Chapter -01

Gender, transgender and their challenges and barriers in society

❖ Introduction
Violence, oppression, and cruelty are as old as human civilization itself. Human identity is multi-
layered, and deviation from a specific identity may elicit violence, deprivation, and prejudice in
various settings. In many countries and societies, the transgender community is one of the most
vulnerable groups due to their gender incongruence. Deeply ingrained cultural norms, beliefs,
social ignorance, and practices have transferred violence against transgender people over
generations, preventing them from enjoying their fundamental human rights.

❖ Gender Identity
Gender identity refers to each person's deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender,
which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth including the personal sense of
the body (which may involve, if freely chosen, modification of bodily appearance or function by
medical, surgical or other means) and other expressions of gender, including dress, speech and
mannerisms.1 The term "gender-diverse" is used to refer to persons whose gender identity,
including their gender expression, is at odds with what is perceived as being the gender norm in a
particular context at a particular point in time, including those who do not place themselves in the
male/female binary; the more specific term "trans" is used to describe persons who identify with a
different sex than the one assigned to them at birth.

❖ Challenges and barriers faced by transgender

Here are some of the key challenges and barriers faced by transgender individuals:
1. Social Stigma and Discrimination:
Transgender individuals often experience discrimination, prejudice, and stigma from society. This
can manifest in various forms, including social exclusion, bullying, and verbal or physical abuse.
2. Violence and Harassment:
Transphobic violence is a significant issue, with transgender individuals facing higher rates of
physical and verbal abuse. Hate crimes against transgender people, especially transgender women
of color, are unfortunately common.
 3. Legal and Policy Barriers:
Discriminatory laws and policies can impede the rights and well-being of transgender individuals.
Issues may include lack of legal recognition, restrictions on gender marker changes on
identification documents, and limited protection against discrimination.
4. Healthcare Disparities:
Transgender individuals may encounter barriers in accessing quality healthcare. This can include
discrimination from healthcare providers, lack of gender-affirming care, and challenges in
obtaining insurance coverage for transgender-related medical procedures.
5. Educational Challenges:
Transgender students often face discrimination and harassment in educational settings, which can
negatively impact their academic performance and mental health. Lack of inclusive policies and
education about transgender issues contributes to this challenge.
6. Employment Discrimination:
Transgender individuals may experience discrimination in the workplace, including bias in hiring,
unfair treatment, and limited career advancement opportunities. Some face difficulties finding and
maintaining employment due to prejudices.
7. Mental Health Struggles:
The stigma and discrimination faced by transgender individuals contribute to higher rates of mental
health issues, including depression, anxiety, and suicidal ideation. Access to affirming mental
health care is crucial but can be limited.
8. Family Rejection:
Some transgender individuals experience rejection or lack of support from their families, leading
to strained relationships and potential homelessness. This lack of familial support can exacerbate
other challenges.
9. Intersectionality:
Transgender individuals who belong to marginalized groups, such as people of color, individuals
with disabilities, or those from low-income backgrounds, may face compounded challenges due
to intersectional discrimination.
10. Lack of Cultural Competency:
Many societal institutions lack cultural competency when it comes to understanding and
addressing transgender issues. This lack of understanding can result in misgendering, insensitivity,
and inadequate support.
Efforts to address these challenges involve advocacy for inclusive policies, legal reforms, and
educational initiatives to increase awareness and understanding. Creating a more supportive and
affirming environment for transgender individuals requires societal commitment to dismantling
discriminatory practices and fostering inclusivity and respect for diverse gender identities.
Advocacy, education, and allyship play crucial roles in dismantling barriers and promoting a more
equitable society for everyone, regardless of gender identity.

❖ Challenges & Working Barriers for Transgenders in Bangladesh

Transgender is a very familiar word to us all but when it comes to working with them, we tend to
back out and do not want them working with us at all. Why is this notion on our mind and as well
as established in society? And what type of barriers are they facing in the working environment?
In this blog, we will be focusing on what our law and constitution have to say about them regarding
employment in the workplace.
✓ A summary of their situation regarding employment in our country
Transgender people are mainly called ‘Hijra’ in Bangladesh. They are the most vulnerable group
in society. They face violence, discrimination, and hostile behavior from people in every sphere
of their life. The policy gap is one of the main grounds that is becoming an obstacle for transgender
employment rights. There is no determined policy regarding their employment and no clarification
even mentioned anywhere or by the state on how they will contribute to society. Educational status
is very low among transgender people due to people’s negligence, institution, and policies. In an
interview conducted by Human Rights Watch in October 2017 of transgenders, the majority of
them told the interviewee that even if they attend school they face bullying, harassment, verbal
abuse, and also sometimes physical abuse for their appearances or behavior, even many were
ousted from school when their gender identity was revealed. Lack of education is another main
ground for not having access to the job sector. On this exact ground, strict policies should be taken
and implemented because our constitution guarantees us free and compulsory education according
to Article-17. Though the state and society both are miserably failing when it comes to
guaranteeing the education of transgender people whereas they should be guaranteed equal access
to education just like any other normal people. Even in Bangladesh workplaces, the employment
of transgender people leads a transgender person to undergo discrimination and exploitation in the
workplace.
✓ Transgender people in Bangladesh: From a harsh reality toward aspiration
In Bangladesh, the transgender population is one of the most impoverished and marginalized
groups due to their gender identity and sexual orientation. Considering the position of the
transgender people, it is evident that their human rights are inadequately recognized in Bangladesh.
To our knowledge, no scientific research has been undertaken on this group; thus, there are no
reliable data on the transgender population, although they are captured incoherently by various
national surveys. Furthermore, this group has been largely ignored in all aspects of national
planning and development. According to a 2016 address by the State Minister of Social Welfare,
there were ~10,000 transgender people in Bangladesh (BDNews24., 2016). However, some
organizations continue to assert that there are roughly a half-million transgender people in the
country (Anam, 2015).

The struggle of a transgender person in contemporary Bangladesh begins from birth. In the
majority of cases, families often abandon their transgender child ren when their identity is publicly
exposed. Families that do not disown their transgender children, on the other hand, are unwilling
to ensure their basic rights, such as the right to education or to play with other children, for the
fear of being ostracized and humiliated. As a result, the children are confronted with disparities
from the beginning of their lives, which worsen in their later lives. Although such events occur
frequently, there are no official statistics on the number of the transgender children who run away
in Bangladesh. Furthermore, dropping out of traditional schools/colleges owing to social stigma
against the transgender population is an additional factor that needs to be taken with forethought,
in order to provide young transgender students with quality education and develop them into a
skilled human resource.

❖ A positive Glimpse of International Scenario regarding Transgenders

Now let’s explore some international circumstances around the world. In 2007, Nepal was the first
country in this region to acknowledge the third gender category. In the case of Pant V. Nepal of
the Nepal Supreme Court, the decision was confirmed and it is considered as the most
comprehensive judgment affirming protections for gender identity anywhere in the world . Within
2 years, in the year 2009, the Supreme Court of Pakistan ordered that the government should
officially acknowledge a separate gender for the Pakistani Hijra Community which includes
transgenders, transvestites, eunuchs and it is also issued that inheritance rights of Hijras should be
enforced. The Supreme Court of India in 2014 guaranteed the population rights, equal access to
education and employment rights to the nation’s transgenders. In Thailand, transgender people are
employed as a salesperson which means their government is giving them employment opportunity
to them and showing the world that they can contribute to the society just like any other person.
Some countries even now conducting sex-reassignment surgery such as they either become fully
male or fully female. According to CNN, Argentina and Denmark have a progressive approach
towards gender recognition the most. Though this should not be the solution one should not change
their identity just because they are transgender unless they want to without any pressure or being
forced. But there are some countries or region which provides clear-cut protection for transgender
individuals. For instance, On May 17, 2016, Canada established national legislation prohibiting
transgender discrimination. Even in every province of Canada transgender discrimination is
strictly prohibited. In the United Kingdom, transgender discrimination has been unlawful since
1999 and Australia has outlawed transgender discrimination in its Sex Discrimination Act. Both
Spain and the United Kingdom has allowed transgenders without the sex-reassignment surgery to
change their names and gender designation on official documents.
 Modernism & Discourse Theory
Modernism and discourse theory are two distinct intellectual frameworks, each originating from
different academic disciplines and offering unique perspectives on various aspects of society,
culture, and knowledge.

❖ Understanding Discourse
Discourse is a generalization of the notion of a conversation to any form of communication.
Discourse is a major topic in social theory, with work spanning fields such as sociology,
anthropology, continental philosophy, and discourse analysis. Following pioneering work by
Michel Foucault, these fields view discourse as a system of thought, knowledge, or communication
that constructs our experience of the world. Since control of discourse amounts to control of how
the world is perceived, social theory often studies discourse as a window into power. Within
theoretical linguistics, discourse is understood more narrowly as linguistic information exchange
and was one of the major motivations for the framework of dynamic semantics, in which
expressions' denotations are equated with their ability to update a discourse context.

❖ Understanding Modernism
Modernist theorists were focused on achieving progress and believed in the existence of natural
and social laws which could be used universally to develop knowledge and thus a better
understanding of society. Such theorists would be preoccupied with obtaining the "truth" and
"reality", seeking to develop theories which contained certainty and predictability. Modernist
theorists therefore understood discourse to be functional. Discourse and language transformations
are ascribed to progress or the need to develop new or more "accurate" words to describe new
discoveries, understandings, or areas of interest. In modernist theory, language and discourse are
dissociated from power and ideology and instead conceptualized as "natural" products of common-
sense usage or progress. Modernism further gave rise to the liberal discourses of rights, equality,
freedom, and justice; however, this rhetoric masked substantive inequality and failed to account
for differences, according to Regnier.
Modernism, faced opposition to the conservatism that prevailed in the late 19th century and early
20th century, which brought socially progressive trend of thought that encompasses the various
culture related movements. The reason behind such movement took place in response to the feeling
that ‘traditional’ forms of literature, art, architecture, religion, social and daily life were
increasingly becoming outdated in the new industrialized world. Set on cultural inclinations
towards anything that is modern, be it thought, practice or character, modernism was a climate of
thought. The feeling of an individual, their opinion produced a fresh way of viewing society,
valuing cultural works and its makers which was more than a sum of its parts.
Modernism saw the rise of the ‘self-consciousness’ and this commitment to a principled self-
scrutiny entailed an exploration of the self. This way of self-exploration can be observed in various
forms of arts where the attention is on experimenting with the form or on the processes or materials.
According to modernism, human beings have the power to progress through creating or reshaping
the environment through the use of science, technology and knowledge. Modernism tried to
identify the factors that were impending progress and sought to replace it with ways that can help
them reach desired goals. Modernists focused on the pursuit of a better world that provided better
living conditions for all, use of technology to relieve human beings from the dangerous tasks that
industrialization.
Modernism encouraged impressionism, subjectivity and focused more on how perception takes
place and not on what is being perceived. Stream-of-conscious writing where words are given to
the internal monologue or thoughts of the writer/character are described in detail is an example of
this movement. The modernism style of presentation broke away from objectivity that third parties
provided or from presenting clearly defined moral positions. It seemed to break away from the
constraints that called for conforming to a particular genre. Prose of modernism writers at times
seemed more poetic.
Features of Modernism :
1. Individualism: Modernism often emphasizes the individual's experience, perception, and
subjectivity. It explores the complexities of the human psyche and consciousness.
2. Rejection of Tradition: Modernists rejected traditional forms and conventions, seeking
new ways of expression. In literature, this could manifest in fragmented narratives, stream-
of-consciousness writing, and experimental forms.
3. Critique of Society: Modernism often involved a critique of the prevailing social, political,
and cultural norms. Artists and thinkers questioned traditional values and institutions.
4. Cultural Revolution: The movement sought to revolutionize culture, including art,
literature, architecture, and philosophy. It aimed to capture the essence of the rapidly
changing modern world.
5. Intellectual Exploration: Modernism encouraged intellectual exploration and a
willingness to challenge existing paradigms. This led to a diversity of styles and approaches
across different artistic and intellectual fields.

Criticisms of Modernism:
1. Elitism and Inaccessibility:
• Modernist works are sometimes criticized for being elitist and difficult to
understand. The experimental forms and abstraction in literature, art, and music can
alienate a broader audience.
 2. Eurocentrism:
• Critics argue that Modernism, particularly in the early 20th century, often reflected
Eurocentric perspectives. Non-Western voices and cultural contributions were
sometimes marginalized or ignored.
3. Neglect of Social Realities:
• Some critics argue that Modernism's emphasis on individual subjectivity and
experimentation led to a neglect of pressing social issues and the realities faced by
marginalized communities.
4. Loss of Tradition:
• Traditional forms and cultural heritage were often rejected or deconstructed,
leading to a perceived loss of continuity with the past. This rejection of tradition
was seen by some as an abandonment of cultural roots.
5. Cultural Alienation:
• The focus on individualism and the exploration of subjective experience in
Modernist works has been criticized for contributing to a sense of cultural
alienation and disconnection.

❖ Discourse theory
Discourse theory, influenced by poststructuralism, linguistics, and sociology, examines the ways
in which language and communication shape and construct knowledge, power, and social reality.
It focuses on the role of discourse, which encompasses language, communication, and symbolic
systems, in shaping our understanding of the world.
Discourse theory denotes broadly the study of aspects of language and communication distinct
from linguistic structure. Most theories of discourse nonetheless examine the relation of language
to structure. In fact, during the 20th century, many d ebates in anthropology, and the social and
human sciences more generally, centered on the relation between the discursive and structural
aspects of social life. Through these debates, and especially through the scholarship that critiqued
structural anthropology and linguistics, post structural approaches to discourse have taken root in
anthropological theory and methodology. Poststructuralist approaches continue to influence the
trajectories of anthropological thinking about discourse.
Discourse theorists take discourse, rather than language, as their domain in part because of
difficulties with the latter term. The standard definition of “language” in linguistics (a set of units
and the rules for combining them to make well-formed sentences) treats language as invariant over
domains, occasions, speakers, and purposes; other traditional uses of language do specify for some
particulars (the language of the courtroom, insurance policies, advertising, Satan in book I of
Paradise Lost, this document), but even these uses share with linguistics a tendency to analyze
texts (or transcriptions of speech) in terms of patterns of choices, to objectivize in terms of words
and structures. Discourse, for discourse theory, is not sets of formally identified structures but a
type of social action. Discourse theory criticizes theories of speech acts for their focus on the acts
of individual agents speaking without social determination or constraint.
Because of this orientation toward social action, discourse theory also distinguishes itself sharply
from philosophical concerns with the truth of statements and the validity of arguments, substituting
a concern for conditions under which one can be judged to have made a serious, sound, true,
important, authoritative statement. This program is clearly sketched by Michel Foucault in The
Archaeology of Knowledge and very concisely in his lecture to the Collège de France (“The
Discourse of Language”) appended to the Archaeology. Foucault speaks of “rules” of discourse,
but it is widely agreed that the conditions under which one can make serious, authoritative
statements include material and social institutions and practices. A theory of discourse therefore
implies a theory of society, most particularly a theory of power, legitimacy, and authority.
Moreover, since society can to a very large extent be viewed as the sum of discourses, there is a
tendency in discourse theory, particularly in its French varieties, for discourse to merge into praxis,
undermining the commonsense (“Anglo-Saxon”) distinction between talking and doing.
Broadly construed, discourse theory draws insights and support from three intellectual traditions:
hermeneutics, social construction and ethnography, and the analysis of power of the political Left.
The tradition of hermeneutics as transmitted by Hans-Georg Gadamer and Jürgen Habermas (and
Thomas S. Kuhn) emphasizes that every discourse takes place within a shared horizon of
preunderstanding (or “lifeworld”) that cannot be fully or explicitly formulated. No discourse can
be completely self-grounded, and the ability to function as a participant cannot be acquired wholly
from a book, but arises from initiation and experience.
A second major source for discourse theory is the vein of ethnography and social theory that is
concerned with the offering and validating of accounts of cultural practices, including the writings
of Clifford Geertz, Erving Goffman, and a host of others supporting the general program of
symbolic interaction or social construction. These approaches typically seek to “make strange” or
denaturalize or make visible rules and practices underlying various institutions and transactions.
They share with hermeneutics a sense of the rootedness of discourse in particular social forms and
practices and tend to foreground the uncertain status of the analyst as an outsider and the potential
artificiality of accounts of insider understanding. Pierre Bourdieu in Outline of a Theory of Practice
emphasizes that practical knowledge and action are rooted in a habitus that resists theorizing or
systematization in terms of abstract, “underlying” principles, including those of economic interest.
Though Bourdieu is perhaps best known as a social theorist and researcher, one of his research
sites is academic discourse, upon the French version of which he has much of interest to say in
Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture and Homo Academicus. He speaks, for example,
of acquiring not only language but socially constituted attitudes toward language and so can refer
to “bourgeois language,” which, nota bene, is acquired as a habitus by growing up bourgeois, not
by explicit, schooled instruction.
Discourse as a mode of power, which in late capitalist societies means the enactment and
legitimation of inequality, is the special emphasis of Marxists such as Louis Althusser, Michel
Pêcheux, and Fredric Jameson. These Marxist writers have stimulated new interest in V. N.
Voroshilov’s Marxism and the Philosophy of Language (1929) and the more general view of
discourse as embodying the conflicting values and stances of different groups found in M. M.
Bakhtin ‘s “Discourse in the Novel.” Discourse as a mode of concealing and perpetuating
inequality and of regulating behavior is a theme also of such non-Marxist advocates of resistance
to discursive regulation as Foucault and feminists focusing on the silencing and marginalizing
effects of hegemonic discourses. Since theorizing itself is an activity not untinged by hegemonic
aspirations, feminists such as Hélène Cixous adopt the devices of myth, contradiction, and
hyperbole and could be said to refuse to do theory at all.
In addition, most of the very large amount of work on language in institutional settings (medical,
legal, educational, media) explores the intertwining of discourse and historical-material fact, either
through the shaping and maintaining of the “client” (pupil) role or through the management and
manipulation of mass audiences.
Features of Discourse:
1. Power and Knowledge: Discourse theory explores how power operates through language
and knowledge. It emphasizes that certain discourses shape what is considered true or
normal, thereby influencing power dynamics in society.
2. Social Constructionism: Discourse theorists argue that reality is socially constructed
through language and communication. Different discourses contribute to the construction
of various social phenomena.
3. Language as Action: Discourse is not just a tool for expressing ideas but is itself a form
of action that produces effects in the social world. Language can shape perceptions,
identities, and social structures.
4. Deconstruction of Binary Oppositions: Discourse theory challenges binary oppositions
and fixed categories, arguing that meanings are fluid and context-dependent. It questions
the stability of concepts like 'normal/abnormal,' 'self/other,' and 'masculine/feminine.'
5. Intersectionality: Discourse theory often intersects with intersectionality, recognizing that
various discourses (gender, race, class) intersect to produce complex and overlapping
systems of power and identity.

Criticisms of Discourse Theory

1. Relativism and Determinism:
• Some critics argue that discourse theory can lead to relativism, where all
perspectives are considered equally valid, undermining the ability to critique
harmful ideologies. Additionally, it's accused of determinism, suggesting that
language completely determines reality.
 2. Overemphasis on Language:
• Critics contend that discourse theory places an excessive emphasis on language and
discourse, potentially overlooking material conditions and power relations that
exist beyond linguistic constructs.
3. Lack of Practical Solutions:
• Some argue that discourse theory, by focusing on deconstruction and critique, does
not provide practical solutions for addressing social issues. Critics question its
ability to contribute to concrete social change.
4. Complexity and Accessibility:
• The theoretical nature of discourse analysis can make it complex and challenging
for that outside academia to engage with. This has led to concerns about the
accessibility and applicability of discourse theory.
5. Failure to Address Economic Injustices:
• Critics argue that discourse theory tends to overlook economic structures and
injustices. The emphasis on language may divert attention from material
inequalities that contribute to societal problems.
6. Potential for Instrumentalization:
• There are concerns that discourse theory can be instrumentalized to serve political
or ideological agendas, potentially leading to manipulative uses of language and
discourse for specific purposes.

❖ Relationship between Modernism and Discourse Theory

While modernism and discourse theory emerged in different historical and intellectual contexts,
they share some common themes. Both challenges established norms and question traditional ways
of thinking. Modernist literature, for example, often engages with the complexities of individual
subjectivity and consciousness, much like discourse theory's exploration of how language
constructs reality.
However, they also differ significantly. Modernism is primarily an artistic and cultural movement,
while discourse theory is a broader theoretical framework used in fields such as sociology, cultural
studies, and linguistics. Modernism often focuses on individual experience and expression, while
discourse theory emphasizes the social construction of reality through language and
communication.
In summary, while there are connections between modernist ideas and certain aspects of discourse
theory, they remain distinct intellectual traditions with their own histories, concerns, and
contributions to our understanding of culture and society.
 Chapter-02
Gender framework, its role in policy and advocacy efforts to promote
gender equality and how different institutions reflect and perpetuate
gender disparity

A gender framework is a conceptual tool used to analyze and understand the roles, responsibilities,
expectations, and power dynamics associated with different genders in a given society. It provides
a lens through which individuals, organizations, and policymakers can examine and address issues
related to gender equality. The framework recognizes that gender is a socially constructed concept
that goes beyond biological differences and encompasses a range of identities and expressions.
The role of a gender framework in policy and advocacy efforts to promote gender equality is
crucial. Here are key aspects to consider:
1. Analyzing Power Structures: A gender framework helps in identifying and analyzing
power structures that contribute to gender disparities. This includes examining social,
economic, and political systems that may favor one gender over another.
2. Policy Development: Gender frameworks guide the development of policies that aim to
address gender-based inequalities. Policies should be designed to challenge and change
existing norms, practices, and structures that perpetuate discrimination.
3. Intersectionality: A comprehensive gender framework considers intersectionality,
recognizing that individuals experience multiple layers of discrimination based on factors
such as race, class, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and more. This understanding is essential
for crafting inclusive policies that address the unique challenges faced by individuals at the
intersections of different identities.
4. Advocacy Strategies: Advocacy efforts grounded in a gender framework are more
effective in challenging societal norms and promoting gender equality. This involves
raising awareness, mobilizing communities, and influencing decision-makers to adopt
policies that promote inclusivity and equal opportunities.
5. Monitoring and Evaluation: Gender frameworks provide a basis for monitoring and
evaluating the impact of policies and programs. By using gender-disaggregated data,
policymakers can assess the effectiveness of interventions and make informed adjustments
to ensure gender equality goals are met.
Institutions, whether governmental, non-governmental, or private, play a significant role in either
perpetuating or challenging gender disparities. Here's how different institutions reflect and
perpetuate gender disparity:
 1. Legal and Policy Frameworks: Laws and policies that discriminate based on gender,
consciously or unconsciously, contribute to gender disparities. Reforms in legal and policy
frameworks are necessary to eliminate discriminatory practices and promote equality.
2. Workplaces: Workplaces often reflect gender disparities in terms of pay, promotions, and
opportunities. Gender biases in hiring, unequal distribution of responsibilities, and hostile
work environments can perpetuate inequalities.
3. Education Systems: Educational institutions may contribute to gender disparities through
biased curricula, stereotypes, and unequal opportunities for students. Addressing these
issues is vital for fostering an environment that supports equal educational attainment.
4. Media and Cultural Institutions: Media plays a crucial role in shaping societal
perceptions of gender roles. Biased portrayals in media and cultural institutions can
reinforce stereotypes and contribute to the normalization of gender disparities.
5. Healthcare Systems: Gender disparities in healthcare access and treatment are often
influenced by institutional factors. It's essential to address these disparities to ensure
equitable healthcare services for all genders.
In summary, a gender framework serves as a tool for analyzing, developing, and implementing
policies and advocacy efforts that promote gender equality. Recognizing and challenging gender
disparities within various institutions is crucial for creating a more inclusive and equitable society.
 Chapter-03
Disability, barriers of disable people and their contribution to the
society

Disability refers to a condition or impairment, either physical or mental, that substantially limits
one or more major life activities. It is a broad and diverse concept that encompasses a wide range
of conditions and challenges. Disabilities can be present from birth or acquired later in life due to
illness, injury, or other factors. People with disabilities may face obstacles in various aspects of
their lives, but it's important to recognize their individual abilities and contributions to society.
There are different types of disabilities, including:
1. Physical Disabilities: Conditions that affect a person's mobility or dexterity, such as
paralysis, limb loss, or muscular dystrophy.
2. Sensory Disabilities: Conditions that affect the senses, including blindness, low vision,
deafness, and hearing impairments.
3. Cognitive or Intellectual Disabilities: Conditions that affect cognitive functions,
learning, and intellectual abilities, such as Down synd rome, autism, or intellectual
developmental disorders.
4. Psychiatric Disabilities: Mental health conditions like depression, anxiety, bipolar
disorder, or schizophrenia.
5. Neurological Disabilities: Conditions affecting the nervous system, such as epilepsy,
multiple sclerosis, or cerebral palsy.
6. Chronic Health Conditions: Long-term medical conditions such as diabetes, chronic
pain, or autoimmune disorders.

❖ Barriers Faced by People with Disabilities

People with disabilities can face various barriers that hinder their full and equal participation in
society. These barriers can be physical, social, economic, or attitudinal. However, it's important to
recognize that individuals with disabilities make valuable contributions to society when given the
opportunity and support. Let's explore the barriers faced by people with disabilities and their
contributions to society:
1. Physical Barriers:
• Inaccessible infrastructure, such as buildings without ramps or elevators, can limit
mobility for individuals with physical disabilities.
 • Lack of accessible transportation options can impede their ability to travel
independently.
2. Social Barriers:
• Stigma and discrimination can lead to social isolation and exclusion.
• Negative attitudes and stereotypes may result in the underestimation of the
capabilities of people with disabilities.
3. Economic Barriers:
• Limited employment opportunities and workplace discrimination can impact
economic independence.
• Inadequate access to education and vocational training may hinder skill
development.
4. Technological Barriers:
• Limited access to assistive technologies can affect communication, education, and
employment.
• Unavailability of websites and digital content that adhere to accessibility standards
can create barriers in the online world.
5. Legal and Policy Barriers:
• Inadequate legal protection and policies that do not address the rights of people
with disabilities can contribute to systemic discrimination.
• Lack of enforcement of existing disability-related laws can perpetuate inequalities.

❖ Contributions of People with Disabilities to Society

1. Diversity and Innovation:
• People with disabilities bring diverse perspectives and experiences, fostering
innovation and creativity in various fields.
2. Adaptability and Resilience:
• Individuals with disabilities often demonstrate exceptional adaptability and
resilience, facing and overcoming challenges with determination.
3. Workforce Diversity:
• Inclusive employment practices that embrace individuals with disabilities
contribute to a more diverse and dynamic workforce.
4. Advocacy and Awareness:
• Many individuals with disabilities become advocates, raising awareness about
accessibility, inclusivity, and the rights of people with disabilities.
5. Cultural and Artistic Contributions:
• Many artists, musicians, writers, and performers with disabilities have made
significant contributions to culture and the arts.
6. Entrepreneurship:
• Some individuals with disabilities become successful entrepreneurs, creating
businesses that address specific needs within the disability community.
7. Educational Contributions:
• People with disabilities may contribute to academia, conducting research and
contributing valuable insights to various fields.
8. Community Engagement:
• Many individuals with disabilities actively engage in community service and
volunteer work, making positive contributions to society.

❖ Overcoming Barriers
1. Accessible Infrastructure:
• Investing in accessible infrastructure, including public spaces, transportation, and
technology, can significantly reduce physical barriers.
2. Inclusive Education and Employment Practices:
• Implementing inclusive education and employment policies can ensure equal
opportunities and create a more diverse and skilled workforce.
3. Social Inclusion and Awareness:
• Promoting awareness campaigns to challenge stereotypes and fostering inclusive
attitudes can contribute to social inclusion.
4. Legal Protections:
• Strengthening and enforcing legal protections for people with disabilities can help
combat discrimination and ensure equal rights.
By addressing these barriers and fostering inclusivity, society can benefit from the diverse talents,
skills, and perspectives of individuals with disabilities, leading to a more equitable and enriched
community.

❖ Key References

Understanding transgender people, gender identity and gender expression. (2023, June 6).
https://www.apa.org. https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/transgender-people-gender-identity-
gender-expression
Mambrol, N. (2020, November 21). Discourse theory. Literary Theory and
Criticism. https://literariness.org/2020/11/21/discourse-theory/
Wikipedia contributors. (2023, October 19). Discourse. Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse
Zaina, T. (2021, June 20). Working barriers for transgenders in Bangladesh – Baul &
Associates. https://www.baulassociates.com/2021/06/20/working-barriers-for-transgenders-in-
bangladesh/
Subrahmanian, R. 2005. “Gender equality in education: Definitions and measurements.”
International Journal of Educational Development 25 (4): 395-407. Quoted in UNESCO. 2005.
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https://eige.europa.eu/gender-mainstreaming/tools-methods/gender-
analysis?language_content_entity=en