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 Contents vii

Routine and Goodwill Messages 211

Direct Writing Plan 212
Requests 214
Requests for Information or Action 214
Order Requests 216
Claim Letters 218
Responses 220
Information Responses 221
Personalized Form Letters 223
Order Acknowledgements 224
Messages Confirming Contracts and Arrangements 224
Claims Adjustments 225
Goodwill Messages 228
Thank-You Letters 228
Letters of Congratulations 230
Letters of Sympathy 230
Informative Letters 232
Announcements 232
Cover or Transmittal Letters 233
Instructional Letters/Memos 234
Letter Formats 237
Letter Balance and Placement 237
Letter Styles and Layouts 237
Letter Elements 237
Addressing Envelopes 239

Delivering Unfavourable News 251

Goals of Negative Messages 253
Tone in Bad News Messages 254
Organizing Bad News Messages 255
Indirect Writing Plan for Bad News Messages 256
Using the Indirect Approach 256
Bad News Buffers 256
Explaining the Bad News 257
Revealing the Bad News 259
Goodwill Closing 260
Indirect-Approach Message 261
Limitations of the Indirect Strategy 262
Direct Writing Plan for Bad News Messages 262
Using the Direct Writing Plan 262
Limitations of the Direct Approach 263
Apologies in Bad News Messages 265
Types of Bad News Messages 267
Refusing Requests for Information, Actions, and Favours 267
Refusing Claims 269
Refusing Credit 272
Turning Down Job Applicants 273
viii Contents

Announcing Bad News to Employees 276

Declining Invitations 278
Responding to Negative Messages on Social Media Platforms 279

Persuasive Messages 289

Writing Persuasively 291
Preparing to Write Persuasively 291
Persuasive Appeals 293
Indirect Writing Plan for Persuasive Messages 295
Types of Persuasive Messages 296
Favour and Action Requests 296
Persuasive Memos 298
Persuasion for Managing Change and Motivating Performance 298
Claim Requests 300
Collection Letters 302
Sales Messages 305
Aiming to Make a Sale: Analyzing the Product and Audience 306
Writing Plan for Sales Letters 306
Sales Follow-Up 310
Fundraising Messages 312
Persuasion through Social Media 312
Traditional vs. Digital Marketing 313
Promotion and Self-Promotion in Social Media 314

Communicating for Employment 322

Analyzing Your Career Goals and Qualifications 324
Assessing Your Skills and Values 324
Assessing Your Work Preferences and Personality 324
Assessing Your Work History 325
Job-Hunting 325
Using Social Media to Attract and Impress Potential Employers 330
Using LinkedIn and Twitter to Establish an Online Presence 331
Writing Persuasive Resumés 333
How Employers Use Resumés 334
Resumé Writing Style 334
Parts of a Standard Resumé 334
Resumé Length 339
Resumé Styles and Layouts 339
Preparing a Scannable Resumé 344
Creative or Non-Standard Resumés 344
Preparing a Persuasive Cover Letter 346
General Tips for Cover Letters 346
Solicited Application Letters 347
Unsolicited Application Letters 350
Personal Statements 352
E-mailing Cover Letters and Resumés 353
Job Application Round-Up: Some Additional Tips 353
 Contents ix

Career Portfolios and E-Portfolios 354

Job Application Videos 354
Job Interviews 355
Before the Interview 355
Behavioural Interview Questions and How to Prepare for Them 356
At the Interview 357
After the Interview 358
Follow-Up Employment Messages 358
Follow-Up Message 358
Thank-You Message 358
Job-Offer Acknowledgement 359
Job-Acceptance Message 359
Job-Refusal Message 359
Reference-Request Message 359

Informal Reports 368

Introduction to Report Writing 370
Distinguishing Features of Short Reports 371
Purpose 371
Formats and Distribution 371
Direct and Indirect Approaches 372
Direct Approach: Informational and Analytical Reports 372
Indirect Approach: Analytical Reports 372
Writing Style for Short Reports 373
Headings 373
Steps in the Writing Process 375
Planning 375
Researching/Analyzing Data and Information 376
Composing and Revising 376
Elements of Informal Reports 378
Introductory Statement 378
Findings 378
Summary/Conclusions/Recommendations 378
Using Graphics and Visuals 379
Tables 380
Matrixes 381
Pie Charts 381
Bar Charts 382
Picture Graphs 385
Line Graphs 386
Gantt Charts 387
Flow Charts 388
Organizational Charts 388
Infographics and Data Visualizations 389
Commonly Used Short Reports: Informational and Analytical 391
Informational Reports 391
Analytical Reports 408
x Contents

Proposals and Formal Reports 431

Proposals 433
Elements of Informal Proposals 434
Elements of Formal Proposals 438
Researching and Collecting Data 441
Formal Reports 443
Preparing to Write Formal Reports 443
Writing Style for Formal Reports 445
Creating a Work Plan 445
Time Management 447
Peer-Reviewing and Team Writing 447
Elements of Formal Reports 448
Front Matter 448
Body of the Report 449
Back Matter 451
Works Cited/References 452

Oral Communication 477

Oral Presentations 479
Types of Oral Presentations 479
Analyzing the Situation and Audience 479
Structuring Presentations 480
Developing a Three-Part Presentation 481
Oral Presentation Outline 482
Using Visual Aids 483
Types of Presentation Aids 484
Using Presentation Software Effectively 485
PechaKucha Presentations 487
Methods of Delivery 487
Rehearsing a Presentation 489
Delivering a Presentation 490
Handling Questions 491
Team-Based Presentations 493
Special-Occasion Presentations 493
Meetings 495
Types of Meetings 495
Preparing for a Meeting 496
Conducting a Meeting 498
Meeting Minutes 499
Groupware-Supported Meetings 500
Communicating by Telephone 501
Making Calls 501
Receiving Calls 501
Using Voicemail Productively 502
Dealing with the Media 503
 Contents xi

Social Media and Mobile Communications 509

Embracing Social Media 511
Participatory Culture and Social Media 513
What Is Social Media? 513
Types of Social Media 514
Blogs 515
Micro-Blogs 517
Podcasts 518
Social Networking Sites 519
Photo- and Video-Sharing Sites 521
User-Generated Content (UGC) 523
The Social Media Advantage 523
The Risks and Challenges of Social Media 524
Measuring Social Media Performance 527
Mobile Communication 528
Designing and Writing Messages for Mobile Devices 528
Writing Promotional Messages for Mobile Devices 529
Optimizing Web Content for Mobile Devices 529
Instant Messaging and Texting for Business 530

Appendix Business Usage:

A Style and Mechanics Guide 535
Usage 535
Commonly Confused Words 535
Usage Exercise 556
Abbreviations and Acronyms 557
Abbreviations 557
Acronyms 558
Numbers 559
Numbers Usage 559
Number Usage Exercise 560
Capitalization 560
Capitalization Guidelines 560
Capitalization Exercise 562
Usage-Related Internet Resources 563
Salutations and Complimentary Closes: A User’s Guide 564
E-mail 564
Standard Letters 564
Standard Business Phrases and Their Plain-Language Alternatives 565

Appendix Grammar and Punctuation Handbook 566

Subject–Verb Agreement 566
S Rule for Third-Person Agreements in the Present Tense 566
Finding the Simple Subject 566
Compound Subjects 567
xii Contents

Joining Words Not Equivalent to And 567

Collective Nouns as Subjects 567
Singular Subjects in Plural Form 568
Amounts and Units of Measurement as Subjects 568
Titles, Terms, and Organization Names as Subjects 568
Sentences Beginning with Here or There + the Verb Be 568
Subjects and Linking Verbs 568
Either . . . Or Sentences 569
Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects 569
Antecedents of That, Which, and Who as Subjects 569
Verb Agreement and the Phrases One of the . . ., One of the . . . Who, and the Only
One of the . . . Who 570
Subject–Verb Agreement Exercise 570
Verb Tense Accuracy 571
Sequencing Past Tenses 571
Shifts in Verb Tense 572
Other Verb Problems 572
Speculating about the Future, Making Recommendations, or
Expressing Wishes 572
Speculating about the Past: Appropriate Use of Could, Would 572
Emphasizing a Main Verb with Do 573
Using Passive-Voice Constructions 573
Avoiding Logically Mismatched Subjects and Verbs (Faulty Predication) 574
Using Parallel Phrasing for Items in a Series (Parallelism) 575
Parallelism Exercise 575
Making Comparisons Clear and Logical (Sentences with Than or As) 576
Using Pronouns with Precision 576
Avoiding Vague References 576
Knowing When to Use I Versus Me 577
Pronoun Exercise 577
Correcting Modifier Mishaps 577
Reining in Misplaced Modifiers 578
Correcting Dangling Modifiers 578
Modifier Exercise 579
Punctuation 579
Commas 579
Semicolons 580
Colons 581
Apostrophes 581
Periods 582
Question Marks 582
Parentheses 582
Dashes 583
Quotation Marks 583
Punctuation Exercise 583
Internet Resources: Grammar, Style, Punctuation, and ESL 584

Notes 585
Index 597
From the Publisher
With the expansion of the knowledge-based economy, Canadian employers are—now more than ever—
increasingly interested in hiring individuals who are able to communicate clearly and effectively.
Building on the foundation of its predecessors, the fifth edition of Communicating for Results continues
to address the needs of today’s students by providing them with a thorough understanding of how to com-
municate effectively in multicultural Canadian business environments. A thorough, hands-on approach
engages students in the processes of critical thinking, stylistic development, and content evaluation. Ex-
tensive models and organizational plans for letters, memos, e-mails, reports, and presentations—as well
as extensive exercises based on real-life situations—help to simplify the writing process, banish writer’s
block, and ease fears about public speaking.
Throughout, this highly effective approach emphasizes practical knowledge that will give students
a head start in the business world. They will develop confidence in their skills and will ultimately have
everything they need to become competent and successful communicators who get their message across,
get noticed, and get results.

Highlights from the Fifth Edition

1 | Issues and Trends in Professional Communication 13 54 Communicating for Results

their stakeholders, getting attention quickly and memorably and forging connections
and affinities online matters more now than it has ever before. REPETITION
Social media, along with mobile communications, play an equally important role in • Non-verbal displays can repeat a verbally delivered message.
• E.g., Instructing a computer technician to repair
the share (or peer) economy. The share economy is based on the idea of collaborative share (or peer) economy An
"this computer" while pointing at the computer
consumption, or sharing as reinvented through network technologies, with a “shift in economic system centred
on access to rather than
consumer values from ownership to access.”51 This new peer-to-peer economic model is ownership of resources.
based on some old and familiar concepts: sharing, renting, swapping, gifting, lending,
bartering.52 App-based services such as Airbnb (accommodation), Lyft (ride sharing), and
TaskRabbit (micro jobs) have disrupted previously regulated taxi, car-rental, and hotel CONTRADICTION
industries. Because share economies place a monetary value on access to assets, they • Non-verbal messages can conflict with verbal messages,
posing challenges for the decoder.
enable people who control that access to become part-time entrepreneurs.53 • E.g., A job candidate saying she is confident but
avoiding making eye contact.

Indigenous Economic Empowerment

Since the 1990s, there has been extraordinary growth in Indigenous business in Canada;
however, there is still far to go in reintegrating Indigenous people into the economy
REGULATION
through a process of economic reconciliation and overcoming a history of economic seg- • Non-verbal displays can also regulate conversations.
regation of Indigenous Peoples. In 2016 alone, the annual contribution of the Indigenous • E.g., Tapping a person on the shoulder to initiate
economy was estimated at $30 billion, with 45,000 businesses across many sectors.54 The conversation.

term Indigenomics describes the effort of Indigenous peoples to build their future and
improve their communities and quality of life through equity ownership, environmental
planning, and procurement.55 According to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
SUBSTITUTION
Council of Canada, Indigenous entrepreneurship can be distinct from mainstream under- • Sometimes a non-verbal display can stand in for a verbal message.
standings of entrepreneurship because of its emphasis on collectiveness and community Decoders with expressive sensitivity can "read" facial expressions,
gestures, and posture.
development and its foundations in Indigenous knowledge (IK)—understandings and
• E.g., Team members might guess that an important contract
ways of knowing that are cumulative and interconnected and emphasize the related- has been lost if their team leader enters the meeting room
ness of all living things.56 For Winnipeg-based Manitobah Mukluks, whose 300-strong with slouched shoulders and a downcast expression.
workforce creates handmade moccasins and mukluks sold around the world, with sales
topping $25 million annually, being an Indigenous business means supporting Indige-
ACCENTING AND COMPLEMENTING
nous communities, sharing success, keeping traditions alive, and celebrating Indigenous • Non-verbal displays can undermine, amplify, or tone down a verbal message.
values.57 Its Storyboot Project embodies these values by creating partnerships with elders This is accenting.
and artisans and guaranteeing them 100 per cent of the proceeds for every pair of muk- • E.g., pounding the table while exclaiming "We have to cut our budget, now!"
• Complementary non-verbal cues reinforce or affirm a message,
luks or moccasins they craft the traditional way. Behind the steady growth of Indigenous making it easier to remember.
business are organizations such as the Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business (CCAB), • E.g., A boss who shakes a junior associate's hand while praising him or her.
which supports the building of relationships between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
businesses and communities. Business success stories represent a broad range of sectors: FIGURE 2.4 Non-verbal Communication Cues Can Play Five Roles in Relation to Verbal Communication

• Spirit Bear Lodge, owned and operated by the Kitasoo/Xai’xais Nation, employs
10 per cent of the local population and practices a community-driven, non-ex-
tractive method of eco-tourism.
• The Toquaht First Nation of BC is building a $1.35-million marina.58
• The Fisher River Cree Nation north of Winnipeg is behind the first utility-scale
solar project in Manitoba, a megawatt facility that will supply revenue to the com-
munity and link to the province’s power grid.59
• Nk’Mip Cellars, the #2 winery in BC according to WineAlign 2018, is one of many
ventures from the Osoyoos Indian Band and has the distinction of being the first
Indigenous-owned and -operated winery in Canada.60
These non-verbal cues have the power to both intensify a message and contradict its
primary aim. A nod of the head, a point of a finger, a steady gaze, a slumped posture, a
frown—these signals, like all non-verbal cues, are powerful indicators of feelings and
attitudes in verbal communication (Figure 2.4).
Non-verbal cues enrich verbal messages, as it is not always what you say but how you
say it that people will remember. Non-verbal cues can be misleading when they are taken
out of context, largely because their meaning is often culturally determined. Developing
an awareness of intentional and unintentional non-verbal signals can help you not only
decipher them, but also regulate how they impact your communication. Non-verbal skills
and abilities fall into three general domains, all essential to achieving competence as a
non-verbal communicator (Figure 2.5).

New coverage on Indigenous Peoples in business and A dynamic new full-colour design, featuring new
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business communication prepares students to be infographic presentation of concepts, engages

informed and culturally sensitive communicators within students and helps reinforce key concepts.
the Canadian context.
xiv From the Publisher

522 Communicating for Results 14 | Social Media and Mobile Communications 523

User-Generated Content (UGC)

In our age of exploding digital content, online users have been turned into “produsers”
(highlighting their hybrid role as producers and users), and their output has been classi-
fied as “produsage.”44 Sites inviting user-generated content, such as YouTube, Yelp, and
Flickr, provide users with a degree of agency and power, albeit within the arena of a pow-
erful media company.45
Recognizing that many consumers are not only willing but eager to develop and share
original content online, businesses around the world have devised campaigns to solicit
user-generated content in support of their brands and products. UGC campaigns can be
effective ways to build interest in a brand and to make customers feel engaged and in-
volved. In 2014, Starbucks launched its “White Cup Contest,” which challenged custom-
ers to doodle on a cup and upload a photo of their handiwork for a chance to have it
selected as the template for a limited edition cup.46 As of 2019, Instagram users were still
regularly posting images under the #whitecupcontest tag, as well as Starbucks’s second

Dfree/Shutterstock.com
UGC campaign, the seasonal #redcupcontest. For businesses wanting to achieve similar
success through a UGC campaign, best practices include the following:

• Choose a promotion with your audience in mind. Analyze your audience to

Canadian comedian and actress Lilly Singh built her career through her YouTube channel, which she
started in 2010 under the username IISuperwomanII. Forbes magazine named Singh one of YouTube’s
highest paid stars with an estimated income of $10.5 million, a New York Times bestselling book, and
one of the top ten most-followed Twitter accounts out of Canada, a spot that Singh shares with fellow
YouTuber Lauren Riihimaki.
was legal since Roberts hadn’t trademarked the design. However, it pulled the shirt after
receiving a large volume of criticism online.43 Artists and designers without a significant
following or resources for legal action may not have the same success in preventing larger
companies from copying and profiting off their designs, and yet they also cannot avoid
making their designs vulnerable by posting them on social media without damaging their
own business.
Organizations use these sites in a number of ways:
• to share press announcements and keynote speeches with employees and
investors
• to upload company photos, public service announcements, and commercials
• to post recruiting videos
• to capture client, customer, and public feedback on company enterprises, prod-
ucts, and services (comments must be monitored)
understand interest in your brand. Consider the capabilities and level of technical
skills that are typical of the demographic group you are targeting.
• Look for marketing potential. Ask for entries that can be repurposed or
adapted for use in future marketing campaigns.
• Offer an enticing reward. The reward should be at least equal to the value of
the efforts expected of participants.
• Make participation simple and straightforward. The level of difficulty
should not be too high or demanding. Post clear instructions listing specifications
for the content and how and where to upload it. The online materials should be
easy to navigate.
• Ensure the legality of what you propose and offer. Consult with a lawyer to
determine who holds rights over submitted content.47
The Social Media Advantage
How popular is social media? Globally, Internet users spend an average of 136 minutes a
day on social networking sites.48 Social media use is a powerful trend, and there is little
evidence that this trend is temporary. Companies that have embraced the power of social
media have realized significant benefits.
As previously discussed, businesses use social media for a variety of purposes and
potential benefits:

Encouraging users to post company- or product-related videos on these highly popular • internal and external communications
sites, often for contests, is another way organizations carry their brand name forward. • customer identification and profiling (i.e., developing sales and marketing leads)

The most up-to-date coverage of business communication available, the fifth edition of Communicating
for Results provides relevant, engaging, current coverage, including topics such as the Gen Z workforce,
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managing team conflict, and optimizing your online personal brand.

264 Communicating for Results 12 | Proposals and Formal Reports 457

A letter or memo
of transmittal
Opening expression of Dear Registrants: introduces the
sympathy also announces the report and provides
bad news Unfortunately, the course you registered for has been cancelled. a permanent
Gives no reason for the record of document
cancellation and does not It looks like we may not be able to make this course available to employees for at MEMORANDUM delivery. This report
identify the cancelled course, least another few months. is for company
Offers no alternative— insiders, so it is sent
another course or possible We hate to disappoint our registrants, but I am sure you understand our TO: Dr. Vivian Foster, Dean and Director of Programs in memo form. It is
rescheduling budgetary constraints. usually formatted
FROM: Sebastian Marceau, Special Programs Development Officer to allow for a 1¼- or
Closing an afterthought 1½-inch (or 3 - or
that reminds readers, SUBJECT: Assessment of College Summer Arts Program 4-centimetre) top
somewhat facetiously, of margin.
their disappointment DATE: November 15, 2020
FIGURE 8.5 Ineffective Direct-Approach Message (extract)
Begins with
Here is the report, which you authorized on October 15, about the status of our a statement
Summer Arts Program in its first year of operation. The study involved a review of indicating the
topic of the report
program enrolment figures, revenue variances, staff and classroom expenses, course and the fact that
From Ahmed Khan <akhan@eureka.ca> March 3, 2020, 7:56 AM curriculum design, class size, and student exit evaluations, as well as an assessment the report is being
transmitted.
To learning@eureka.ca of the program mandate and the current and future educational needs of the greater
Clairmont community.
Refers to the
Subject Python for Data Visualization Course Cancellation

Delivers and explains the report’s purpose

bad news directly in the first
paragraph; provides a brief,
clear explanation, telling
readers only what they need
to know in order to understand
the basic facts
Quickly moves on to an
alternative and tells readers
how to act on this information
Closes with a final reminder of
the alternative, which is reader-
centred and phrased politely;
avoids words and phrases
such as difficulty, mistake,
problem, or regrettable error
Although response to the program has been and continues to be extremely positive,
and authorization
Dear Registrant:
the information gathered shows that, as a result of substantial registration shortfalls under which it was
The Python for Data Visualization course, originally scheduled to begin on March 24, in its first year of operation, we should in future expend considerable effort in marketing written
has been cancelled due to insufficient registration levels. and refocusing the program to appeal to target audiences. The action plan outlined
in this report reflects the results of research within the college and outside arts-in- Briefly describes
the report and
education research.
In its place, please consider one of several self-directed e-learning courses available
highlights its
conclusions and
through the Learning and Employee Development Centre and LinkedIn Learning
(formerly Lynda.com). If you require help accessing the LinkedIn Learning course or I am grateful to summer staff instructors for their input and feedback and to members of recommendations
the accounting department for their assistance in revenue analysis.
would like to book a Quiet Space or Study Pod for uninterrupted course viewing,
please contact Reema Seth (rseth@eureka.ca). The online course has a two hour
running time. Staff members who have opted the LinkedIn Learning program It is my hope that this report will provide you and the college board with the information
say the experience compares favourably to traditional classroom instruction. needed to assess the effectiveness of the first year of the Clairmont College Summer
Expresses
Arts Program, to evaluate its implications, and to plan for the coming year. Please appreciation for
let me know if you have any questions about this report or if you need any further the assignment
Please let me know if you are interested in self-directed learning so that access and
and for special
information. I may be reached by phone at (705) 582-2119 and by e-mail at smarceau@
pod space can be arranged for you.
help received in its
clairmontcollege.ca. I look forward to discussing the report recommendations and action preparation
Thanks,
Ahmed plan with you.
Ahmed Khan Closes with an
offer of answering
Learning Centre Coordinator Enc. questions or further
Tel: 416-631-7710 discussion

FIGURE 12.5 (continued)

FIGURE 8.6 Effective Direct-Approach Message

Detailed writing samples respond to real-life situations and show students the level of excellence they
mey36127_ch08_251-288.indd 264 02/05/20 03:30 PM mey36127_ch12_431-476.indd 457 01/31/20 12:59 PM

should strive to achieve in their own writing. Marginal tips draw students’ attention to important features
of the samples, and “ineffective” samples show students what to avoid in their own writing.

4 | Business Style: Word Choice, Conciseness, and Tone
Identify Strategies for Concise Messaging
4. Achieving Conciseness by Eliminating Clutter.
Edit and revise the following sentences by elimi-
nating noun conversions, long lead-ins, expletive
constructions, prepositional phrases, and relative
clauses.
Sample: The company undertook action that
was decisive despite the fact that
the resources it had were limited.
Revision: The company acted decisively de-
spite its limited resources.
a) It was a clerk from accounting who located the
spreadsheets that had been missing.
b) A senior engineer will complete an inspection
of the safety requirements and, if necessary,
make changes to them.
c) By and large, it is our assumption that share
prices have been sagging due to the fact
that there is by all accounts weakness in this
particular sector.
d) In response to your letter of August 16 that
was received August 18, we cannot act in ac-
cordance with your express wishes in making a
refund due to the fact that the warranty of the
product you purchased from us has expired.
Differentiate between Personal and Impersonal Styles
6. Writing Conversationally and Informally. Re-
write the following sentences in a less formal,
impersonal style.
Sample: Subscription rates have increased
by less than 5 per cent.
Revision: I am sorry to tell you that subscrip-
tion rates have increased by less
than 5 per cent.
a) Those interested in volunteering for the United
Way fundraising committee should inform
human resources at their earliest convenience.
b) Supervisors should discipline brokers who use
discriminatory language when communicating
with clients and co-workers.
Extensive new and updated end-of-chapter exercises—featuring individual and group activities, writing
improvement exercises, case study exercises, and online activities—provide realistic business situations
mey36127_ch04_117-150.indd 145
that encourage students to develop their critical-thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration skills.
7
Routine and
Goodwill
Messages
Chapter Preview
This chapter focuses on strategies for sharing good news and neutral
information. Both types of information are so essential to business that
handling and managing them are considered routine—key competencies
expected of employees on a daily basis. You’ll see how the adaptable
direct writing plan can be applied for specific purposes to different types
of routine messages. As formal business letters are still the preferred way
to communicate important information, you’ll discover their essential
elements and standard approaches to their format.
Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
Learning objectives and chapter previews
prepare students for what they will encounter in
mey36127_ch07_211-250.indd 211
each chapter.
From the Publisher xv
145 146 Communicating for Results
Create Constructive, Inclusive, and Reader-Oriented Messages
e) For each and every customer who is dissatis- 8. Being Positive. Revise the following sentences to 10. Being Polite.
Revise the following sentences to
fied, there isn’t only a sale that is lost, there create a positive impression. make them courteous.
is a lifetime value of that customer that is lost
Sample: Because you failed to provide us Sample: You had better get moving on that
as well.
with your postal code, we could not draft proposal.
5. Achieving Conciseness by Eliminating Redun-
send you the estate-planning pack- Revision: Please begin work on the draft pro-
dancies and Repetition. Revise the following
age you requested. posal as soon as possible.
sentences to eliminate obvious statements and
Revision: Please tell us your postal code so
unnecessary repetition. a) If you honestly expect me to meet the
that we may send you your estate-
Sample: Her sister is a woman who works
November 21 deadline, I need the latest sales
planning package.
as an investment advisor at Forest
figures and I need them now. Can you at least
Financial.
a) We never fail to offer our GIC investors the hand them over?
most highly competitive rates. b) We have far better things to do here at Apex
Revision: Her sister is an investment advisor
b) In your e-mail to our customer service depart- Industries than speak with customers who
at Forest Financial.
ment, you allege that our Dependability-Plus could easily find the same information on our
a) If you refer back to the final section of the model printer is defective. website.
report, you will see that the recommendations c) Aren’t you being unreasonable in asking for c) Have the decency to let me know how the
suggest we should continue on with the cur- your vacation at this time of year? meeting went.
rent profit-sharing plan. d) It is categorically impossible for us to obtain d) Since you’re the team leader, motivating team
b) In view of the fact that your freight has not model A311, which is no longer in production. members is your problem, not mine.
arrived as scheduled, we have asked our su- Only model A312 is available.
pervisor of shipping to make the necessary 11. Using Inclusive Language. Revise the following
9. Stressing Reader Benefits and Relevance. Revise
inquiries. sentences so that they are bias-free, gender-
the following sentences so that they reflect the
c) During the course of the meeting, the need neutral, and non-discriminatory.
reader’s viewpoint.
for mutual co-operation was brought to Sample: John is the best disabled IT special-
our attention. Sample: We charge our guests only $175 per
ist we’ve ever had.
person for one night’s accommo-
Revision: John is one of the best IT specialists
dation at our deluxe resort, a full
we’ve ever had.
spa treatment, and dinner at our
c) The customer service department should award-winning restaurant. a) The suspension of mandatory retirement
continue to monitor all calls for purposes of Revision: For only $175 (per person), you can means that old folks can stay in their jobs as
quality control. enjoy a night’s accommodation at long as they like.
7. Writing Informally. Lessen the formality of the our deluxe resort, a full spa treat- b) Jennifer suffers from bouts of clinical depres-
following e-mail message. ment, and dinner at our award- sion, but she still gave a great presentation
winning restaurant. yesterday.
It is most important to note that, as of today,
c) All executives and their wives are invited to
advertisements for departmental job open- a) I will allow you to take your vacation during
our annual Christmas party. Every executive
ings must be routed through the human re- the last two weeks of August.
will have his choice of seating arrangement.
sources department. This improvement is b) We are currently seeking individuals to be part
d) Our director is committed to improving ser-
made in accordance with the company’s of our highly focused and dedicated team.
vice provision for Aboriginal Canadians. Our
commitment to efficiency and operating ex- c) We are pleased to announce a new rewards
new program also has options for Inuit people
penditure reduction. Following this new pro- program that guarantees discounts on future
and the Métis.
cedure will save employees work and enable purchases.
human resources to help employees fill their d) I am enclosing Form C52, which must be com-
openings more quickly. pleted before we can reimburse you for your
educational expenses.
01/31/20 06:32 PM mey36127_ch04_117-150.indd 146 01/31/20 06:32 PM
11 | Informal Reports 369
Case Study
NYCStock/Shutterstock.com
In January 2019, Vancouver-founded tech company Slack reported that it had over 10 million daily
active users1 in companies that include 21st Century Fox, Dow Jones, and the NASA Jet Propulsion
Laboratory.2 Have you used Slack, or a program like it, in a workplace?
Learning Objectives As more work moves online, the nature of internal communication continues to evolve
1. Use a direct writing plan for with new technologies. One company at the forefront of changing business communication
routine business messages. is Slack Technologies Inc., founded in 2009 by Canadian entrepreneur Stewart Butterfield in
2. Vancouver. Slack is a workplace collaboration platform that allows co-workers to message
Request general information and
claims adjustments. each other and chat about work and the workplace on searchable, hashtagged “channels.”
3. Order services and merchandise. Slack’s friendly, easy-to-use interface has proven popular in many companies.
4. Respond positively to requests While many users know Slack as an office-based social media site that primarily serves
for information, purchase orders,
and claims adjustments.
as an alternative for e-mail, Slack can be used to deliver many forms of informal reports—
including social engagement and web traffic reports—that help managers stay aware of
5. Write messages confirming
metrics and key progress indicators.3 In its promotional material, Slack promises to help
contracts and arrangements.
businesses function more efficiently by offering an easy way to compile progress reports
6. Compose messages of
appreciation, congratulations, and stay up-to-date on ongoing projects.4 As you develop your skills and knowledge of
and sympathy. internal reports through this chapter, consider how your abilities to write clear, professional
7. Write announcements, cover reports and produce meaningful graphics could transfer to platforms like Slack, and the
(or transmittal) letters, and kinds of data collection that they facilitate.
instructional letters.
8. Format formal letters in a variety
of ways.
Chapter-opening vignettes illustrate each
chapter’s main themes with real-life examples.
01/31/20 12:49 PM
mey36127_ch11_368-430.indd 369 01/31/20 05:24 PM
xvi From the Publisher

188 Communicating for Results 12 | Proposals and Formal Reports 447

Work Schedule
TO: Tomas Simic, Campus Planning
Investigate newspaper and magazine articles Mar. 10–14
FROM: Arley Simpson, Registrar Conduct an internal audit—What do we do best? Mar. 17–21

Opens directly with a polite
command and uses active
voice sentence
Explains the opening request,
offers details, and supplies end
date for action
Explains enclosed material,
cites reader benefits, and offers
additional information
SUBJECT: Fall Registration for Continuing Education Courses Conduct cost–benefit analysis Mar. 24–28
Investigate system options and service providers Mar. 31
DATE: July 23, 2020 Interpret and evaluate findings Apr. 1–4
Compose a draft of the first report Apr. 7–11
Please distribute the enclosed calendars and remind your staff that the Department
Revise draft Apr. 14–18
of Continuing Education is now accepting registration for its fall courses.
Submit final report Apr. 21
College staff members are eligible to enrol tuition-free in up to five full courses per
year. A $25 processing fee is applicable to each course registration. Please note
that the registration closes September 5.
FIGURE 12.3 (continued)
Enclosed are five copies of the fall 2017–summer 2018 calendar listing over 200
personal enrichment and professional development courses. Courses in areas such
as IT management and computer applications offer staff the opportunity to upgrade Time Management
work-related skills for professional success. For detailed course descriptions and
easy online registration, visit our new website at http://omnistudies.manitou.ca. In report writing, time is of the essence. Few reports are assigned without a deadline, so
Please call me if you have questions about our range of programs or require effective time-management skills and up-front planning are essential.
additional calendars.

Expresses appreciation Thank you for your help in distributing the calendars.
for action QUICK TIPS
AS: ml
Time Management
ENC. 5
• Learn how you work best and design a system that works best for you by figuring
out when you waste time and when you work most effectively.
• Set priorities and try your best to ignore distractions. Give the task you are work-
ing on the attention it deserves.
FIGURE 6.1 Sample Paper-Based Memo • Start early. Don’t procrastinate or leave an important task or project until the last
minute. Leave room for unexpected occurrences, such as computer trouble or
power outages.
• Break tasks into component parts with time for each.
Checklist • Ask for additional information and resources if you need them.
Memos • Let people know as soon as possible if you are running seriously behind.
❑ Fill in appropriate information, including a strong subject line, after headers.
❑ Be brief.
❑ Follow the style guidelines of your organization. Peer-Reviewing and Team Writing
❑ Be direct and begin with your most important point when relaying routine news or More than any other type of business document, a report often has multiple authors.
information.
Team writing a report requires careful collaboration. If you do not establish clear guide- team writing The practice
❑ Provide only as much background or evidence as your reader needs to act on your lines and processes, different sections of a team-written report can be strikingly unlike of multiple writers working
instructions or information. together to produce a single
each other in tone, sentence and paragraph length, and word choice. Here are some ideas document.
❑ Itemize supporting details, related questions, and additional requests in bulleted or for collaborating successfully with co-workers on a written report:
numbered lists in parallel form.
❑ End courteously with a request for specific action, reason for the request, and • Agree on style points—the degree of formality and use of personal pronouns—
deadline. before you start the drafting process.
• Tidy up the draft to minimize sharp contrasts in writing styles from section to section.

Checklists and quick tips boxes summarize key points for easy reference.
mey36127_ch12_431-476.indd 447 01/31/20 12:59 PM
mey36127_ch06_181-210.indd 188 01/31/20 06:32 PM

2 | Getting the Message Across 47 46 Communicating for Results

The Communication Process

The idea of exchange and interaction—the flow of information from one person to an-
Sender’s Field Receiver’s Field
of Experience of Experience
other—is fundamental to modern communication and to the theories that systemati-
Receiver cally explain how meaning is created, shared, and managed;8 communication without one
or more partners is like a tennis match with just one player. It is important to remember
Sender Receiver
Sender understands
encodes decodes
that communication is
has idea Channel transmits message message
message message
and reacts

Noise Noise • situated (i.e., embedded in a particular environment or socio-cultural context)

• relational (i.e., involves the ability to interact effectively and ethically according
to what is needed at a given moment)
• transactional (i.e., exists as a co-operative activity in which people adapt to
Feedback one another)

FIGURE 2.1 Transactional Communication Model Communication isn’t something that just happens as a part of work life. It is a process or
series of actions aimed at achieving a desired outcome or goal. Senders and receivers of
information are involved in this partnership. Communication is therefore the means by
Channel which we create our professional world and relationships and conduct business activities.
The channel is the medium by which the message is transmitted. Delivery can be by channel A communication This partnership involves an exchange that takes place through language or a set
spoken word, letter, memo, report, telephone, computer, voice, or gesture. A medium pathway or medium over of signs and symbols (e.g., words or gestures). In this exchange, a sender transmits a
which a message travels.
can be synchronous (i.e., communication take places directly, at the same time or in real thought that carries an agreed-upon meaning within a particular context with the aim of
time) or asynchronous (i.e., information is stored or archived and accessed later so that eliciting a receiver’s response. The receiver must be able to understand what is significant
sender and receiver do not need to be present at the same time). Face-to-face conver- about the data and make meaning out of it in order for this exchange to be truly effective.
sations, telephone conversations, synchronous texting, synchronous social-media mes- Through communication, we assign meanings to the world around us, though the reali-
saging, and audio and video conferencing involve synchronous delivery and enable both ties we create are shaped by our cultural experiences and individual knowledge.
spontaneous interaction and rapid feedback. E-mail, faxes, blogs, and discussion boards
involve asynchronous delivery, which allows receivers more time to reflect on a message. Elements of the Communication Process
Receiver How does communication “work”? Many conceptual models have been developed to explain
The receiver is the person or group at whom the message is directed. The receiver is re- receiver The participant in a it, including the Shannon-Weaver model from Bell Telephone Laboratories, the mother of
sponsible for decoding the message—extracting meaning from its symbols. The receiv- communication transaction all conceptual models developed by scientist Warren Weaver and engineer Claude Shannon,
for whom a message is the father of the computer age. For communication to occur, Shannon, Weaver, and others
er’s life experiences, knowledge, attitudes, and context can influence how they interpret
intended and who decodes
and respond to the message. the message by extracting
claimed, there must be both a source and a destination—someone at one end to formulate
meaning from it. message Any type of and launch the message and someone at the other end to receive and respond to it (see
oral, written, or non-verbal Figure 2.1).9 The goal is for the message to be understood as it was intended. The process,
Feedback decoding Extracting communication that is
Feedback is the receiver’s discernible response to a message. It can be non-verbal, like meaning from the symbols transmitted by a sender to a
unfortunately, is not always as simple and straightforward as it sounds. Difficulties with
nodding one’s head during a face-to-face conversation; oral, like the “umms” or “ahhs” of spoken, written, and non- receiver or audience. transmission, reception, and interference can disrupt the communication process.
verbal communication.
during a telephone conversation; or written, like the reply e-mail that conveys a reaction.
Feedback is a vital part of communication, allowing for clarification and ensuring that the feedback The receiver’s Sender
response to a message sender The participant The sender, also called the transmitter or the communicator, is the person or group with
message has been properly understood. Frustration can occur when there is no opportu-
that confirms if the original in a communication
nity for feedback; it can also occur when the sender requires immediate feedback to their a particular idea or purpose in mind and an intention to express that purpose in the form
message was received transaction who has an idea
message but chooses a medium whereby feedback is delayed. and understood. and communicates it by
of a message. The form that the idea ultimately assumes—its content, tone, emphasis,
encoding it in a message. and organization—is shaped by the sender’s context, knowledge, attitudes, background,
and other assumptions based on the sender’s experience. Taking ideas and putting them
Barriers to Effective Communication into a code is known as encoding. The message can be encoded verbally or non-verbally—
encoding Converting
ideas into code in order to in writing, speech, or gestures—with the goal that it will eventually be understood. For
Anyone who has experienced a dropped cellphone call or had an argument as a result of a
convey a written, an oral, or a
misunderstanding can appreciate that the course of communication does not always flow non-verbal message.
this to happen, however, the sender must consider the receiver’s context, knowledge, at-
smoothly. In today’s fast-paced business environment, there is always the potential for titudes, and communication skills and then choose the right code to convey the intended
meaning; otherwise, the communication transaction can fail.

mey36127_ch02_043-078.indd 47 01/31/20 06:01 PM mey36127_ch02_043-078.indd 46 01/31/20 06:01 PM

A marginal glossary defines key terms and concepts at their first appearance in the text.
 From the Publisher xvii

Student and Instructor Resources

Communicating for Results is accompanied by a comprehensive package of online resources for students
and instructors alike, all designed to enhance and complete the learning and teaching experiences. These
resources are available at www.oup.com/he/Meyer5e.

For Instructors

• A comprehensive instructor’s manual provides an extensive set of pedagogical tools and sugges-
tions for every chapter, including overviews and summaries, concepts to emphasize in class, sugges-
tions for class discussion, additional exercises, and an answer key for end-of-chapter exercises.
• Newly updated for this edition, classroom-ready PowerPoint slides summarize key points from
each chapter and incorporate figures and tables drawn straight from the text.
• An extensive test generator enables instructors to sort, edit, import, and distribute hundreds of
questions in multiple-choice, true–false, and short-answer formats.

For Students

• Communicating for Results is available in various formats, including print, loose-leaf, and—new for
this edition—enhanced ebook, which includes all of the content as well as quizzes and reviews
through¬out that further enhance the learning experience.
• The Student Study Guide includes chapter summaries, study questions, and self-grading quizzes to
help you review the textbook and classroom material.
• Other available resources for students include case studies, additional grammar quizzes, interactive
activities, videos, and flashcards to further support your understanding of the material in the text-
book.

Dashboard: OUP’s Learning Management System platform

Dashboard is an integrated learning system that offers quality content and tools to track student pro-
gress in an intuitive, web-based learning environment. It features a streamlined interface that connects
students and instructors with the functions used most frequently, simplifying the learning experience to
save time and put student progress first.
Dashboard for Communicating for Results is available through your OUP sales representative, or visit
dashboard.oup.com.

www.oup.com/he/Meyer5e
Acknowledgements
The development of a new edition is a process that involves the expertise, insights, and dedication of
many people. I am grateful to have worked alongside and in collaboration with the editorial and produc-
tion team at Oxford University Press, including developmental editor Peter Chambers. I wish to also offer
my sincere thanks to Brenda La Rose, Partner, Leaders International Executive Search, for her advice and
generosity in speaking with me.
To my colleagues and associates, internationally, across Canada, and in the School of Professional
Communication at Ryerson University, I owe my gratitude for their inspiring engagement with the field
of professional and managerial communication.
I also thank the many reviewers from across Canada who originally recommended the project and
who have since offered insightful recommendations that helped in the process of shaping and re-shaping
Communicating for Results over editions to meet the needs of faculty and students. In addition to those
who provided anonymous feedback for the fifth edition, I would like to thank the following individuals:

Robert C. Ackroyd, Northern Alberta Institute
of Technology
Matt Archibald, University of Ottawa
Heather Burt, Langara College
Leda Culliford, Laurentian University
Sara Earley, Mount Royal University
Karen Grandy, Saint Mary’s University
D.A. Hadfield, University of Waterloo
Susan Hesemeier, MacEwan University
Linda Howell, University of the Fraser Valley
Laurie Jackson, Camosun College
Keith Johnson, University of the Fraser Valley
Brenda Lang, Mount Royal University
Heather Madden-Johns, British Columbia Institute
of Technology
Patrick Michalak, Centennial College
Karen Riley, Southern Alberta Institute of
Technology
Diana Serafini, Dawson College
J.A. Sharpe, University of Manitoba
Oksana Shkurska, Dalhousie University
Gillian Suanders, University of Victoria
Tara Williams, Medicine Hat College
Aidan Wyatt, Southern Alberta Institute of
Technology

Finally, on a personal level, I want to thank my family—Margaret Meyer, the late George Homer Meyer,
Dr. Bruce Meyer, Kerry Johnston, and Katie Meyer—whose unfailing support, kindness, and patience
have made it possible for me to produce the first edition and to do it all again a second, third, fourth, and
now fifth time.
Carolyn Meyer

To my mother, Margaret
—and in memory of my father, George Homer
 Issues and

1
Learning Objectives
Trends in 1. Identify the link between effective
business communication and
Professional personal career success.
2. Understand professionalism and
Communication 3.
professional boundaries.
Identify the importance, types,
and characteristics of workplace
teams and models for team
decision-making.
Chapter Preview 4. Recognize key changes and
trends in the workplace.
This chapter introduces you to the contemporary workplace and what it
5. Identify the goals and
takes to be a professional, both individually and as part of a team. You’ll
standards of ethical business
see why it’s important to be honest and principled and to keep private communication.
information private. 6. Understand workplace privacy
issues and identify strategies to
safeguard personal information.

iStock.com/scyther5
2 Communicating for Results

Case Study Values of honesty and respect for differences,

a commitment to trust and relationship

By permission of Centre for Aboriginal Human Resource Development Inc.

building, collaborative and virtual-team
practices, and open and transparent
communication: these are the cornerstones
on which Brenda LaRose has built her
outstanding 25-year career as an executive
search company head. As the 2019 recipient
of the Aboriginal Business Hall of Fame Lifetime
Achievement Award from the Canadian
Council for Aboriginal Business and as a
Métis Anishinaabe citizen, Winnipeg-based
LaRose lives the values of her culture while
applying a wealth of expertise as a Certified
Management Consultant and a Certified
Professional in Human Resources. She is the
Brenda LaRose lives her values in her founder of Higgins Executive Search, a national
approach to business communication.
leader in diverse and Indigenous executive
recruitment, and is now a partner at Leaders International, as well as the co-founder of
SheDay. For LaRose, communicating is about more than just getting the message across.
“It’s extremely important. You are projecting your values and image every day when you’re
interacting with people, including clients. It’s all about communicating from an ethics-
and-values perspective—that’s key for communicating. Our job is to make sure that we are
communicating well, that we’re managing the expectations [of clients and candidates]
and that we’re making sure they understand how we work and understand the process.”
LaRose’s ethics-and-values perspective makes good business sense but it comes
from a wider world than business. It comes from who she is and who her people are, as
embodied in part by Indigenous knowledge, the Anishinaabe Seven Sacred Laws (respect,
love, courage, honesty, wisdom, humility, and truth), and millennia-old practices of
storytelling and conflict resolution—practices that have been emulated in the mainstream
business communication toolkit. LaRose stresses that working in the Indigenous community
demands an understanding of its diversity—there are more than 600 First Nations, different
from one another in more than just geographical location—and a nuanced appreciation
of communicative differences. That respect for differences carries over to LaRose’s
respect for the communication preferences of her Indigenous and non-Indigenous team.
LaRose encourages them to communicate both verbally and in writing and to use Teamer,
a tool for interoffice communication, to promote sharing and clear up uncertainties.
With a team of 12 and offices in Winnipeg, Vancouver, and Ottawa, LaRose knows
the importance of collaborative software tools and strong relationships between team
members based on trust and mutual respect as the keys to productive virtual meetings
and on-site project partnerships. When she founded Higgins Executive Search 20 years
ago, she realized that many interactions among staff were virtual and that her team
needed to be in regular contact to work on a number of different projects at once. She
invested heavily in technology for virtual communication, a practice she continues in using
GoToMeeting for regular once- to twice-a-week meetings with her dispersed workforce.
 1 | Issues and Trends in Professional Communication 3

For LaRose, GoToMeeting comes with the added advantage of enabling participants to see
as well as hear each other. “You’ve got to be able to work together, trust each other, and like
each other to be part of a team. If you’re not communicating, not working together, and not
spending time together, you can’t be a team.”1
The ability of businesses to manage and adapt to change is a popular topic with
communicators. According to Andy Canham, president of SAP Canada, and Tony Olvet,
president of research at IDC Canada, the changes facing Canadian business not only
involve global competition, but transformations brought by the digital revolution.
Machine learning, the Internet of Things, cloud computing, artificial intelligence, big data,
and blockchain are all part of what they call “the wave of change [that] is washing over
Canadian business.”2 Digital transformation—applying technologies to change the way
something is done—is resulting in new ways of creating, selling and delivering products
and services.3

Communicating for Change—

and a Stronger Bottom Line—
in the New Economy
Innovation, according to the Conference Board of Canada, is the process of extracting
economic and social value from knowledge and transforming ideas into marketable
products and services. Whether it involves radical technological breakthroughs such as
the adoption of disruptive technologies, like 3D printing, or the use of new, productiv-
ity-boosting information and communication technologies (ICTs), innovation is information and
important to the success of organizations, communities, and nations. How innovative communication technologies
(ICTS) Technologies, such
is Canadian business? In 2018, the Conference Board of Canada, in its How Canada Per- as mobile phone systems
forms: Innovation report card, awarded Canada a “C” grade and ranked its innovation and the Internet, used for
performance twelfth among 16 major industrialized nations.4 Although Canada contin- transmitting, manipulating,
and storing data
ues to lag behind many other industrialized nations, communication and the ability to
by electronic means.
work creatively and in teams are seen as increasingly important to attaining productivity
and innovation benchmarks.
A 2018 study from Microsoft and Ipsos-Reid showed that driving growth and in-
novation depends on the ability of business leaders to foster a culture of creativity
and collaboration. According to Bruce Mau, co-founder and chief executive officer of
Massive Change Network, “Historically, the workplace was designed to prevent com-
munication. What we realize now is that communication flow within an organization
is the most powerful creator of wealth, so we as business leaders need to find the syn-
thesis between our physical and digital workspaces to facilitate this communication.”5
Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration skills are all factors in
business success.
4 Communicating for Results
communication A
transactional and relational
process involving the
meaningful exchange
of information.
soft skill A social,
interpersonal, self-
management, or language
skill that complements a
person’s technical skills.
hard skill A technical skill
(know-how and abilities)
that a person requires for a
specific job.
In today’s global business environment, everyone communicates for a living. It is
impossible to work in an office without writing reports, dashing off e-mails, composing
formal letters, participating in meetings, speaking on the telephone, networking and col-
laborating with colleagues, giving presentations, or using digital technologies to carry
out any of these functions. Spoken and written communication that is focused, reliable,
and disciplined has the power to influence opinion and shape perceptions on which an
organization’s competitiveness, productivity, and success depend. Good communication
plays a crucial role in building credibility and upholding standards of accountability. In a
global business environment where relationships thrive on trust, how you write, speak,
and listen reflects who you are professionally.
Done well, your communication can empower you and lead to promotion and success.
Language is, after all, a powerful tool worth the effort of learning to use well. Effective
communication can cut through the complexities of business, clarifying fuzzy concepts
and making masses of data both meaningful and manageable for those who must use it
and make decisions based on it.
Successful communication on the job doesn’t happen by chance. It is the result of
learning how to structure information strategically using text, design, and relevant tech-
nologies flexibly to achieve an intended purpose for a clearly defined audience. Delivering
information effectively can depend on a fine balance between you and your audience, be-
tween a commitment to your business goals and an awareness of your audience’s needs.
Delivering information at Internet speed, as so many jobs now require, demands more
than simply familiarizing yourself with the basic rules of grammar, spelling, and punctu-
ation. It also requires keeping up with changes and developing an accessible, functional
style of communication that is flexible enough to be applied to the many forms of com-
munication in your workplace.
Good communication makes good business sense. Even though the ability to commu-
nicate effectively is considered a “soft skill”—a social and self-management behaviour—
as opposed to a “hard skill”—technical know-how, tool, and/or technique that equips
people to work in a professional capacity—research has shown that communication is
important to success at work. Among the 95 Canadian HR specialists surveyed for Nav-
igating Change: 2018 Business Council Skills Survey, maintaining a “human touch” and
hiring grads with a comprehensive mix of skills were key priorities.6 Topping the list of
skills employers are looking for in entry-level hires are
• collaboration/teamwork/interpersonal/relationship building skills
• communication skills
• problem-solving skills
• analytical capabilities
• resiliency
In a 2016 survey of 90 leading private-sector employers, Canadian hiring man-
agers ranked communication a close second to teamwork skills as the capability most
important for entry-level job candidates.7 Communication capabilities are not just a
pathway to career advancement, but also a route to satisfied customers and a healthy
bottom line. Terry M
­ atthews, founder and chairman of Wesley Clover, a private equity
and investment m­ anagement firm, sees new graduates with specific skill sets as part of
the formula for corporate success in the future economy: “It’s not always the ones with
 1 | Issues and Trends in Professional Communication 5

the highest marks. Rather, it’s the people with the hard work ethic, creativity and good
­communication skills.”8
Businesses across North America collectively spend billions every year training their
employees to communicate effectively, in part because business practitioners can spend
up to 80 per cent of a work day engaged in oral and written communication9 and compa-
nies with effective communication outperform less communication-savvy competitors.10
The Conference Board of Canada argues that progress in the work world depends on the
ability to do the following:

• read and understand information in many forms;

• speak and write to command attention and promote understanding;
• actively listen and appreciate other points of view;
• use scientific and technological skills to clarify ideas;
• share information via a range of technologies;
• manage information by gathering and organizing it through the use of technolo-
gies and information systems; and,
• apply and integrate knowledge and skills from other disciplines.11

Developing these skills leads to advantages that have lasting benefits for organizations
and stakeholders. Advantages include enhanced problem-solving and decision-making;
increased efficiency, workflow, and productivity; and improved professional image, busi-
ness relationships, and group dynamics.

Communicating in the Current Workplace

Contemporary changes in the Canadian workplace—and beyond—have implications
for learning, job requirements, sought-after business talent, hiring, and the quality of
work life. Despite these changes, communication is a constant cornerstone for successful
professionals.

The Knowledge Economy

Whereas Canada’s economy used to be based on the products people made from raw
materials through manual labour and industrial production, the information age has
made it knowledge-based. Information is a valuable commodity and now, more than
ever, it is easily accessed and disseminated through computer technology. The knowl-
edge worker makes and sells some kind of idea-based product, such as software, con-
sulting and financial services, music, design, or pharmaceuticals. The advantage that
knowledge products have over products produced through manual labour is that their
value can dramatically increase as the global market expands; challenges in a knowledge
economy include ensuring continued funding for research and development (R&D),
drawing on an educated workforce trained in critical thinking, and fighting the prob-
lem of “brain drain,” which is the loss of experts to other countries. Richard Florida, an
urban studies theorist and director of cities at the Martin Prosperity Institute at the
University of Toronto’s Rotman School of Management, believes that creativity is the
driving force of economic progress and the source of competitive advantage. He claims
6 Communicating for Results

that “the creative age” has seen the rise of two social classes: the creative class—con-
sisting of workers in science and technology, arts and culture, entertainment, health
care, law, and management—and the service class.12 A 2015 study by the Martin Pros-
perity Institute shows that Canada’s economy is at a crossroads: it is transitioning from
a natural resource–based economy to a ­knowledge-based economy but lags behind its
international peers.13
Publicly accessible search engines (such as Google) and open-access business en-
gines and databases have spurred the spread of information and made the acquisition
of knowledge more democratic. Today, workers are expected to have both the skills
necessary to find and evaluate information through these resources and the know-how
to process and communicate that information effectively. The information age makes
researchers of us all, no matter our occupation or job profile. Common for large busi-
nesses and, increasingly, smaller ones is algorithm-based big data analytics, the prac-
tice of collecting, analyzing, and comparing large data sets, and identifying patterns in
them to better understand consumer preferences, forecast trends, and attune strate-
gies, products, and services. Although many companies do not have fully data-driven
cultures, 73 per cent of surveyed businesses reported gaining value from the data and
artificial intelligence (AI) projects they launched in marketing, customer-relationship
management, data sharing, human resources and hiring, and security enhancement.14
The Toronto Raptors front office has drawn insights from big data since 2016, when it
partnered with IBM to use its AI-based Watson technology to make the strategic draft
picks that helped it clinch the 2019 NBA championship.15 Companies now also rely on
competitive intelligence—the practice of deriving data insight from external sources
to gain a competitive advantage by utilizing information about a competitor’s prod-
ucts, services, and customers to make business decisions.16 These analytical practices

yelo34/©123RF.com

The Toronto Raptors are just one of the businesses, ranging from large to small, that are using the
power of big data and AI to improve their products, market knowledge, and processes.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 136.—Portion of the
radula of Gadinia
peruviana Sowb., Chili. ×
250. Type (c).
(c) Radula with an indefinite number of marginals, laterals (if
present) merging into marginals, central tooth present or absent,
inconspicuous, teeth all very small. This type of radula, among the
Nudibranchiata, is characteristic of certain sub-genera of Doris (e.g.
Chromodoris, Aphelodoris, Casella, Centrodoris), of Hypobranchiaea
and Pleurophyllidia; among the Tectibranchiata, of Actaeon, many of
the Bullidae, Aplustrum, the Aplysiidae, Pleurobranchus, Umbrella
and Gadinia (Figs. 136 and 137, C).
In the Pteropoda there are two types of radula. The
Gymnosomata, which are in the main carnivorous, possess a radula
with a varying number (4–12) of sickle-shaped marginals, central
tooth present or absent. In the Thecosomata, which feed on a
vegetable diet, there are never more than three teeth, a central and
a marginal on each side; teeth more or less cusped on a square
base.
Pulmonata.—The radula of the Testacellidae, or carnivorous land
Mollusca, is large, and consists of strong sickle-shaped teeth with
very sharp points, arranged in rows with or without a central tooth, in
such a way that the largest teeth are often on the outside, and the
smallest on the inside of the row (as in Rhytida, Fig. 139). The
number and size of the teeth vary. In Testacella and Glandina, they
are numerous, consisting of from 30 to 70 in a row, with about 50
rows, the size throughout being fairly uniform. In Aerope they are
exceedingly large, and only eight in a row, the outermost marginal
being probably the largest single tooth in the whole of the Mollusca.
The central tooth is always obscure, being, when present, simply a
weaker form of the weakest lateral; in genera with only a few teeth in
a row it is generally absent altogether.

Fig. 137.—Portions of the radula of

Opisthobranchiata, illustrating
types (b) and (c); A, Scaphander
lignarius L.; A´, one of the teeth
seen from the other side, × 40;
B, Lamellidoris bilamellata L.,
Torbay, × 60; C, Hydatina physis
L., E. Indies, × 75.
The first family of jaw-bearing snails, the Selenitidae, is distinctly
intermediate. The possession of a jaw relates it to the main body of
Helicidae, but the jaw is not strong, while the teeth are still, with the
exception of the central, thoroughly Testacellidan. The central tooth
is quite rudimentary, but it is something more than a mere weak
reproduction of the marginals. There are no true laterals. The
Limacidae show a further stage in the transition. Here the central
tooth has a definite shape of its own, tricuspid on a broad base,
which is more or less repeated in the first laterals; these, as they
approach the marginals, gradually change in form, until the outer
marginals are again thoroughly Testacellidan.[326] This is the general
form of radula, varied more or less in different genera, which occurs
in Nanina, Helicarion, Limax, Parmacella, and all the sub-genera of
Zonites. It is certain that some, and probable that all of these genera
will, on occasion, eat flesh, although their usual food appears to be
vegetable. The jaw is more powerful than in the Selenitidae, but
never so large or so strongly ribbed as in Helix proper.

Fig. 138.—Portion of the radula of Glandina truncata

Gmel. × 40.
 Fig. 139.—Portion of the radula of Rhytida
Kraussii Pfr., S. Africa. × 25.
When we reach the Helicidae, we arrive at a type of radula in
which the aculeate form of tooth—so characteristic of the Agnatha—
disappears even in the marginals, and is replaced by teeth with a
more or less quadrate base; the laterals, which are always present,
are intermediate in form between the central and the marginals, and
insensibly pass into the latter. In size and number of cusps the first
few laterals resemble the central tooth; in the extreme marginals the
cusps often become irregular or evanescent. As a rule, the teeth are
set squarely in the rows, with the exception of the extreme
marginals, which tend to slope away on either side. In some
Helicidae there is a slight approximation to the Zonitidae in the
elongation of the first marginals.
The above is the type of radula occurring in the great family
Helicidae, which includes not only Helix proper, with several
thousand species, but also Arion, Bulimus, Ariolimax, and other
genera. The jaw is almost always strongly transversely ribbed.
In the Orthalicidae (Fig. 140, C) the teeth of the radula, instead of
being in straight rows, slope back at an angle of about 45 degrees
from the central tooth. The central and laterals are very similar, with
an obtuse cusp on rather a long stem; the marginals become
bicuspid.
In the Bulimulidae, which include the important genera
Placostylus, Amphidromus, Partula, Amphibulimus, and all the
groups of South American Bulimulus, the jaw is very characteristic,
being thin, arched, and denticulated at the edges, as if formed of
numerous narrow folds overlapping one another. The radula is like
that of the Helicidae, but the inner cusp of the laterals is usually
lengthened and incurved. In Partula the separation between laterals
and marginals is very strongly marked.
The remaining families of Pulmonata must be more briefly
described. In the Cylindrellidae there are three distinct types of
radula: (a) Central tooth a narrow plate, laterals all very curiously
incurved with a blunt cusp, no marginals (Fig. 140, D); (b) radula
long and narrow, central tooth as in (a), two laterals, and about eight
small marginals; (c) much more helicidan in type, central and laterals
obtusely unicuspid, marginals quite helicidan. Type (c) is restricted to
Central America, types (a) and (b) are West Indian.
Pupidae: Radula long and narrow; teeth of the helicidan type,
centrals and laterals tricuspid on a quadrate base, marginals very
small, cusps irregular and evanescent. This type includes Anostoma,
Odontostomus, Buliminus, Vertigo, Strophia, Holospira, Clausilia,
and Balea.
Stenogyridae, including Achatina, Stenogyra, and all its sub-
genera: Central tooth small and narrow, laterals much larger,
tricuspid, central cusp long, marginals similar, but smaller.
Achatinellidae: Two types occur; (a) teeth in very oblique rows,
central, laterals, and marginals all of the same type, base narrow,
head rather broad, with numerous small denticles (Achatinella
proper, with Auriculella and Tornatellina, Fig. 140, E); (b) central
tooth small and narrow, laterals bicuspid, marginals as in Helix
(Amastra and Carelia).
 Fig. 140.—Portions of the radula of A, Hyalinia nitidula Drap.,
Yorkshire, with central tooth, first lateral, and a marginal
very highly magnified; B, Helix pomatia L., Kent, showing
central tooth, laterals, and one extreme marginal, the two
former also highly magnified; C, Orthalicus undatus Brug.,
Trinidad, with three laterals highly magnified; D, Cylindrella
rosea Pfr., Jamaica, central tooth and laterals, the same
very highly magnified; E, Achatinella vulpina Fér., Oahu,
central tooth (c) and laterals, the same highly magnified.
Succineidae: Central and laterals helicidan, bi- or tricuspid on a
quadrate plate, marginals denticulate on a narrow base; jaw with an
accessory oblong plate.
Janellidae: Central tooth very small, laterals and marginals like
Achatinellidae (a).
Vaginulidae: Central, laterals, and marginals unicuspid
throughout, on same plan.
Onchidiidae: Rows oblique at the centre, straight near the edges;
central strong, tricuspid; laterals and marginals very long, falciform,
arched, unicuspid.
 Auriculidae: Teeth very small; central narrow, tricuspid on rather a
broad base; laterals and marginals obscurely tricuspid on a base like
Succinea.
Limnaeidae: Jaw composed of one upper and two lateral pieces;
central and lateral teeth resembling those of Helicidae; marginals
much pectinated and serriform (Fig. 141, A). In Ancylus proper the
teeth are of a very different type, base narrow, head rather blunt,
with no sharp cusps, teeth similar throughout, except that the
marginals become somewhat pectinated (Fig. 141, B); another type
more resembles Limnaea.
 Fig. 141.—Portions of the radula of
A, Limnaea stagnalis L., with
the central tooth and two first
laterals, and two of the
marginals, very highly,
magnified; B, Ancylus fluviatilis
Müll., with two of the marginals
very highly magnified; C, Physa
fontinalis L., with central tooth
and two of the marginals very
highly magnified.
Physidae: Jaw simple, but with a fibrous growth at its upper edge,
which may represent an accessory plate; radula with very oblique
rows, central tooth denticulate, laterals and marginals serriform,
comb-like, with a wing-like appendage at the superior outer edge
(Fig. 141, C).
 Chilinidae: Central tooth small, cusped on an excavated triangular
base, marginals five-cusped, with a projection as in Physa, laterals
comb-like, serrations not deep.
Amphibolidae: Central tooth five-cusped on a broad base, central
cusp very large; two laterals only, the first very small, thorn-like, the
second like the central tooth, but three-cusped; laterals simple,
sabre-shaped.
Scaphopoda.—In the single family (Dentaliidae) the radula is
large, and quite unlike that of any other group. The central tooth is a
simple broad plate; the single lateral is strong, arched, and slightly
cusped; the marginal a very large quadrangular plate, quite simple;
formula, 1.1.1.1.1 (Fig. 133, B).
Cephalopoda.—The radula of the Cephalopoda presents no
special feature of interest. Perhaps the most remarkable fact about it
is its singular uniformity of structure throughout a large number of
genera. It is always very small, as compared with the size of the
animal, most of the work being done by the powerful jaws, while the
digestive powers of the stomach are very considerable.
The general type of structure is a central tooth, a very few laterals,
and an occasional marginal or two; teeth of very uniform size and
shape throughout. In the Dibranchiata, marginals are entirely absent,
their place being always taken, in the Octopoda, by an accessory
plate of varying shape and size. This plate is generally absent in the
Decapoda. The central tooth is, in the Octopoda, very strong and
characteristic; in Eledone and Octopus it is five-cusped, central cusp
strong; in Argonauta unicuspid, in Tremoctopus tricuspid. The
laterals are always three in number, the innermost lateral having a
tendency to assume the form of the central. In Sepia the two inner
laterals are exact reproductions of the central tooth; in Eledone,
Sepiola, Loligo, and Sepia, the third lateral is falciform and much the
largest.
 Fig. 142.—Portion of the radula of Octopus
tetracirrhus D. Ch., Naples, × 20.
In Nautilus, the only living representative of the Tetrabranchiata,
there are two sickle-shaped marginals on each side, each of which
has a small accessory plate at the base. The two laterals and the
central tooth are small, very similar to one another, unicuspid on a
square base.

Fig. 143.—Alimentary canal of Helix aspersa L.: a, anus; b.d, b.d´, right and
left biliary ducts; b.m, buccal mass; c, crop; h.g, hermaphrodite gland; i,
intestine; i.o, opening of same from stomach (pyloric orifice); l, l´, right
and left lobes of liver; m, mouth; oe, oesophagus; r, rectum; s.d, salivary
duct; s.g, salivary gland; st, stomach; t, left tentacle. (After Howes and
Marshall, slightly modified.)
 Salivary glands are found in most Glossophora. They occur in one
or two pairs on each side of the pharynx and oesophagus, the duct
usually leading forwards and opening into the anterior part of the
pharynx (see Figs. 143, 144). They are exceptionally large in the
carnivorous Gasteropoda. In certain genera, e.g. Murex, Dolium,
Cassis, Pleurobranchus, the secretions of these glands are found to
contain a considerable proportion (sometimes as much as 4·25 per
cent) of free sulphuric acid. This fact was first noticed by Troschel,
who, while handling a Dolium galea at Messina, saw the creature
spit a jet of saliva upon a marble slab, which immediately produced a
brisk effervescence. A number of the genera thus provided bore
through the shells of other Mollusca and of Echinoderms, to prey
upon their soft tissues, and it is possible that the acid assists in the
piercing of the shell by converting the hard carbonate of lime into
sulphate of lime, which can easily be removed by the action of the
radula.[327] In the majority of the Cephalopoda there are two pairs of
salivary glands, one lying on each side of the mouth, the other on the
middle of the oesophagus.
Fig. 144.—Alimentary canal, etc.,
of Sepia officinalis L.: a,
anus; b.d, one of the biliary
ducts; b.m, buccal mass; c,
coecum; i, ink-sac; i.d, duct
of same; j, jaws; l.l, lobes of
the liver; oe, oesophagus; p,
pancreatic coeca; r, rectum;
s.g, salivary glands; st,
stomach. (From a specimen
in the British Museum.)
 Fig. 145.—Gizzard of
Scaphander lignarius L.: A,
showing position with regard
to oesophagus (oe) and
intestine (i), the latter being
full of comminuted fragments
of food; p, left plate; p´, right
plate; p.ac, accessory plate;
B, the plates as seen from
the front, with the enveloping
membranes removed,
lettering as in A. Natural
size.

Fig. 146.—Section of the stomach of Melongena,

showing the gastric plates (g.p, g.p,) for the
trituration of food; b.d, biliary duct; g.g, genital
gland; i, intestine; l, liver; oe, oesophagus; st,
stomach. (After Vanstone.)
 3. The Oesophagus.—That part of the alimentary canal which lies
between the pharynx and the stomach (in Pelecypoda between the
mouth and stomach) is known as the oesophagus. Its exact limits
are not easy to define, since in many cases the tube widens so
gradually, while the muscular structure of its walls changes so slowly
that it is difficult to say where oesophagus ends and stomach begins.
As a rule, the oesophagus is fairly simple in structure, and consists
of a straight and narrow tube. In the Pulmonata and
Opisthobranchiata it often widens out into a ‘crop,’ which appears to
serve the purpose of retaining a quantity of masticated food before it
passes on to the stomach. In Octopus and Patella the crop takes the
form of a lobular coecum. In the carnivorous Mollusca the
oesophagus becomes complicated by the existence of a varying
number of glands, by the action of which digestion appears to begin
in some cases before the food reaches the stomach proper.
4. The Stomach.—At the posterior end of the oesophagus lies the
muscular pouch known as the stomach, in which the digestion of the
food is principally performed. This organ may be, as in Limax, no
more than a dilatation of the alimentary canal, or it may, as is usually
the case, take the form of a well-marked bag or pocket. The two
orifices of the stomach are not always situated at opposite ends;
when the stomach itself is a simple enlargement of the wall of one
side of the alimentary canal, the cardiac or entering orifice often
becomes approximated to the orifice of exit (pyloric orifice).
The walls of the stomach itself are usually thickened and
strengthened by constrictor muscles. In some Nudibranchs
(Scyllaea, Bornella) they are lined on the inside with chitinous teeth.
In Cyclostoma, and some Bithynia, Strombus, and Trochus there is a
free chitinous stylet within the stomach.[328] In Melongena (Fig. 146)
the posterior end of the oesophagus is provided with a number of
hard plate-like ridges, while the stomach is lined with a double row of
cuticular knobs, which are movable on their bases of attachment,
and serve the purpose of triturating food.[329] Aplysia has several
hard plates, set with knobs and spines, and similar organs occur in
the Pteropoda. But the most formidable organ for the crushing of
food is possessed by the Bullidae, and particularly by Scaphander
(Fig. 145). Here there is a strong gizzard, consisting of several plates
connected by powerful cartilages, which crush the shells, which are
swallowed whole.
Into the stomach, or into the adjacent portions of the digestive
tract, open the ducts which connect with the so-called liver. The
functions of this important organ have not yet been thoroughly
worked out. The liver is a lobe-shaped gland of a brown-gray or light
red colour, which in the spirally-shelled families usually occupies the
greater part of the spire. In the Cephalopoda, the two ducts of the
liver are covered by appendages which are usually known as the
pancreatic coeca; the biliary duct, instead of leading directly into the
stomach, passes into a very large coecum (see Fig. 144) or
expansion of the same, which serves as a reservoir for the biliary
secretions. At the point of connexion between the coecum and
stomach is found a valve, which opens for the issue of the biliary
products into the stomach, but closes against the entry of food into
the coecum. In most Gasteropoda the liver consists of two distinct
lobes, between which are embedded the stomach and part of the
intestine. In many Nudibranchiata the liver becomes ‘diffused’ or
broken up into a number of small diverticula or glands connecting
with the stomach and intestine. The so-called cerata or dorsal lobes
in the Aeolididae are in effect an external liver, the removal of which
to the outside of the body gives the creature additional stomach-
room.
The Hyaline Stylet.—In the great majority of bivalves the
intestine is provided with a blind sac, or coecum of varying length.
Within this is usually lodged a long cylindrical body known as the
hyaline or crystalline stylet. In a well-developed Mytilus edulis it is
over an inch in length, and in Mya arenaria between two and three
inches. The bladder-like skin of the stylet, as well as its gelatinoid
substance, are perfectly transparent. In the Unionidae there is no
blind sac, and the stylet, when present, is in the intestine itself. It is
said to be present or absent indifferently in certain species.
The actual function performed by the hyaline stylet is at present a
matter of conjecture. Haseloff’s experiments on Mytilus edulis tend to
confirm the suggestion of Möbius, that the structure represents a
reserve of food material, not specially secreted, but a chemical
modification of surplus food. He found that under natural conditions it
was constantly present, but that specimens which were starved lost
it in a few days, the more complete the starvation the more thorough
being the loss; it reappeared when they were fed again. Schulze, on
the other hand, believes that it serves, in combination with mucus
secreted by the stomach, to protect the intestine against laceration
by sharp particles introduced with the food. W. Clark found that in
Pholas the stylet is connected with a light yellow corneous plate, and
imagined therefore that it acts as a sort of spring to work the plate in
order to comminute the food, the two together performing somewhat
the function of a gizzard.[330]
5. and 6. The Intestine, Rectum, and Anus.—The intestine, the
wider anal end of which is called the rectum, almost invariably
makes a bend forward on leaving the stomach. This is the case in
the Cephalopoda, Scaphopoda, and the great majority of
Gasteropoda. The exceptions are the bilaterally symmetrical
Amphineura, in which the anus is terminal, and many
Opisthobranchiata, in which it is sometimes lateral (Fig. 68, p. 159),
sometimes dorsal (Fig. 67). The intestine is usually short in
carnivorous genera, but long and more or less convoluted in those
which are phytophagous. In all cases where a branchial or
pulmonary cavity exists, the anus is situated within it, and thus varies
its position according to the position of the breathing organ. Thus in
Helix it is far forward on the right side, in Testacella, Vaginula, and
Onchidium almost terminal, in Patella at the back of the neck, slightly
to the right side (Fig. 64, p. 157).
In the rhipidoglossate section of the Diotocardia (Trochus, Haliotis,
etc.) the rectum passes through the ventricle of the heart, a fact
which, taken in conjunction with others, is evidence of their
relationship to the Pelecypoda.
 Fig. 147.—Ink-sac of
Sepia, showing its
relation to the rectum:
a, anus; d, duct of
sac; i.g, ink-gland; i.r,
portion of the sac
which serves as a
reservoir for the ink; o,
orifice of ink-gland; r,
rectum; sp, double set
of sphincter muscles
controlling upper end
of duct. (Modified from
Girod.)
In nearly all Pelecypoda the intestine is very long and convoluted,
being sometimes doubled forward over the mouth. Towards its
terminal part it traverses the ventricle of the heart, except in Ostrea,
Anomia, Teredo, and a few more. The anus is always at the posterior
end of the animal, adjacent to and slightly above the adductor
muscle.
Anal glands, which open into the rectum close to the anus, are
present in some Prosobranchiata, e.g. Murex, Purpura. In the
Cephalopoda the anal gland becomes of considerable size and
importance, and is generally known as the ink-sac (Fig. 147); it
occurs in all known living genera, except Nautilus. The ink-sac
consists of a large bag generally divided into two portions, in one of
which the colouring matter is secreted, while the other acts as a
reservoir for its storage. A long tube connects the bag with the end of
the rectum, the mouth of the tube being controlled, in Sepia, by a
double set of sphincter muscles.

The Kidneys

The kidneys, nephridia,[331] renal or excretory organs, consist

typically of two symmetrical glands, placed on the dorsal side of the
body in close connexion with the pericardium. Each kidney opens on
the one hand into the mantle cavity, close to the anus (see Fig. 64, p.
157), and on the other, into the pericardium. The venous blood
returning from the body passes through the vascular walls of the
kidneys, which are largely formed of cells containing uric acid. The
blood thus parts with its impurities before it reaches the breathing
organs.
The kidneys are paired in all cases where the branchiae are
paired, and where the heart has two auricles, i.e. in the Amphineura,
the Diotocardia (with the exception of the Neritidae), the Pelecypoda,
and all Cephalopoda except Nautilus, which has four branchiae, four
auricles, and four kidneys. In other Gasteropoda only one kidney
survives, corresponding to the left kidney of Zygobranchiate
Gasteropods.
Besides their use as excretory organs the kidneys, in certain
groups of the Mollusca, stand in very close relation to the genital
glands. In some of the Amphineura the generative products, instead
of possessing a separate external orifice of their own, pass from the
genital gland into the pericardium and so out through the kidneys
(see Fig. 61 C, D, p. 154). In the Diotocardia it is the right kidney
alone which serves, besides its excretory functions, as a duct for the
emission of the generative products, the left kidney being at the
same time greatly reduced in size. Thus in Patella the left
nephridium is small, the right being much larger; both function as
excretory organs, but the right serves as a mode of conveyance for
the seminal products as well. In certain Pelecypoda (e.g. Yoldia,
Avicula, Modiola, Pecten, Spondylus) the genital glands
communicate directly, and with a similar object, with the renal pouch
on the same side of the body, but in the majority of cases the orifices
are distinct.

The following memoirs will be found useful for further study of this
portion of the subject:—
D. Barfurth, Ueber den Bau und die Thätigkeit der
Gasteropodenleber: Arch. Mikr. Anat. xxii. (1883), pp. 473–524.
Th. Behme, Beiträge zur Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte
des Harnapparates der Lungenschnecken: Arch. Naturges. iv. (1889),
pp. 1–28.
R. Bergh, Semper’s Reisen im Archipelago der Philippinen;
Nudibranchiata: Theil ii. Band ii. (1870–78), Band iii. (1880–1892).
W. G. Binney, Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of the United
States: Bull. Mus. C. Z. Harv. iv. (1878), 450 pp.
„ On the Jaw and Lingual Membrane of North American
Terrestrial Pulmonata: Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Philad. (1875), pp. 140–243.
J. T. Cunningham, The renal organs (Nephridia) of Patella: Quart.
Journ. Micr. Sc. xxiii. (1883), pp. 369–375.
„ „ Note on the structure and relations of the kidney in
Aplysia: Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap. iv. (1883), pp. 420–428.
R. von Erlanger, On the paired Nephridia of Prosobranchs, etc.:
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc. xxxiii. (1892), pp. 587–623.
H. Fischer, Recherches sur la Morphologie du Foie des
Gastéropodes: Bull. Scient. France Belg. xxiv. (1892), pp. 260–346.
 C. Grobben, Morphologische Studien über den Harn- und
Geschlechtsapparat, sowie die Leibeshöhle, der Cephalopoden: Arb.
Zool. Inst. Wien, v. (1884), pp. 179–252.
„ Die Pericardialdrüse der Gasteropoden: ibid. ix. (1890), pp.
35–56.
B. Haller, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Niere der Prosobranchier:
Morph. Jahrb. xi. (1885), pp. 1–53.
A. Hancock, On the structure and homologies of the renal organ in
the Nudibranchiate Mollusca: Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiv. (1864), pp. 511–
530.
A. Köhler, Microchemische Untersuchung der Schneckenzungen:
Zeits. Gesamm. Naturw. viii. (1856), pp. 106–112.
Ad. Oswald, Der Rüsselapparat der Prosobranchier: Jena. Zeits.
Naturw. N.F. xxi. (1893), pp. 114–162.
R. Perrier, Recherches sur l’anatomie et l’histologie du rein des
Gastéropodes prosobranches: Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool. (7), viii. (1889), pp.
61–315.
C. Semper, Reisen im Archipelago der Philippinen; Land
Pulmonata: Theil ii. Band iii. (1870–77).
C. Troschel, Das Gebiss der Schnecken: Berlin, 1856–1892.
W. G. Vigelius, Ueber das Excretionssystem der Cephalopoden:
Niederl. Arch. Zool. v. (1880), pp. 115–184.