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Contents vii
Recommended Readings 65
Internet Resources 65
4 Theories of Senescence and Aging 66

An Overview 66
SENIOR VIEW 67
Programmed Theories 68
Biological Clock 68
Evolution 70
Hormones 71
A Middle Category 73
Immune System 73
Unprogrammed Theories 73
Wear and Tear 73
Free Radicals 74
PROJECT 4 75
Garbage Accumulation 76
S O C I A L P O L I C Y A P P L I C AT I O N S 76
DNA Damage and Repair 77
All (Many) of the Above 77
Chapter Highlights 79
Study Questions 79
5 Health and Longevity 81

Overview 81
■ BOX 5-1 Increasing Longevity in WEIRD Ways 82
Factors Beyond One’s Control 83
Factors Within One’s Control 84
Diet 85
SENIOR VIEW 86
■ BOX 5-2 Determining Your Body Mass Index 89
Exercise 89
■ B O X 5 - 3 Sweets for the Sweet 91
Supplements 92
viii Contents
Tobacco 94
PROJECT 5 Searching for the Fountain of Youth 95
Alcohol 96
Stress 96
Other Factors 97
Gender 97
Race/Culture/SES 100
Social Support 102
Quality of Life 103
■ BOX 5-4 Estimating Your Own Life Expectancy 105
Study Questions 107
PA RT T WO Aging and Our Minds 109
6 Sensation, Perception, and Slowing with Age 111

Sensation and Perception 111
Vision 111
SENIOR VIEW 112
■ BOX 6-1 Older Drivers 115
Hearing 115
Smell, Taste, Touch, and Balance 118
Slowing 120
Falls 123
Time 125
PROJECT 6 126

Study Questions 128
Recommended Reading 128
Contents ix
7 Memory and Cognition 130

An Overview of Memory Processing 130
Sensory Memory 131
Working Memory 131
SENIOR VIEW 132
■ BOX 7-1 A Walk Through the Library 133
Long-Term Memory 133
Memory System 134
Memory and Aging 135
Working Memory and Aging 135
Long-Term Memory and Aging 136
■ B O X 7 - 2 Remembering Old Memories Better than
New Memories 138
Metamemory 140
PROJECT 7 141
Memory Improvement 144

Study Questions 147
8 Intelligence, Wisdom, and Creativity 148

Intelligence 149
SENIOR VIEW 149
What Is Intelligence? 150
Age Differences in Intelligence 151
■ B O X 8 - 1 Terminal Drop 155
Real-World Adult Intelligence 156
Problem Solving 158
■ B O X 8 - 2 Problem Solving 159
Selective Optimization with Compensation 159
Expertise 160
■ B O X 8 - 3 Examples of Selective Optimization with Compensation 160
Wisdom 162
x Contents
Creativity 164
PROJECT 8 169
What Can We Conclude? 169

Study Questions 170
PA RT T H R E E Aging and Our Selves 173
9 Personality 175
An Overview of Personality 175
SENIOR VIEW 176
Measures of Personality 177
Levels of Personality 179
Traits 179
Five-Factor Theory of Personality 179
Age Difference in Traits 180
Personal Concerns 182
■ BOX 9-1 Traits and Fears of Aging 182
PROJECT 9 Age/Cohort Differences in Personal Concerns 183
Erikson’s Stages of Lifespan Development 184
■ B O X 9 - 2 Age and Androgyny 188
Age Differences in Coping 188
Two Views 189
Responding to Problems 189
Control 192
Identity 195
■ BOX 9-3 A Life Story 198
Personality, Health, and Well-Being 199

Study Questions 203
Contents xi
10 Relationships 205
Social Support 205
SENIOR VIEW 206
PROJECT 10 Social Networks 209
Family Relationships 213

Marriage, Gay/Lesbian Unions, Divorce, and Remarriage 213
■ B O X 1 0 - 1 Elder Abuse 217
Sexual Relations 221
Siblings 224
Intergenerational Relationships 226
■ B O X 1 0 - 2 Custodial Grandparents 229
Friends 230
Religion 234
■ BOX 10-3 Shepherd’s Centers 237
Isolation and Loneliness 238
Study Questions 239
11 Work and Retirement 241

Work 241
Injury and Absence 242
SENIOR VIEW 243
Job Performance 245
Learning New Procedures 247
Job Satisfaction 248
Job Discrimination 248
PROJECT 11 Discrimination Against Older Workers 250
Retirement 254
Demographics of Retirement 254
Phases of Retirement 258
■ B O X 1 1 - 1 Some Top Retirement Locations 259
■ B O X 1 1 - 2 People in Different Phases of Retirement 261
Adjustment to Retirement 262
xii Contents
■ BOX 11-3 Cultural Differences in Retirement 263


Study Questions 272
PA RT F O U R Aging and Our Survival 275
12 Psychopathology 277
Overview 277
Alcohol Abuse 278
SENIOR VIEW 279
■ BOX 12-1 Alcoholism and Ethnicity 280
Depression 281
Suicide 287
Acute Cognitive Disorders 289
Dementia 293
■ B O X 1 2 - 2 Animal Dementias 294
Less Frequent Forms of Dementia 294
Vascular Dementia 297
Parkinson’s Disease 297
Alzheimer’s Dementia 299
■ B O X 1 2 - 3 Dementia Treatments Used by Families 310
Caregiving 311
PROJECT 12 Be A Volunteer 314
Study Questions 315
13 Healthy/Helpful Environments: Places and People 317

How Spaces Become Places or How We Fit In 317
Types of Person-Environment Congruence 318
Contents xiii
SENIOR VIEW 319

Where We Live in Old Age 321
■ B O X 1 3 - 1 Cultural Perspectives on Housing for Older Adults 322
The Need for Assistance 325
Community-Based Long-Term Care 326
■ B O X 1 3 - 2 Services for Elders at Home 326
■ B O X 1 3 - 3 Financing Long-Term Health Care 328
Retirement Communities and Assisting Living 330
Quality of Life in Institutional Environments 331
Help or Enabling Environments 333
Human Factors Approach 333
Home Modifications 335
PROJECT 13 Check Out Your Home 335
■ BOX 13-4 When Is a Door Not a Door? 339
Study Questions 340
Recommended Reading 341
14 Death and Bereavement 342

Death 342
SENIOR VIEW 343
Causes of Death 343
■ B O X 1 4 - 1 Death Around the World 345
Advance Directives 346
■ B O X 1 4 - 2 Terri Schiavo 347
Euthanasia 351
■ B O X 1 4 - 3 Physician Assisted Suicide 352
Hospice 353
The Dying Experience 355
Bereavement 356
Mourning
356
■ BOX 14-4 Selected Religious and Cultural Differences in Mourning 357
PROJECT 14 Plan Your Own Funeral 360
Grief 360
xiv Contents
Support for the Bereaved 370

Study Questions 373
PA RT F I V E Aging and You 375
15 Looking to the Future 377

Principles and Issues 377
SENIOR VIEW 378
Age and Well-Being 379

PROJECT 15 Autobiography Project 382
The Future 384
Our Future Bodies 385
Our Future Minds 387
Our Future Selves 390
Our Future Survival 391
Study Questions 395
References 397
Name Index 465
Subject Index 475
Photo Credits 487

P R E FAC E
We began this book after searching for a textbook for our own undergraduate classes in
adult development and aging that better fit our model of gerontology education. We
searched for a book that balanced science and application; was complex enough to chal-
lenge students to think critically about issues; was interesting, friendly, and readable with-
out being demeaning, shallow, or all too often, unfortunately, boring; and one that reflected
the diversity and multidisciplinary nature of gerontology. Unable to find a textbook that
fulfilled all our needs, we set out to produce one that would. We hope we have succeeded
in all our aims.
Organization
Human Aging is organized like many other adult development and aging books in that it
begins with an overview of gerontology and research methods. Chapter 1 introduces
gerontology and will give you an idea of why the study of aging is more important now
than ever before. Chapter 2 presents the basics of the research methods used in aging and
introduces the guiding principles and major issues addressed by the research and theory
described in the remaining chapters. The next thirteen chapters are divided into five major
sections.
■ Aging and Our Bodies(Chapters 3, 4, and 5) looks closely at physical changes, pro-
posed explanations for why those changes occur with advanced age, and what can
be done to prolong health and longevity. We believe it is important to cover these
physical changes first since much of what comes later depends on these changes.
■ Aging and Our Minds (Chapters 6, 7, and 8) progresses from changes in our
senses, how these affect perceptions, and the slowing that occurs with advanced age.
These changes underlie many of the changes in memory and higher cognitive
processes, which are covered in the latter two chapters. Later sections depend on stu-
dents knowing the mental and physical changes that can occur in adulthood.
■ Aging and Our Selves (Chapters 9, 10, and 11). The focus in this section is on our
social selves. We examine personality, social support, and social relationships, and
end with work and retirement. You will find our chapters on personality and social
relationships quite different from those in other texts.
■ Aging and Our Survival (Chapters 12, 13, and 14) looks at those conditions that
threaten or facilitate our survival. From the psychopathologies of Chapter 12,
through the environmental design and caregiving of Chapter 13, to death and be-
reavement in Chapter 14, we try to clarify complex issues and tie them back to the
material presented earlier.
xv
xvi Preface
■ Aging and You (Chapter 15) reviews some of the most important information you
have learned in relation to the principles raised in Chapter 2, discusses the overall
well-being of older adults today, and projects the likely state of affairs for your
bodes, minds, selves, and survival over the next 30 to 50 years.
Features
Our approach has several main features. First, we try to make it clear that to understand
aging and older adults it is necessary to integrate research and theory from a number
of different disciplines; gerontology is inter- and multidisciplinary. We, thus, include
work from biology, medicine, psychology, sociology, and even economics in our pre-
sentation. Second we try to focus the reader on the science of aging. The questions in
aging are difficult to answer and we want to make it clear (1) why they are difficult,
(2) how social scientists attempt to handle such difficulties, and (3) the successes (and
failures) they have had so far. Real age differences and age/cohort differences are ex-
plained first and then highlighted throughout the discussion of research findings in var-
ious content areas. We present both sides of all issues as fairly as we can and the
evidence as it exists currently.
Third, we tried to write the text to be friendly, active, and fun. It contains projects
that you can try out (at home), a fair amount of humor, and is, hopefully, relatively easy to
read. We attempt to relate the research findings to real life experiences and to use familiar
examples. We have tried to clarify rather than simplify. We believe that learning should be
an enjoyable and active experience; therefore, we attempt to engage the reader with
thought-provoking questions.
Fourth, the text has applied foci throughout. We try to show how current research
findings are now being applied in the real world and/or how they might be applied in the
near (or not so near) future. Some applications are general and some are specific. Some
applications are ones that you can use to help yourself and/or aging relatives and/or
friends. We strongly advocate this application.
Fifth, the text is realistic and positive. Using the results of research, we present
things as they are. Too often texts in aging become either negative or overly jolly. Our ap-
proach is positive because we believe there are many more genuine pluses to aging than
there are minuses. We are conscious, however, of the “glossing” of aging that often occurs
in some publications and we try to avoid excesses in this direction.
Sixth, we have tried to weave the evolution of the field throughout our presentation.
The study of older adults is continually changing and, as cohorts also change, some find-
ings may be only temporary. What we know now may be very different than what we know
by the time our readers are old—just as what we thought we knew in decades past may no
longer be true today.
Seventh, we have tried to include crosscultural comparisons and ethnic group com-
parisons whenever possible. Diversity is an important part of the study of aging and where
available we have discussed group and cultural differences both for the aging population
in the United States and across the world.
Preface xvii
Learning Aids
Each chapter also contains a number of specific learning aids to assist the reader. Each
chapter opens with a quote from some well-known person that sets the tone and expresses
the main theme of the chapter. We want to focus the reader on the important point(s) right
at the start.
Each chapter also presents a Senior View. Senior Views are interviews that were
conducted with a number of different adults and include a photograph of each senior that
helps introduce the main topics in each chapter. We believe that information should be pre-
sented in a number of different ways if it is to be assimilated successfully—these inter-
views are one way of presenting important information. When the theory, research, and a
real older adult all agree on some finding, that finding is likely to be remembered. When
they disagree, that disagreement is also likely to be remembered. We were very impressed
with the knowledge displayed by these older adults. Senior Views make the presentation
more varied and show the operation of chapter content in real life with real people. Many
students miss the opportunity to discuss class material with an older adult; this is an at-
tempt to give you that source of information. This is a unique aspect of our text.
Each chapter includes a Project that you can do. The emphasis is on attempting to
address some question raised in the text and providing a project that can either be done rel-
atively simply or turned into a more elaborate project for possible independent study at a
later date. Active learning is important; this is an attempt to provide such opportunities.
Our projects have been tested successfully in the classroom and have been found to be
helpful and enjoyable.
Each chapter contains a number of Boxes that add information to the text presenta-
tion. Generally the information added is outside the main focus but clearly of related in-
terest. Some of these are in-depth looks at particular pieces of research, others are
vignettes that describe real people experiencing the situations covered in the text, some are
applications of the research that has been discussed, and some just provide interesting in-
formation. New to this edition are a number of Social Policy Application boxes that high-
light important issues that are currently or soon will be topics of pubic debate. We try to
be neither conservative nor liberal in our presentation and hope our readers will draw their
own conclusions. More importantly, we hope that readers will see areas in which they can
actively participate in advocating for older adults.
Each chapter contains numerous tables and figures to present relevant procedures,
methods, and results. We have received permission to reproduce some of these from other
authors whereas we have created others ourselves. This graphic presentation helps students
assimilate written text.
Each chapter ends with a section containing Chapter Highlights and Study Ques-
tions which summarize the main points and allow readers to test themselves on knowledge
gained and on where to study more.
We have provided Recommended Readings and Internet Resources for the topics
presented in each chapter. We know that most students (most people) use the Internet today
and we hope that our listed sites will encourage an active search for additional and related
information.
xviii Preface
Supplementary Materials
Please visit the companion website at www.routledge.com/9780205544011
Acknowledgments
We want to thank a great number of people who helped us in preparing this new edition.
From Allyn and Bacon we tip our hats to Stephen Frail and Mary K. Tucker for their con-
tinual involvement with the book. We owe much to Marty Tenney of Modern Graphics for
her advice and assistance.
We wish to thank our colleagues, friends, and family who said encouraging words,
smiled, and always gave us thumbs up. We thank the University of North Carolina and
Queens University of Charlotte for their continued support.
We wish to thank the reviewers, hired by Allyn and Bacon, who gave us much en-
couragement along with constructive criticism and helpful suggestions.
John Coggins, Purdue North Central

Joanne Gonsalves, Salem State College
Lesea Lorenzen Huber, Indiana University
David Layman, New York University
Cheeryl Shirley, Drury University
We thank all the older adults who gave of their time and knowledge for each chap-
ter’s Senior View: Joyce Shealy (1), Arthur and Ruth Kingberg (2), Clifford and Lucia
Pauling and Lori Fincher (3), Martha Russell (4), Walter Donham (5), Mabel Davis (6),
Edward and Isabelle Peltz (7), Mae Taylor and Jack Palis (8), Jane Hege and Tolly Kleck-
ley (9), Pauline and Lister Hopkins, Tom and Eleanor McNair, Edwin Schmidt, and Carol
Milheim (10), Frank Ochoa and Pat Shelley (11), Edna Carpenter and Wanda Washburn
(12), May Lee (13), and Tat Kleckley (14).
We thank our students who assisted in gathering data for many parts of the book in-
cluding the Senior Views in each chapter. We especially thank Arlo Clark-Foos who is cur-
rently a graduate student in psychology at the University of Georgia and has taught us how
to appreciate our field through new eyes. He has been quick (perhaps too quick) to offer
suggestions on how to appeal to college students in writing, pictures, graphs, and other
aspects of the text. As parents we know that we learn much from our children. We have
high hopes that the next generation of our family, starting with Aleigha, will carry on the
tradition of honoring our elders. A final thanks goes to our parents, Clarence, Joan, Norma,
John, and Madge and Grandma and Grandpa Clark, Collignon, Halm, and Foos who in-
stilled in us the spark that became our love for aging.
Paul W. Foos
M. Cherie Clark
Human Aging
Page Intentionally Left Blank
CHAPTER
1 An Introduction to
Human Aging
Old age is like everything else. To make a success of it you have to

start young.
—Fred Astaire
Y ou have to start young. Regardless of how young, or old, you now are, you are continually
becoming older. To make your aging successful, you need to start young and our text and this
course will help you do just that. You will learn about things that typically change as we grow
older and things that typically do not. You will learn that some change is beneficial while
other change is not. We will examine the mind and body, our inner and outer selves, the soci-
ety we live in, and the interactions among these different components of human aging. To
give you an up close and personal view, each chapter will begin with the views of an older
adult about the topics covered in that chapter. In our first Senior View, Dr. Joyce Shealy tells
about her early introduction to the importance of learning, her relentless pursuit of educa-
tion—sometimes in the face of obstacles—and her continuing quest to know more. She
shows how the search for knowledge can be a habit, one that serves well into old age and one
that brings lifelong fun. Let us begin the joy of learning about aging, about ourselves.
Why Study Human Aging?

Why study human aging? Why study older people? One might also ask why study chil-
dren, history, poetry, or why study at all? A simple answer is that we study things so that
we can know more about them. We want to know more about them because we as humans
value knowledge and because knowledge can help improve our lives. One reason for
studying human aging is that we value knowledge and want to learn more.
We also study aging because it is something that we all are doing every day, and
hope to continue doing for many more decades. The alternative could be quite unpleasant.
The study of human aging has direct relevance to the way we live. Every day that you live,
you are aging, as are your family and friends. The things you learn from this book—and
any other reading that you do—can influence the choices you make for yourself and your
loved ones for the rest of your life. Another major reason for studying human aging is
because you are human and you are aging. The things you learn may help you to age
successfully.
1
2 CHAPTER 1
Senior View
We talked with Dr. Joyce Shealy, professor emeri- ence. Even then I had an interest in psychology as
tus of psychology at Queens University of Char- my thesis examined the personality characteris-
lotte, North Carolina, about the importance of tics of South Carolina legislators. I compared
education and learning. Joyce was 80 years old them to a control group of similar men who were
members of a club my father belonged to. This
when we spoke with her and recently retired from
was a fun study but my advisor published my the-
a career of over 40 years of teaching. sis and put me in a footnote.
I had a hard time finding a job I really
liked. I taught modern dance for a year and then
taught history, political science, psychology, and
sociology at Lees McRae College for another
year. I served as faculty sponsor for a number of
student organizations but still had the itch to see
and do more. I moved back to Columbia and
worked as a research assistant for the Bureau of
Public Administration.
I was interested in personnel issues and
my father thought a psychology degree was the
best a person could get so I went to Ohio State
to get another graduate degree, this time in
industrial/organizational psychology. When I
completed my MA, my professor told me that as
a woman, I could not continue there for my doc-
torate in I/O psychology and should consider a
counseling degree. That’s not what I wanted so I
took the next semester off and moved to UNC
Chapel Hill to work on my PhD.
My specialization there was in psycho-
Joyce was born in Bucyrus, Ohio, and metrics and I was fortunate to have worked
moved with her family to Chicago, then New Jer- with Dr. Thurstone. When I finished, I got a
sey, and finally to the South Carolina pecan farm research assistant position working in special
where her family originated. We asked her to share education at the University of Delaware. How-
the educational influences and experiences she had ever, I was not happy there as my heart was in
across her life. She said her father influenced her the south, so I returned to North Carolina where
love of learning that has pervaded her life. She re- I became a professor of psychology at Queens
peated his words of advice: Don’t get married right College (now Queens University) of Charlotte.
away; learn who you are first; never stop learning. I loved teaching and miss it now that I’ve re-
tired. I still get together, once a year, with some
Here is what she told us.
former students who are now psychologists and
I spent 2 years at Winthrop University, where my judges. I also love learning and have not re-
mother went to school. Despite my mother’s urg- tired from that. I take classes at Wake Forest
ing to stay there, I needed to branch out. I wanted University and take advantage of other oppor-
to go someplace else; my dream was New York. tunities as they arise. I am now a docent at the
My parents let me transfer to the University of Reynolda Museum and a volunteer at the hu-
South Carolina in Columbia because that’s where mane society. I won’t stop learning and you
my brother was and they believed he would watch shouldn’t either.
over me. I earned my BA and MA in political sci- My advice is to continue your education.
An Introduction to Human Aging 3
Finally, we study human aging because that area of study is becoming more important
with each passing year. A major reason for the importance of this area of study, and the in-
creasing interest in aging, is because changes are occurring in the world population, particu-
larly in countries such as the United States. The number and proportion of older adults in the
U.S. population is likely to increase for quite some time. The growing number of older adults
will impact everything in our lives. Here are just a few examples. Transportation will change
as older drivers demand better public transportation. Older people vote in greater numbers
than other age groups so policies and legislation will reflect their interests. More leisure and
recreation opportunities will be developed in response to this large age cohort. Family dy-
namics may change as more grandparents and great-grandparents are available to give ad-
vice and help to younger people. Finally, this growing segment of the population will create
job and career opportunities in fields that serve older consumers. The population is changing
and the more we learn about it, the better equipped we will be to succeed.
Changes in Population
The number and proportion of older adults among the world population will continue to
increase for the foreseeable future. In 1900, about 4 percent of the U.S. population was 65
and older (about 3 million people). In 1996, about 13 percent were 65 and older (about 35
million) (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000). It is not just that there are a greater number of
older people; the population has grown and there are more people of every age. The im-
portant point is that the proportion of older people continues to increase. In 1900, 1 out of
every 25 people was 65 and older. In 1990, it was 1 out of every 10. By 2030, it is expected
that 1 out of every 4 or 5 will be 65 or older. That’s 85 million older Americans. This
change is taking place in technologically advanced and industrialized countries all over the
globe. Can you imagine how different things might be with such a large proportion of older
adults? How old will you and your loved ones be in 2030?
There are a number of factors that are responsible for the drastic change in popula-
tion including the unprecedented number of people in the baby boom generation, lower
birth rate, and changes in life expectancy.
Soon there will be many

more older adults.
4 CHAPTER 1
Baby Boom Generation. The baby boom generation refers to those individuals born be-
tween 1946 and 1964. Following the end of World War II, there was a huge increase in the
number of births as soldiers returned home to their families or married and began a fam-
ily. There were feelings of victory, security, and prosperity and couples felt good about
bringing children into these happy times. They were very successful at having babies and
averaged close to three births per fertile woman (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1989). This
was the highest birth rate since right after the Civil War (1865–1900). The impact of the
baby boom generation on society can be seen throughout history by looking at the growth
of products and programs to serve the needs of the “boomers” and their families. The first
wave of the baby boom generation will reach age 65 in the year 2011. The proportion of
older adults in the population will continue to increase from 2011 until at least 2030.
Birth Rate. Following the great increase after World War II, birth rate has declined. The
average number of births per fertile woman is now less than two and some experts expect
the number to go as low as 1.7. The total proportion, as well as number, of older adults will
be greater over the next several decades than it has ever been. This is where developing
countries differ from developed nations. In developing countries, populations of older per-
sons are not yet on the rise. While their birth rates are still quite high, their life expectancy
remains low.
Lifespan and Life Expectancy. Lifespan refers to the maximum number of years that
an organism in a species can live. Clearly, the lifespan for different species is very differ-
ent and not many species live longer than humans do. Table 1-1 provides some examples
TABLE 1-1 Estimated Lifespans for Some Friends and Acquaintances
Queen honey bee 6 years

Rabbit 13 years
Cat 28 years
Cow 30 years
Dog 34 years
Tape worm 35 years
Gorilla 39 years
Alligator 56 years
Horse 60 years
Eagle 65 years
Elephant 70 years
Blue whale 80 years
Human 122 years
Tortoise 170 years
Italian cypress 2000 years
Bristle cone pine 5000 years
Source: Most of these estimated lifespans were taken from Comfort (1964) and Kimmel
(1990).
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COMMENTS
Building on the ground already gained convinces pupils that the

new habits recommended are not a novelty but an extension of
something they already respect. Only so can unfamiliar customs of
courtesy be introduced, especially if some of the children come from
uncultured homes. It requires real pedagogical skill to convince the
untaught that acts of courtesy are not necessarily hypocritical and
affected.
Good manners come naturally to the adolescent, since this is the
period of display of the person. When once the novelty can be
forgotten there is a warm response in courteous forms of behavior.
Hence, the cautious teacher does not hold up a pupil to scorn or
shame, but deals gently with him on the assumption that he knows
no better.
Imitation is the best agency for teaching courtesy. An
administrator should watch every teacher to ascertain if he treats the
pupils courteously. In bringing visitors into the school, one can select
models of courtesy and immeasurably stimulate student interest in
good manners.
ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)
Arthur Scudder left Vernon College with Dramatizing

all the polish that four years in a
coeducational school could furnish him. He was tall, finely
proportioned, perfectly groomed, easily poised, and fitted to win the
attention of any one who came to know him. Withal, he was quite
unassuming and wore his good manners with a gracious innocence.
After a week at Wellington, he said to himself:
“Something is to be done here. These young bloods and lassies
need a little training in good manners. I believe I’ll try to connect it
up with several other matters and make no separate item of it.”
Accordingly he brought together the English teacher and the
teacher of history for consultation. “I want,” said the principal, “a
play that will exhibit a modern situation, involving Americans, in
considerable numbers, on foreign soil. The plot must involve a
political issue and the characters must exhibit very conspicuously
faultless observance of a large number of the rules of courtesy. Can
we find such a thing?”
It took a month to answer the question. Finally, “Ethel Proctor’s
Peace” was found, examined and accepted. The cast required forty-
one characters; no one of them was burdened with a very heavy part.
It suited Mr. Scudder’s purpose entirely. The scene was at The Hague
and the plot interwove fragments of the great European conflicts,
diplomacy and love. It took two months to prepare it, owing to the
chorus practice that was a necessary feature.
Was the principal disappointed in his scheme? By no means. He
coached his pupils with rare enthusiasm and drilled them into
characters they had never assumed before. He refused to fix the cast
finally, until he had made several shifts; thus he put certain
individuals through some very much needed practice.
The effect was marvelous. In fact the entire school was profoundly
molded by the work done in preparing and giving this splendid play.
Children’s eyes follow their interests. Their attention is absorbed
in that which makes the strongest sense impression. A room full of
children can be managed only by teaching them self-control.
CASE 75 (SECOND GRADE)
The Mapleton primary room was in the Staring at

hands of a genius for the first time in years. Visitors
Miss Tenney was in her first year of teaching, but had put into it an
uncommon amount of vim and sense. She sifted out the best things
from new methods and put them through with tact.
As a consequence, early in the year, visitors began to drop in and
observe her work. They were looking for her weak spot and found it:
the boys and girls could not stick to their work when visitors were
present. For example, Miss Tenney was reported to have said in Mrs.
Wm. Van Kirk’s presence:
“Walter and Clarence, go on with your work now.” “Eleanor and
Pearl, don’t look that way. Look at your book.” “You must go right on
with your school work.”
It was such a delicate matter to handle that no one dared speak to
her about it, so the unfortunate and unnecessary situation is
prevalent to this day.
CONSTRUCTIVE TREATMENT
Give instructions on how to behave when visitors are present at a

time when no stranger is in the room.
Lay the stress on showing some good work to the friends of the
school.
Repeat some of the words of praise that have been spoken
regarding “our work,” and promise a good many more visitors before
long.
Name the children beavers or bees and tell them how well they
have worked and what they may hope to accomplish if every child
will work hard.
Apply the principles of suggestion and approval. Some morning,
say tomorrow morning, when all the pupils before you are fresh and
in a good mood to have suggestions lodged, rise from your chair,
walk around in front of your desk, smiling, and say something like
this: “I want to tell you how proud I am this morning.” Pause at this
point, allowing your pupils to wonder what you are going to say next.
Then continue: “A visitor came in to one of my classes a few days ago
and I noticed a good number of my pupils kept right on with their
work—their heads straight forward, instead of turning around and
bending their necks out of joint trying to see the visitors, as they do
in some schools. Now, a visitor always notices this. I went into a
school once where everyone twisted his neck so much that I
wondered if there wasn’t something wrong with all of them. Then I
have visited other schools where the pupils kept right on with their
work and it looked just fine. The teacher seemed to be proud because
the pupils showed such good manners. I tell you I’m going to watch
from now on and when I see everyone in the room continuing his
work when visitors come, I’ll feel like going to my desk and raising
every one of the grades a notch or two because it’s a good trait in any
school.”
The next time a visitor comes, a greater number of pupils will pay
attention to their work than before, so on the following morning,
again approve your pupils for their good manners in the presence of
yesterday’s visitor, bringing out the point that you noticed several
more yesterday than you ever did before.
One of the most important points about this method is that those
who stare are practically ignored. They are not approved nor even
talked about. In order for them to be included in that class which is
noticed, they must fall into line.
It is important that you spend the smallest amount of time
possible with the visitor when he comes. Simply show him a good
seat and then go about your work as if he were not present. Many
teachers are responsible for their pupils paying so much attention to
the visitor because they are continually going back and talking with
the visitor, explaining various things to him during a class recitation.
In other words, the direction of the teacher’s attention largely
determines the direction of the pupil’s attention.
COMMENTS
Too much attention can easily be devoted to a small matter of this

sort. Miss Tenney, by a little manipulation, could have placed this
staring at visitors where it belonged—in a subordinate relation to the
remainder of her work. Her own absorption prevented her from
properly instructing her pupils when guests were absent. A small
neglect of this sort may nearly undo a very fine piece of work; surely
this will be the case if the children discover that they have free rein
under certain circumstances.
ILLUSTRATION (RURAL SCHOOL)
Rose Holden had charge of the Pines Hill Greeting the

district school for the summer term. Having Visitor
taught in the same district in another settlement, she was well known
before her school opened. Visitors came in somewhat frequently, and
provision for courteous treatment of them was necessary, but such as
would not disturb the school.
“I wish to make the following announcements about visitors,” she
said one day. “When visitors knock I will meet them at the door.
Since there is no space for them to sit in the back of the room, I shall
bring them to the front and shall introduce them to the school. You
will stand and say together: ‘We are glad to see you, Mrs. ——.’ After
that you and the visitors will take seats and you are to go on with
your work. This means that you are to forget that any stranger is in
the room. I shall repeat these instructions now and then so that all
may understand.”
Miss Holden’s pupils all happened to be small children. With an
older class of pupils she would not have requested the formality of
rising. With the little ones, however, the act afforded a brief rest for
the pupils, satisfied their desire to share in greeting the visitors and
made them more willing to return quietly to their study.
CASE 76 (FOURTH GRADE)
Miss Olney had heard that her new room Gazing at

in Virden was not a very good one, but she Visitors
had no idea how awkward and ill-bred children could be until she
saw their actions on the first day, when two mothers and one father
came with new pupils to the school. Visitors were evidently a new
experience for this third grade room, for the pupils stared constantly
at the trio seated on the platform, where they had been placed with
much politeness by Miss Olney.
“You’ll have to pardon the way those children stare at you,” she
said to the visitors. “They don’t seem to be used to company.
Children, let’s see every eye on the lessons, now. It isn’t polite to
stare at company.”
The children opened their books, and gazed at them unseeingly.
Miss Olney turned to Mr. Turner, whose little daughter was a new
pupil, and explained to him the course she would take. “We don’t
have history in this room, I’m sorry to say. Perhaps we can put it in
later. Harvey, do you have your problems? Then why don’t you go to
work? Our guests are not visiting you; they are visiting the room, and
they want to see the room at work.”
Presently she turned to Mrs. Albright, another of the trio, and
began to explain her ideas of teaching. But in the midst of her
explanations she saw Mary Hill and Sara Bly watching her and her
guest.
“Mary and Sara, this is time to get lessons. Dear me, Mrs. Albright,
I do hope you’ll come to see us later, when we have learned to be
better behaved. These children certainly do need some training, and
I intend to give it to them. Look at those little Johnsons; they are
fairly staring a hole through you, Mrs. Young.”
Mrs. Young laughed with her at the staring little Swedes, who
quickly looked at their books in confusion at the evident discussion
of them, and flushed very red. Feeling that they were interfering with
the program of the school, the three visitors soon left, and then Miss
Olney was freer to give her attention to her pupils.
“Now see here,” she began, “there is one thing we might as well
understand first as last. When company comes, I want you to go right
on with your regular work, and I’ll entertain the visitors. Above all
else, don’t stare at them. You get your lessons, or else you’ll fail right
before company, and then think how ashamed you’ll be. I know you
all want to show off before company, don’t you? And instead of
showing off, you all look as countrified and awkward as a lot of little
geese,—just as though you never had company at home.”
Miss Olney did not have much company during the year, but when
she did she went through about this program each time. Her pupils
did not improve in manners; at the end of the year they were as
awkward, self-conscious and ill-bred as in the beginning. She had
utterly failed because she did not know that good manners are
largely taught through imitation.
Usher guests quietly into the room, and place chairs, or allow
pupils to place chairs for them in some part of the room where their
presence will not interfere with school activities. Talk to them, if at
all, so quietly that pupils will not be disturbed in their work. Go on
with school work as though guests were not present; they want to see
the school routine. Your own quiet acceptance of the presence of
guests will help the pupils to regard the visit as less of an event. If the
children stare at guests, attract their attention by some exercise or
talk to them about their work, or let them do some favorite task that
appeals to them strongly. Then, when the company has gone, talk to
them frankly about the matter of staring, and show them how much
more courteous it is not to look at people intently. Never talk about
your pupils to visitors, unless you can say something pleasant of
them; and even compliments should be paid with caution, as the
sweet grace of unconsciousness is easily spoiled in little people. By
your own easy, matter-of-fact politeness to guests, set the pupils a
good example to imitate.
COMMENTS
Miss Olney made several mistakes. First of all, she made her pupils
very conscious of the visitors by putting them upon the platform and
spending her time during lesson-hours talking to them. Company
should never be put upon a platform unless they are to be looked at;
for any child feels that an unusual object, placed directly before him,
must be meant to be seen. Miss Olney had no business asking her
pupils to do what she did not herself do; she spent her time with the
visitors, neglecting her regular program, but asked her pupils to
attend to their lessons. She should have known that voluntary
attention is weak in early childhood, and needs every help to growth.
She made Harvey, Sara, Mary and the little Johnsons very self-
conscious by correcting them before guests, then reproved them for
not going on with their work in complete unconsciousness of
anything unusual. In short, she ignored the value of example in every
way.
Dramatic exercises are a most effective means of reaching small
children, since they offer the elements of vividness and repetition.
ILLUSTRATION (RURAL SCHOOL)

“Hey, there, teacher!” called out Johnny Scott to Miss Strong,
whom he spied across the road. “Say, you didn’t lick me today, did
you? Pa said you would, but I told him where he got off at.”
The men lounging before the postoffice Loud Manners
laughed good-naturedly as Johnny yelled
this greeting to his teacher. She was embarrassed, but not angry, for
she knew Johnny and fine manners had never had a fair chance to
become acquainted. She dreaded going to the postoffice for her
letters, but as she could not have them without making the trip, she
finally mustered up courage and ran the gauntlet of staring idlers.
One of them, Ike Masters, spoke to her as she came out.
“Well, the first day’s done, ain’t it?” he asked with kindly interest.
“An’ you ain’t sorry, now, I’ll bet. If my boy gives you any trouble just
lick the stuffing out of him, an’ I’ll do it again when he gits home if
I’ve hearn about it.” His friends nodded and guffawed their approval,
and Miss Strong escaped with a murmur and a smile. The smile came
because she realized that these mountain people were kindly
disposed toward her and her work, and that their crudeness was that
of ignorance and not that of viciousness.
“We are going to play a game,” she announced the next day, when
regular lessons were done and the happy play-hour had come. “We’re
going to play we are going along the street, and meet each other.
We’ll practice the right way to greet our friends.” She told a little
story of a boy who started out one morning and met various people,
—a lady, whom he greeted with lifted hat; an old man, whose basket
he carried; a stranger, whom he directed; and a lost baby, whom he
took home to his mother. She illustrated graphically the various
stages in this small paragon’s progress, and then asked who wanted
to play that he was Ben Blossom (the name of the model boy). Two
hands went up; really all wanted to play, but games were a new thing
and the children were shy. So these two boys were allowed to put on
their hats and play the little drama of good manners. She herself took
the part of the woman, and greeted the boy who lifted his hat with
sweet courtesy. She hobbled along like an old man, with her satchel
for a basket, and she selected the smallest girl to be the lost baby.
They were all so excited about the play that they forgot to stop at four
o’clock; and Miss Strong promised that they might play it again.
When they played it the second time, Bob Everly took the part of
Ben, and Dicey Snively was the lady. “Good morning, Miss Snively,”
Bob called out cheerily as soon as he entered the room. “How d’ you
do?”
“Aw, that ain’t the way to do it,” Bud Hawkins complained.
“’Tis too,” returned Bob, hotly. “Ain’t it, Miss Strong?”
“Let’s talk about that,” said Miss Strong. “Bob, do you think Ben
Blossom shouted at the lady as soon as he saw her, or did he wait
until he was near her and then spoke in a rather low voice?”
“He waited!” Bud Hawkins put in virtuously.
“I don’t know,” said Bob. “What did he do?”
“He waited until he had almost reached her, and then he lifted his
hat with the hand that was on the other side of her. See if you can
show Bud just how it was done.”
Bob did it beautifully. “Now,” said Miss Strong, “I want to see if
you can bow and lift your hats to me, next time you pass me on the
road, as nicely as Ben Blossom did to that lady he knew. And you’ll
wait until you are near me before you begin to tell me things, won’t
you? I like that so much better than calling out to me.”
“My pop don’t lift his hat,” said Bud. “He says it’s stuck-up.”
“I think it’s stuck-up not to lift your hat,” said the new teacher. “If
you don’t lift your hats, I might think you didn’t like me.”
By means of such little plays Miss Strong taught her mountain
boys and girls the more obvious points of good manners. Gradually
they learned not to shout to her across the road, to address her by
name instead of by the title “Teacher,” and to raise their caps
punctiliously when she passed. A few of the fathers, as eager as their
children to learn the ways of the world, also learned to salute her
courteously; but most of them merely tolerated this innovation as a
harmless fancy of the new teacher’s.
COMMENTS
The use of the dramatic method in dealing with faults based on the
exercise of imitative faculties has these recommendations:
1. It presents the new ideal for imitation vividly; it brings it before
the children in action, with words and gestures.
2. It overcomes the physical inertia of unusedness through
practice. Any one can remember cases in his own childhood
in which he resolved to do a certain thing, but failed when the
chance came through sheer lack of practice; the unschooled
muscles refused to do a new, strange thing. Teachers should
be careful to practice the game several times before
suggesting that the action be made a part of daily life.
3. It gives a pleasant association to the new idea; the association of
play is far more pleasant than that of didactic instruction.
Games and plays can be made very interesting and little
children love them.
ILLUSTRATION 2 (THIRD GRADE)

Another example of the effectiveness of Slouching
the teacher’s own influence in correcting
bad habits formed through imitation, is the experience of a teacher in
a primary room in Ohio. She noticed the bad posture of her little
people on the first day, but was not surprised, as she had known her
predecessor to be a woman of slouchy appearance and stooped
shoulders, although an excellent teacher in other respects. She said
nothing about posture for two weeks, although she took especial
pains to stand and sit correctly herself. She hoped that her silent
example would effect a change.
Silent example does sometimes effect a change, without the need
of any word. This is when the imitators are either startled into
attention through the spectacular nature of the model offered, or are
sensitive to differences in models. In this case the children did not
even notice that their new teacher stood differently from their former
one, for they were not at all sensitive to the difference between good
and bad postures. So Miss Sturdevant began to make her example
effective by making it vivid.
“I want you to look at me a moment,” she said one morning, as she
seated herself before her pupils with her profile turned to them.
“Please notice my shoulders. Do you see anything wrong with them?”
She was badly round-shouldered at that moment. But the children
were so completely unconscious of the problem to be dealt with that
they saw nothing wrong. So Miss Sturdevant straightened her
shoulders quickly.
“Do you like to see my shoulders this way, or as they were before?”
“We like you this way,” one little boy volunteered.
Miss Sturdevant again rounded her shoulders, straightened them,
and showed them how much better she looked with her chest well
out and her shoulders back, than when humped over. When the
children had become sensitive to the difference in her appearance,
she called their attention to their own round shoulders and crowded
chests. There followed a great straightening up, of course. The
teacher drew two pictures upon the blackboard, one showing chest
and shoulders in a good position, and the other showing a boy badly
humped over his desk. Under the first she wrote: “This boy will have
a good figure when he grows up.” Under the second she wrote: “What
kind of a figure will this boy have?” When all this had been done, the
children began to notice Miss Sturdevant’s erect posture, and to
straighten up when she threw her chest out or held her shoulders
back suggestively.
When the first matter of correct sitting posture had been made
clear by repeated example and explanation, good standing posture
was taken up, then position when lying in bed, sitting in an ordinary
chair and so forth. In every case, example was clarified by
explanation and reasons were given. As Miss Sturdevant was a sweet
and attractive woman and loved by her pupils, they eagerly followed
her example and directions, and the bad effects of the former
imitation were practically eliminated by the end of the year.
Sometimes imitation and instruction can be effectively reinforced
by suggestion and approval. For example, some morning when the
pupils are fresh and in a good frame of mind to accept suggestion,
the teacher might say: “I want to tell you how proud I am this
morning” (pausing, allowing the pupils to wonder what will come
next), then continue: “A visitor came into one of my classes a few
days ago and I noticed a good number of my pupils sitting up just as
straight as could be, with their shoulders back like this.” (Here she
should put her shoulders back decidedly.) “Now, a visitor always
notices this. I have visited some schools where the pupils didn’t seem
to have good postures at all, while in other schools where I have
visited, the pupils were all healthy looking, robust, with big, broad
shoulders kept well back. They made a fine appearance. I’m going to
watch from now on and just see how many I can count who keep
their shoulders back. It’s mighty fine to see everyone in the room
sitting up straight. I like to see a straight physique and I am going to
tell you tomorrow morning how many I count today.”
The next morning the teacher should again approve the pupils
regarding how straight they sat the day before, bringing out the fact
that she noticed several more yesterday than ever before.
The skillful use of imitation is a particularly good means of
bettering conditions in schools in which there is no real badness, but
in which quietness and order are absent. It is not enough that
children mean well; they must also learn to work economically and
efficiently, or they are not being educated truly. One reason for the
noisy school-room is that quietness has not been held before
American children as a universal need. There have been teachers
enough who have insisted on a death-like solemnity in school-room
routine, but few that have seen that training in quietness must have a
bigger end in view than mere school-room order. Young people,
having strong nerves and stronger motor impulses, are not naturally
quiet; therefore, the advantage of quietness must be shown them
conclusively, and ways of being quiet, of doing things without
unnecessary noise, must be made concrete by illustration. With the
desirability for quiet and the definite ways of attaining it both made
clear to them, imitation of quiet ways of accomplishing their ends
will follow.
CASE 77 (SIXTH GRADE)
After three weeks’ work following the Quiet Manners

holidays, Miss Herbert found school-room
conditions in Farmerstown gradually declining. A series of
annoyances was instituted; certain troubles seemed to become the
fashion, then die and give place to new ones, none very serious but
all disconcerting. Awaking finally to the situation, she decided to
watch for the next outbreak and deal with it severely.
“Louis Fischer, you dropped your pencil on purpose, I just
believe!” and before she was done with the sentence another and
another went clattering on the floor.
Her eye fell next on Arthur Boyd. “Now, Arthur, I’ve stood this just
as long as I can. You two can just as well begin behaving properly at
once. Get up, both of you! Stand on your seats until I give you
permission to get down.”
With open-mouthed wonder, the two mounted their seats as
ordered and watched with glee the complete absorption of the other
pupils in this novel sight. Some pretence of work was maintained for
fifteen minutes until the two were ordered down from their seats.
The results were not satisfactory. The children felt somewhat
insulted at this form of punishment, at the same time some of them
wanted to star as the object of general attention.
The best remedies for noises of this sort are intense drive on
interesting work, and indifference to the noise, if there is an apparent
concerted movement to annoy the teacher.
In case you find it needful to speak privately to any pupil, assume
that his motives are good all the way through and that he would like
to lay his pencil down properly. Perhaps the following words will be
appropriate:
“I see you have some difficulty in keeping your pencil. My own
desk has a slant and sometimes gives me trouble on that account. If
we will lay our pencils down carefully in the groove, they will surely
stay where they belong.”
COMMENTS
For these minor noises it seems safe to recommend for children in

any grade the methods just outlined. Nothing is surer to provoke
disrespect for a teacher than excessive attention to small annoyances.
On the other hand the best remedy for these trifling troubles is
plenty of hard work.
In nearly every instance the noisy pupil is not a vicious child, but
an active child. Let us recall how eagerly children produce
interminable noises of all sorts when left to their own devices—
banging, whistling, drumming, screeching noises. In school hours
the noise-hunger takes secondary place. The pleasure of creating a
sensation is the chief cause of the annoyance.
ILLUSTRATION (FIFTH GRADE)
Miss Miller came into a very noisy fifth Experiments

grade room, where the pupils were good-
natured and docile, but unused to orderly methods and untrained in
self-control. She won their liking at the outset by her courtesy and
her real mastery of her teaching subjects; therefore she found herself
in a good position, after the first fortnight of establishing her
authority, to attack her great problem of reducing the school-room
routine to quietness and economy of nerve-force.
“I want you to help me make an experiment,” she said one day.
“Yesterday was a rainy day, and we had more than the usual amount
of noise, I think. You spent the whole of your twenty minutes in
studying your mental arithmetic, and yet you made eighty-two
mistakes out of a total of one hundred thirty questions; I kept count
carefully. That was too many by far, wasn’t it? I tried to think how we
could bring up our bad record, and I decided that we make too much
noise in study hour. So I thought we would experiment, and see if we
can get our arithmetic better when we are quiet. I’m going to select
ten pupils today, and let them go off by themselves in quiet places to
study by themselves. Who wants to go? And the rest of us here will be
as quiet as we can be, and we’ll see what the effect will be on our
lessons.”
The children were eager for the novelty of an “experiment,” and of
course it proved to them, as Miss Miller planned it should, that
quietness brings better lessons and that they are learned in less time.
“I wonder if we can reduce the time spent on our arithmetic lesson
to fifteen minutes, and thus have five minutes more for our music, or
for the story hour?” she said. “Of course, we shall need to have the
room very quiet, to do that. Who can suggest ways in which we can
control the noise during study hours?”
Many suggestions came from the children. “We can remember not
to move our feet around after we have placed them on the floor.” “At
home, when baby is asleep, mother has us walk on tiptoe if we have
to cross the room.” “We can have it quiet if everybody makes up his
mind not to whisper once.” “I keep dropping my pencil on the floor,
and I’ve thought of a way to stop that. I’m going to have a string on it
and fasten it to my buttonhole, and then if it does drop it can’t reach
the floor and make a clatter.”
Miss Miller suggested other ways, and they made a list of them on
the blackboard, so as to keep them all in mind. Under the teacher’s
sympathetic leadership, there ensued a campaign to eliminate noise
from study hours. Without mentioning it, Miss Miller enlarged the
scope of their efforts to include quieter ways of passing materials,
walking about the room, and putting away books. Mutual imitation
strengthened the movement; just as these pupils had before imitated
the thoughtless, careless, noisy way of doing things, now they
imitated a thoughtful, controlled method of accomplishing results.
What mischievous noise there had been disappeared automatically
through the force of public opinion; for when the room as a whole
saw the results of a quiet regime, saw that it brought them more time
for the recreational part of the school program, a prejudice against
unnecessary noise developed which rendered the maker thereof
unpopular.
Do not treat noise as a crime. Consider it a disease, or rather a lack

of development, a failure to acquire a desirable skill. Follow this
plan:
1. Show that quiet is really a desirable thing for the pupils

themselves—too often they have an idea that it is merely a
cranky demand of the teacher’s, with which, of course, being
healthy young animals, they have little sympathy.
2. In a spirit of coöperation, devise and clarify means of securing
quiet habits. Show the pupils how to lift their feet in walking,
do not simply command them to walk quietly. If pencils fall,
have them tied. Teach pupils how to handle books, pencils,
tablets (in really up-to-date schools the dirty, noisy slates are
no longer used) and erasers, so as to minimize the chances of
their falling on the floor. If pupils fall noisily into their seats,
show them how well-bred men and women sit. They will
never learn anything more valuable than these lessons in
good manners, even if an occasional spelling lesson has to be
sacrificed for them.
Not infrequently it happens that what, on the face of it, appears to
be bad manners or impatience, is really due to pathological
nervousness. In such a case the teacher has a further duty than the
mere teaching of good manners.
The impatient child is but a nervous child. Nervous children often
spill and drop things and are easily excited. What will tend to control
and quiet one condition will control and quiet the other. Firmness
will be needed in either case.
Find out the cause of the pupil’s nervousness if possible and seek
to remove that cause. You may need to speak to the parent. Approach
him or her in a kind spirit which the parent can not possibly mistake.
Suggest that you noticed some point about the child’s behavior at
school which perhaps the parent had not as yet observed. Be very
careful not to exaggerate any statement—instead be very
conservative. For example, after commenting on some good point
about Mary, say something like this: “I have noticed that Mary is
beginning to show just a little nervousness at times and I thought
you would appreciate it if I would tell you. I wondered if she might
have eaten too much candy or too many rich things, or whether she
might have failed to get enough sleep.”
This method will bring about the coöperation of the mother, who
will do all in her power to help you with the child. You can, in the
course of your conversation with the mother, incidentally remark
that you have always found that a daily warm bath, plenty of rest,
some exercise, and plenty of fresh air will generally make a pupil feel
like himself or herself again. Avoid the suggestion that the
nervousness is at all serious with this child; assume, rather, that this
is just a little time in which the pupil is not feeling as well as usual.
At school, see to it that the nervous child gets plenty of exercise on
the playground and plenty of fresh air in the school-room. It is also
very important that you say pleasing things to the nervous child,
words which have a soothing effect. Even strain a point to approve
the work which the pupil does. Faultfinding will unnerve a child
more quickly than almost anything else. So be very patient and
encourage the pupil even more than you would an ordinary child.
The impatient child tends to get through with his work before other
children do. The teacher should always have at hand some pictures,
picture books, boxes of curios, colored pencils, stencils, colored
blocks, building blocks and many other things that interest children
in primary grades. But whatever the grade of the nervous child, avoid
so far as possible all sources of irritation; never lose a chance to
commend effort; let your attitude toward him be one of sympathy.
(9) Cleanly habits and care of school-room. Every first grade
teacher knows what it is to have one or more pupils who are disposed
to be uncleanly. This condition can not be termed a misdemeanor. It
is more. It is both annoying and unsanitary. What is still worse is
that the situation is not one of the child’s own choice, but it is due to
circumstances in the home; and too often, any measure that is taken
to reform the child gives offense to the parents. If parents do not
know what cleanliness really is, how can they teach it to their
children?
Appeal to personal pride. This can be done without the pupils
knowing that the teacher is making an effort in that direction. The
teacher may give a talk about a clean school-room and incidentally
say:
“Cleanly pupils live in cleanly school-rooms. I am proud of all my
boys and girls when they keep their clothes and themselves clean.”
She can give some little talk about cleanliness each day for several
weeks and in a casual manner make the application to the pupils. By
thus appealing to their pride most cases of uncleanness will be
remedied.
In very stubborn cases the teacher can have a private talk with the
pupil. Should there be more than one such pupil, the teacher must
not make the mistake of talking to both at one time; that would
humiliate each, and hurt the pride of both.
To the little boy who is in the habit of keeping his face and hands
soiled, the teacher may say:
“You have such red cheeks, Harold! What silky hair and what
lovely little hands you have! I like to see hair like yours combed this
way!” and then she can comb the little boy’s hair in an attractive way.
“How I do like to see red cheeks like yours, round and clean!” Then
the teacher can kindly wash the child’s face and hands and comment
on how fine they look. With a little straightening of the boy’s collar
she may say, “Oh, Harold, how sweet you look!” If she has a small
mirror she may let the boy see himself. Finally, she may propose that
he do this each morning before he comes to school. To please the boy
she may say:
“Now, I am going to walk home with you because you look so fine.”
On the way home she should talk about the things they see. When
she comes to the home, she may bid the boy a cheery “Good night,
Harold.” Should she see flowers in the yard she may say:
“Harold, when you come to school tomorrow, I wish you would
bring me one of those flowers to wear on my waist.” Harold will
bring the flower, and the teacher should wear it with great pride. A
teacher who will do this can win any dirty little urchin to her and
often induce him to make every effort to keep clean. Several such
private lessons may be necessary.
As a last resort, but not wholly advisable, because it irritates and
offends the parents often, is the method of having a talk with parents
and explaining to them that they are expected to keep their children
clean. One teacher who had a few stubborn cases of uncleanliness,
purchased a wash basin, some soap, and several towels. Whenever
the pupils that were habitually uncleanly came in she had them wash
their faces and hands and comb their hair. She had little trouble, but
not every teacher could do this.
CASE 78 (SECOND GRADE)
Miss Gebhard had been teaching in the Soiled Face

Lowell School for a week. Every one of the
five days little Hazel Jordan had been a blemish to the group of
beautiful children with whom she associated. Hazel was ugly of face,
ungainly in movements, dull of intellect and unaccustomed to the
regular use of soap and water. This was Miss Gebhard’s first year of
teaching. She had read that teachers must see to it that their pupils
have clean hands and faces. During her first week she was so busy
with organizing her school that she felt unable to cope with lesser
problems. As she reviewed her week’s work and recalled the
characteristics of her various pupils, she said to herself, “That little
Jordan girl must be made cleaner next week.”
Accordingly, on Monday morning when Hazel entered with dirty
hands, face and clothing, Miss Gebhard said, “Hazel Jordan, go
home and wash your hands and face and come back here clean.”
Perfect stillness reigned over the school-room for a moment after
this command was given, and Hazel, eyeing Miss Gebhard as she
went, passed out of the room and ran breathlessly home.
Now, Hazel’s mother was a widow who washed so much for other
people that she had neither time nor strength to care for her own
children; besides, Hazel had few dresses, and on this Monday
morning all of them were soiled. When the child reached home and
told Mrs. Jordan what Miss Gebhard had said, her mother wept in
self-pity.
“Nobody cares how hard I work,” she wailed; “all the notice I get is
to be insulted. You just stay home from school and I’ll go and see
Tom Ellis and ask him if a widow has got to dress her children up
fine before she can send them to public school.”
As soon as the washing she was then doing was “on the line,” she
went to see Mr. Ellis, a member of the school board, and told him
that Hazel had been sent home from school because she wasn’t
dressed up to suit the teacher.
Miss Gebhard was a little alarmed because Hazel did not return,
and was agitated when she saw Mr. Ellis, the most influential
member of the school board, standing in the doorway of her school-
room. All of the pupils stared while Mr. Ellis catechized Miss
Gebhard as to why she sent Hazel Jordan home. In vain she
explained that she said nothing about her clothes. She could see that
Mr. Ellis thought she had acted unwisely, as he reiterated, “Her
mother’s a hard-working widow, you know, and her feelings are
hurt.”
It seemed clear to Miss Gebhard that she had blundered. She
called upon Mrs. Jordan, who wept at her own poverty and seemed
unlikely to be able to distinguish between cleanliness and richness of
dress.
Miss Gebhard decided that the matter of cleanliness was too
difficult for her to handle and made no further recommendations on
the subject during the year.
Examine the hands and faces of several other children before

inspecting Hazel. If more than one needs to wash his hands, send all
to the lavatory, or to the pump, and ask them to return to the school-
room clean.

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4 Theories of Senescence and Aging 66

5 Health and Longevity 81

PA RT T WO Aging and Our Minds 109

6 Sensation, Perception, and Slowing with Age 111

Chapter Highlights 127

7 Memory and Cognition 130

Chapter Highlights 146

8 Intelligence, Wisdom, and Creativity 148

What Can We Conclude? 169

PA RT T H R E E Aging and Our Selves 173

Chapter Highlights 203

Family Relationships 213

11 Work and Retirement 241

■ BOX 11-3 Cultural Differences in Retirement 263

Chapter Highlights 271

PA RT F O U R Aging and Our Survival 275

13 Healthy/Helpful Environments: Places and People 317

SENIOR VIEW 319

14 Death and Bereavement 342

Support for the Bereaved 370

PA RT F I V E Aging and You 375

15 Looking to the Future 377

Age and Well-Being 379

Name Index 465

Subject Index 475

Photo Credits 487

John Coggins, Purdue North Central

Old age is like everything else. To make a success of it you have to

Why Study Human Aging?

Soon there will be many

TABLE 1-1 Estimated Lifespans for Some Friends and Acquaintances

Queen honey bee 6 years

Building on the ground already gained convinces pupils that the

ILLUSTRATION (HIGH SCHOOL)

Arthur Scudder left Vernon College with Dramatizing

CASE 75 (SECOND GRADE)

The Mapleton primary room was in the Staring at

Give instructions on how to behave when visitors are present at a

Too much attention can easily be devoted to a small matter of this

ILLUSTRATION (RURAL SCHOOL)

Rose Holden had charge of the Pines Hill Greeting the

CASE 76 (FOURTH GRADE)

Miss Olney had heard that her new room Gazing at

ILLUSTRATION (RURAL SCHOOL)

ILLUSTRATION 2 (THIRD GRADE)

CASE 77 (SIXTH GRADE)

After three weeks’ work following the Quiet Manners

For these minor noises it seems safe to recommend for children in

ILLUSTRATION (FIFTH GRADE)

Miss Miller came into a very noisy fifth Experiments

Do not treat noise as a crime. Consider it a disease, or rather a lack

1. Show that quiet is really a desirable thing for the pupils

CASE 78 (SECOND GRADE)

Miss Gebhard had been teaching in the Soiled Face

Examine the hands and faces of several other children before

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