The emitter–base junction is unchanged because the emitter–base
voltage (VBE =0.7V )is the same.
➢A greater reverse bias across the collector- base junction increases the collector-
base depletion width. There is a variation in the width of the base in a bipolar
transistor due to a variation in the applied base-to-collector voltage.
➢ Base-narrowing has two consequences that affect the current:

• There is a lesser chance for recombination within the "smaller" base region.
•The charge gradient is increased across the base, and consequently, the current of
minority carriers injected across the collector-base junction increases, which is called
ICB0
➢ The Early effect is observed as an increase in the collector or "output“ current with
increasing collector-emitter voltage.
(Output Characteristics)
The output characteristic of BJT (Si) with varying input current IE

- The active region is defined by the biasing arrangements.

- At the lower end of the active region the emitter current ( IE ) is
zero,and the collector current is simply that due to the reverse
saturation current ICO,as indicated in Fig in Slide #9 .
- The current ICO is so small (microamperes) in magnitude
compared to the vertical scale of IC (milliamperes) that it
appears on virtually the same horizontal line as IC0.
- The circuit conditions that exist when IE = 0 for the common-
base configuration are shown in Fig. in slide #9 .
-
- The notation most frequently used for ICO on data and

specification sheets is,as indicated in Fig. in slide #9 , ICBO (the
collector-to base current with the emitter leg open).
- Because of improved construction techniques, the level of I
CBO for general-purpose transistors in the low- and mid-power
ranges is usually so low that its effect can be ignored.
- However, for higher power units ICBO will still appear in the
microampere range.
- In addition, keep in mind that I CBO , like I s , for the diode
(both reverse leakage currents) is temperature sensitive.
- At higher temperatures the effect of I CBO may become an
important factor since it increases so rapidly with temperature.
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base Configuration –
- As the applied voltage VCB increases there is a point where the

curves take a dramatic upswing in Fig. in slide #9.
- This is due primarily to an avalanche effect similar to that
described for the diode when the reverse-bias voltage reached
the breakdown region.
- As stated earlier the base-to-collector junction is reversed
biased in the active region, but there is a point where too large a
reverse-bias voltage will lead to the avalanche effect.
- The result is a large increase in current for small increases in
the base-to-collector voltage.
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base Configuration –
- The largest permissible base-to-collector voltage is labeled BV

CBO as shown in Fig in slide #9 .
- It is also referred to as V(BR)CBO.
- Note in each of the above notations the use of the uppercase
letter O to represent that the emitter leg is in the open state
(not connected).
- It is important to remember when taking note of this data point
that this limitation is only for the common-base configuration. - -
- You will find in the common-emitter configuration that this
limiting voltage is quite a bit less.
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: Common Base Configuration (Output
Characteristics)
➢Active region: The operating range of the amplifier. It is noticed that IE is
approximately equal to IC (IE ≈ IC ). BJT is a current controlled device in the active
region and is independent of the output voltage VCB
➢Cut-off region: The region where the collector current IC is approximately equal to
0 mA (IC = ICBO ). The device is basically OFF i.e., there’s no voltage, but negligible
current.
Reverse saturation current
➢ Saturation region: The region to the left of VCB = 0V. Note that, exponential
increase in collector current IC as the VCB approaches 0V.
Unit 1 – Class 16 - Transistor: CB Configuration
(Approximations)
➢ Emitter and collector current: IE ≈ IC .
➢ Base – emitter voltage (VBE): VBE = 0.7V (Si).
Alpha (α): it is the ratio of IC to IE.
For AC mode :
α - Current amplification factor or current gain in CB config.
THANK YOU

Engineering
Unit 1 – Class 17 – Transistor configurations – common emitter

configurations – input & output characteristics
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Emitter Configuration
➢The arrow in the diagram, indicates the direction of the emitter

current.
➢The NPN BJT requires two voltage sources VBB and VCC to bias the two
junctions respectively.
A NPN transistor used in Common Emitter (CE) configuration

➢The arrow in the diagram, indicates the direction of the emitter current
and we can observe that the direction of the current in this type of
transistor is opposite to that of a NPN transistor.
➢The PNP BJT requires two voltage sources VBB and VCC to bias the two
junctions respectively.
A PNP transistor used in Common Emitter (CE) configuration

The biasing of PNP and NPN transistor to operate in active region

➢Since the analogy of transistor is two diodes connected back-to-
back. One diode is forward biased and the other is reverse biased
for the device to operate in active region.
➢Hence, biasing the emitter base junction (EBJ) in forward bias

condition, gives the input characteristic of the device, keeping the
output voltage constant.
Transistor: Common Emitter Configuration (Input Characteristics)
For the transistor in CE configuration, when the output voltage VCE is
increased, this high voltage initiates an decrease in the current
through the device and hence the graph shifts towards the right.
The input characteristic of BJT (Si) with varying output voltage VCE
Transistor: Common Emitter Configuration (Output Characteristics)
The output characteristic of BJT (Si) with varying input current IB

- For the common-emitter configuration the output characteristics are a
plot of the output current (IC ) versus output voltage (VCE ) for a range of
values of input current (IB).
- The input characteristics are a plot of the input current (IB) versus the
input voltage (VBE) for a range of values of output voltage (VCE).
- Note that on the characteristics of Figure the magnitude of IB is in
microamperes, compared to milliamperes of IC .
- Consider also that the curves of IB are not as horizontal as those
obtained for IE in the common-base configuration, indicating that the
collector-to emitter voltage will influence the magnitude of the
collector current.
- The active region for the common-emitter configuration is that
portion of the upper-right quadrant that has the greatest linearity,
that is,that region in which the curves for IB are nearly straight and
equally spaced.
- In Fig. this region exists to the right of the vertical dashed line at V
CEsat and above the curve for IB equal to zero.
- The region to the left of V CEsat is called the saturation region.
- The cutoff region for the common-emitter configuration is not as well
defined as for the common-base configuration.
- Note on the collector characteristics that IC is not equal to zero when I
B is zero.
- For the common-base configuration, when the input current IE was
equal to zero, the collector current was equal only to the reverse
saturation current ICO ,so that the curve IE = 0 and the voltage axis
were, for all practical purposes, one.
Transistor: Common Emitter Configuration (Output Characteristics)
➢Active region: The B-E junction is forward biased. C-B junction is

reverse biased.
VBE < VCE < VCC , Ic = β*IB. Control
➢ Cut-off region: The B-E junction is reverse biased.

No Current flow.
➢ Saturation region: The B-E and C-B junction are forward biased.
Ic reaches a maximum which is independent of IB and β.
➢ Breakdown region: Ic and VCE exceed specifications and damage

the transistor.
Transistor: CE DC current gain (Approximations)
Common Emitter – Active Bias mode:
IE = DCIB + ICE0
IC = DCIE + ICB0
= DC(IC + IB) + ICB0 DC = DC /(1-DC)
GAIN !!
IC = DCIB + ICB0
1-DC
CE Transistor: Early effect
➢So the emitter current variation with the emitter-to-base voltage will
be similar to the forward characteristic of a p–n junction diode.
➢An increase in the magnitude of the collector-to-base voltage (VCB)

causes the emitter current to increase for a fixed VEB . When |VCB|
increases, the depletion region in the collector–base junction widens
and reduces the base width. This is known as the Early effect.
Graphical representation of early voltage

References
➢ Robert. L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic devices and

circuit theory “, PHI, 10th Edition, 2009.
➢ S.M. Sze and Kwok K. NG. “Physics of Semiconductor Devices”,

Wiley, 3rd Edition, 2007.
➢ Michael Shur “Physics of Semiconductor Devices”, Prentice Hall,

1st Edition, 1990.
THANK YOU
Communication Engineering
Ms. Hema N
MOSFET
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
Ms. Hema N
MOSFET Characteristics
 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor is abbreviated as MOSFET
MOSFETs vs. BJTs
Similarities:
• Amplifiers
• Switching devices
Differences:
• MOSFETs are voltage controlled devices.
BJTs are current controlled devices.
• MOSFETs have a higher input impedance.

BJTs have higher gains.
• MOSFETs are less sensitive to temperature variations and are more easily integrated on ICs.
Types Of MOSFET
MOSFET: Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor FET
 D-MOSFET: Depletion MOSFET

 E-MOSFET: Enhancement MOSFET
JFET operation can be compared to a water spigot
The source of water pressure is the accumulation of electrons at the negative pole of the drain-source voltage.
The drain of water is the electron deficiency (or holes) at the positive pole of the applied voltage.
The Gate of flow of water is the gate voltage that controls the width of the n-channel and therefore, the flow of
charges from source to drain.
E-Type MOSFET Construction
• The Drain (D) and Source (S) connect to the to n-doped regions.
• These n-doped regions are connected via an n-channel
• The Gate (G) connects to the p-doped substrate via a thin insulating
layer of SiO2
• There is no channel present.
• The n-doped material lies on a p-doped substrate that may have an

additional terminal connection called the Substrate (SS)
• When VGS =0, ID =0 because n-channel is absent.
• VGS is always positive. When VGS>0 & VDS>0 , a

depletion region is created near the SiO2 layer void of
holes.
• As VGS increases, concentration of electrons near the

SiO2 layer increases and there is some flow between
drain and source
• The level of VGS that results in the significant increase

in ID is called the Threshold Voltage VT
• As VGS>VT is constant and VDS is increased, then ID

saturates (IDSS) and the saturation level, VDSsat is
reached.
The enhancement-type MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode.

E-Type MOSFET Transfer Curve
To determine ID given VGS:

2
I D =k ( V GS −V T )
Where:
VT = threshold voltage or voltage at which the
MOSFET turns on
k, a constant, can be determined by using

values at a specific point and the formula:
I D (ON )
k=
( V GS( ON ) −VT )2 VDSsat can be calculated by: VDSsat = VGS  VT
p-Channel E-Type MOSFETs
The p-channel enhancement-type MOSFET is similar to the n-channel, except that the voltage polarities and
current directions are reversed.
MOSFET Symbols
THANK YOU
Ms. Hema N
MOSFET
Ms. Hema N
MOSFETs vs. BJTs
Similarities:
• Amplifiers
Differences:

Types Of MOSFET

layer of SiO2


holes.

drain and source


reached.


2
Where:
MOSFET turns on

I D (ON )
k=
MOSFET Symbols
THANK YOU
Ms. Hema N
MOSFET
Ms. Hema N
MOSFETs vs. BJTs
Similarities:
• Amplifiers
Differences:

Types Of MOSFET

layer of SiO2


holes.

drain and source


reached.


2
Where:
MOSFET turns on

I D (ON )
k=
MOSFET Symbols
THANK YOU

EPD Unit 1 Slides

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ELECTRONIC PRINCIPLES

Basic circuit elements are:

1.Passive Elements: Resistor, and Inductor and Capacitor

2. Active Elements: Voltage Source and Current Source

Resistor: It resists the flow of current

Inductor Inductor: It holds the charge in the form

Capacitor Capacitor: It holds the

Voltage Source: Dependent and Independent voltage

Current Source: Dependent and Independent current

Voltage is directly proportional to Current and the

It has the units of Ohms (Ω)

According to Ohm’s law : V=IR

Voltage is proportional to the integral of

Voltage is proportional to the differential of the current in

Based on the table below, the between

R1 = V / I = 1.50 / 0.08 = 18.75 Ohm

Solution: Capacitor voltage is related to

atomic number of silicon=14 atomic number of germanium=32

The p-type material is formed by doping a with

Class 2 – Diode Characteristics

Diode : Diode : Two – electrodes

• Knee voltage (Vk) is also known as cut

From the characteristics curve of a

Ideal Diode: When an ideal diode is

Unit 1 – Class 3 – Shockley’s Equation,

Shockley’s Equation also called the

Avalanche breakdown : In the reverse

Hence Covalent bonds are broken and

These charge carriers acquire energy

A covalent bond is formed by the equal

Hence the depletion layer region is narrow

When a small reverse bias voltage is

Due to this electric fied covalent bond

Unit 1 – Class 4 – Temperature effects

• The Effect of variation in temperature across a

• Rise in temperature generates more electron-hole pair thus

• PN junction diode parameters like reverse saturation current,

• Increase in the temperature increases carrier concentration.

Under Forward Bias the Change in Temperature

Under Reverse Bias the Change in Temperature

Reverse breakdown voltage (VR) also increases

The Reverse saturation current of silicon diode at 20 degree

• An actual diode offers a very small resistance (not zero) when

• Type of applied voltage or signal will define

• The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode

• Typically, the dc resistance of a diode in:

• The application of a small AC voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor

•Where rB is body resistance

Unit 1 – Class 5 – Diode Equivalent

Diode approximation is a mathematical method used to

There are three different approximations used to analyze the

I. First Approximation (Ideal Diode Characteristics)

first approximation method, the diode is considered as a

In the second approximation, the diode is considered as a forward-biased

Unit 1 – Classes 7 & 8 – Series diode &

• It’s assumed that the forward resistance of the diode is

Forward Bias Analysis (for silicon)

Determine Vout and Id for the given series diode

Solution: Re-draw the given circuit based on

Determine Vo , I1 , ID1, and ID2 for the parallel diode

Determine I1, , I2 , and ID2 for the series- parallel diode

Hint: Where Diodes D1 & D2 are forward Biased.