Stats: Modeling the World 5th Edition

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 BOCK
BULLARD

STATS
VELLEMAN
DE VEAUX
Get the Most Out of
MyLab Statistics

STATS
MyLabTM Statistics is the world’s leading online tutorial and assessment

MODELING THE WORLD

program designed to help you learn and succeed in your statistics course.
MyLab Statistics courses provide you with:
S Personalized learning experiences
S Interactive practice with immediate feedback and just-in-time BOCK BULLARD VELLEMAN DE VEAUX
learning aids
S Integration with StatCrunch®, a web-based statistical software
S Multimedia learning resources, including videos and animations
S Complete eText, accessible anywhere with the Pearson

THE WORLD
MODELING
eText app

MyLab Statistics is available for this textbook.

To learn more, visit pearson.com/mylab/statistics.

www.pearson.com
FIFTH EDITION

FIFTH EDITION
 TA B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Preface vii

PART I Exploring and Understanding Data

1 Stats Starts Here 1

2 Displaying and Describing Categorical Data 13

3 Displaying and Summarizing Quantitative Data 40

4 Understanding and Comparing Distributions 78

5 The Standard Deviation as a Ruler and the Normal Model 102

Review of Part I: Exploring and Understanding Data 135

PART II Exploring Relationships Between Variables

6 Scatterplots, Association, and Correlation 147

7 Linear Regression 171

8 Regression Wisdom 205

9 Re-expressing Data: Get It Straight! 228

Review of Part II: Exploring Relationships Between Variables 252

PART III Gathering Data

10 Understanding Randomness 265

11 Sample Surveys 278

12 Experiments and Observational Studies 303

Review of Part III: Gathering Data 331

PART IV Randomness and Probability

13 From Randomness to Probability 342

14 Probability Rules! 362

15 Random Variables 388

16 Probability Models 411

Review of Part IV: Randomness and Probability 433

v

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 vi CONTENTS

Part V From the Data at Hand to the World at Large

17 Sampling Distribution Models 443

18 Confidence Intervals for Proportions 471

19 Testing Hypotheses About Proportions 493

20 More About Tests and Intervals 517

21 Comparing Two Proportions 543

Review of Part V: From the Data at Hand to the World at Large 564

PART VI Learning About the World

22 Inferences About Means 574

23 Comparing Means 605

24 Paired Samples and Blocks 633

Review of Part VI: Learning About the World 656

Part VII Inference When Variables Are Related

25 Comparing Counts 669

26 Inferences for Regression 702

Review of Part VII: Inference When Variables Are Related 734

27 Analysis of Variance*—online
28 Multiple Regression*—online

Appendixes
A Selected Formulas A-1 B Guide to Statistical Software A-3 C Answers A-33
D Photo and Text Acknowledgments A-78 E Index A-81 F Tables A-92

*Optional chapter

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 P R E FA C E

About the Book

Yes, a preface is supposed to be “about this book”—and we’ll get there—but first we
want to talk about the bigger picture: the ongoing growth of interest in Statistics. These
days it seems Statistics is everywhere, from Major League Baseball’s innovative StatsCast
analytics to the challenges of predicting election outcomes to Wall Street Journal and New
York Times articles touting the explosion of job opportunities for graduates with degrees
in Statistics. Public awareness of the widespread applicability, power, and importance
of statistical analysis has never been higher. Each year, more students sign up for Stats
courses and discover what drew us to this field: it’s interesting, stimulating, and even fun.
Statistics helps students develop key tools and critical thinking skills needed to become
well-informed consumers, parents, and citizens. We think Statistics isn’t as much a math
course as a civics course, and we’re delighted that our books can play a role in preparing
a generation for life in the Information Age.

New to the Fifth Edition

This new edition of Stats: Modeling the World extends the series of innovations pioneered
in our books, teaching Statistics and statistical thinking as it is practiced today. We’ve
made some important revisions and additions, each with the goal of making it even easier
for students to put the concepts of Statistics together into a coherent whole.
  More extensive, and more integrated, use of simulations. Previous editions all
included simulations, but in the fifth edition we’ve incorporated even more of them,
and they’re now integrated more fluidly with the text. There’s hardly a chapter that
doesn’t use simulations to motivate a new topic, or to illustrate a concept, or to assist
in analyzing data when traditional methods requiring strong assumptions or cumber-
some computations are insufficient.
  Applets. Margin pointers alert students to an innovative set of applets allowing them
to explore important concepts and develop deeper understanding of key ideas. Among
these: What does standard deviation mean? How might outliers affect our analyses?
What does a correlation reveal about a relationship? How does linear regression work?
How large should a sample be? What does the all-important Central Limit Theorem
say? What does “95% confident” mean? How does hypothesis testing work, and what
is a P-value? What are power and Type I and II errors, and how are they interrelated?
The applets are found on the book’s resource site (www.pearsonhighered.com/bock).
  Updated examples, exercises, and data. We’ve updated our innovative Think/Show/
Tell Step-by-Step examples with new contexts and data. We’ve added hundreds of new
exercises and updated continuing exercises with the most recent data. Whenever pos-
sible, we’ve provided those data on the book’s resource site (www.pearsonhighered.com/
bock). Most of the examples and exercises are based on recent news stories, research
articles, and other real-world sources. We’ve listed many of those sources so students
can explore them further.

vii

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 viii PREFACE

Our Goal: Read This Book!

The best text in the world is of little value if students don’t read it. Starting with the first
edition, our goal has been to create a book that students would willingly read, easily learn
from, and even like. We’ve been thrilled with the glowing feedback we’ve received from
instructors and students using the first four editions of Stats: Modeling the World. Our con-
versational style, our interesting anecdotes and examples, and even our humor1 engage stu-
dents’ interest as they learn statistical thinking. We hear from grateful instructors that their
students actually do read this book (sometimes even voluntarily reading ahead of the assign-
ments). And we hear from (often amazed) students that they actually enjoyed their textbook.
Here are some of the ways we have made Stats: Modeling the World, Fifth Edition,
engaging:
  Readability. You’ll see immediately that this book doesn’t read like other Statistics
texts. The style is both colloquial and informative, enticing students to actually read the
book to see what it says.
  Informality. Our informal style doesn’t mean that the subject matter is covered super-
ficially. Not only have we tried to be precise, but wherever possible we offer deeper
explanations and justifications than those found in most introductory texts.
  Focused lessons. The chapters are shorter than in most other texts, making it easier
for both instructors and students to focus on one topic at a time.
  Consistency. We’ve worked hard to demonstrate how to do Statistics well. From the
very start and throughout the book we model the importance of plotting data, of check-
ing assumptions and conditions, and of writing conclusions that are clear, complete,
concise, and in context.
  The need to read. Because the important concepts, definitions, and sample solutions
aren’t set in boxes, students won’t find it easy to just to skim this book. We intend that
it be read, so we’ve tried to make the experience enjoyable.

Continuing Features
Along with the improvements we’ve made, you’ll still find the many engaging, innovative,
and pedagogically effective features responsible for the success of our earlier editions.
  Chapter 1 (and beyond). Chapter 1 gets down to business immediately, looking at
data. And throughout the book chapters lead with new up-to-the-minute motivating
examples and follow through with analyses of the data, and real-world examples pro-
vide a basis for sample problems and exercises.
  Think, Show, Tell. The worked examples repeat the mantra of Think, Show, and Tell
in every chapter. They emphasize the importance of thinking about a Statistics question
(What do we know? What do we hope to learn? Are the assumptions and conditions sat-
isfied?) and reporting our findings (the Tell step). The Show step contains the mechanics
of calculating results and conveys our belief that it is only one part of the process.
  Step-by-Step examples guide students through the process of analyzing a problem by
showing the general explanation on the left and the worked-out solution on the right.
The result: better understanding of the concept, not just number crunching.

1
And, yes, those footnotes!

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 PREFACE ix

  For Example. In every chapter, an interconnected series of For Example elements

present a continuing discussion, recapping a story and moving it forward to illustrate
how to apply each new concept or skill.
  Just Checking. At key points in each chapter, we ask students to pause and think with
questions designed to be a quick check that they understand the material they’ve just
read. Answers are at the end of the exercise sets in each chapter so students can easily
check themselves.
  Updated TI Tips. Each chapter’s easy-to-read “TI Tips” now show students how to
use TI-84 Plus CE Statistics functions with the StatWizard operating system. (Help
using a TI-Nspire appears in Appendix B, and help with a TI-89 is on the book’s
resource site www.pearsonhighered.com/bock.) As we strive for a sound understanding
of formulas and methods, we want students to use technology for actual calculations.
We do emphasize that calculators are just for “Show”—they cannot Think about what
to do or Tell what it all means.
  Math Boxes. In many chapters we present the mathematical underpinnings of the
statistical methods and concepts. By setting these proofs, derivations, and justifica-
tions apart from the narrative, we allow students to continue to follow the logical
development of the topic at hand, yet also explore the underlying mathematics for
greater depth.
  TI-Nspire Activities. Margin pointers identify demonstrations and investigations for
TI-Nspire handhelds to enhance each chapter. They’re found at the book’s resource
site (www.pearsonhighered.com/bock).
  What Can Go Wrong? Each chapter still contains our innovative What Can Go
Wrong? sections that highlight the most common errors people make and the miscon-
ceptions they have about Statistics. Our goals are to help students avoid these pitfalls
and to arm them with the tools to detect statistical errors and to debunk misuses of
statistics, whether intentional or not.
  What Have We Learned? Chapter-ending study guides help students review key con-
cepts and terms.
  Exercises. We’ve maintained the pairing of examples so that each odd-numbered
exercise (with an answer in the back of the book) is followed by an even-numbered
exercise illustrating the same concept. Exercises are ordered by approximate level of
complexity.
  Practice Exams. At the end of each of the book’s seven parts you’ll find a prac-
tice exam, consisting of both multiple choice and free response questions. These
cumulative exams encourage students to keep important concepts and skills in mind
throughout the course while helping them synthesize their understanding as they build
connections among the various topics.
  Reality Check. We regularly remind students that Statistics is about understanding
the world with data. Results that make no sense are probably wrong, no matter how
carefully we think we did the calculations. Mistakes are often easy to spot with a
little thought, so we ask students to stop for a reality check before interpreting their
result.
  Notation Alerts. Clear communication is essential in Statistics, and proper notation is
part of the vocabulary students need to learn. We’ve found that it helps to call atten-
tion to the letters and symbols statisticians use to mean very specific things.
  On the Computer. Because real-world data analysis is done on computers, at the end
of each chapter we summarize what students can find in most Statistics software, usu-
ally with an annotated example.

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 x PREFACE

Our Approach
We’ve been guided in the choice of topics and emphasis on clear communication by the
requirements of the Advanced Placement Statistics course. In our order of presentation,
we have tried to ensure that each new topic fits logically into the growing structure of
understanding that we hope students will build.

GAISE Guidelines
We have worked to provide materials to help each class, in its own way, follow the guide-
lines of the GAISE (Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education)
project sponsored by the American Statistical Association. That report urges that Statistics
education should
1. emphasize statistical literacy and develop statistical thinking,
2. use real data,
3. stress conceptual understanding rather than mere knowledge of procedures,
4. foster active learning,
5. use technology for developing concepts and analyzing data, and
6. make assessment a part of the learning process.

Mathematics
Mathematics traditionally appears in Statistics texts in several roles:
1. It can provide a concise, clear statement of important concepts.
2. It can embody proofs of fundamental results.
3. It can describe calculations to be performed with data.
Of these, we emphasize the first. Mathematics can make discussions of Statistics con-
cepts, probability, and inference clear and concise. We have tried to be sensitive to those
who are discouraged by equations by also providing verbal descriptions and numerical
examples.
This book is not concerned with proving theorems about Statistics. Some of these
theorems are quite interesting, and many are important. Often, though, their proofs are
not enlightening to Introductory Statistics students and can distract the audience from
the concepts we want them to understand. However, we have not shied away from the
mathematics where we believed that it helped clarify without intimidating. You will find
some important proofs, derivations, and justifications in the Math Boxes that accompany
the development of many topics.
Nor do we concentrate on calculations. Although statistics calculations are gener-
ally straightforward, they are also usually tedious. And, more to the point, they are often
unnecessary. Today, virtually all statistics are calculated with technology, so there is little
need for students to work by hand. The equations we use have been selected for their focus
on understanding concepts and methods.

Technology and Data

To experience the real world of Statistics, it’s best to explore real data sets using modern
technology. This fact permeates Stats: Modeling the World, Fifth Edition, where we use
real data for the book’s examples and exercises. Technology lets us focus on teaching
statistical thinking rather than getting bogged down in calculations. The questions that
motivate each of our hundreds of examples are not “How do you find the answer?” but
“How do you think about the answer?”

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 PREFACE xi

Technology. We assume that students are using some form of technology in this Statistics
course. That could include a graphing calculator along with a Statistics package or spread-
sheet. Rather than adopt any particular software, we discuss generic computer output.
“TI-Tips”—included in most chapters—show students how to use Statistics features of the
TI-84 Plus series. In Appendix B, we offer general guidance (by chapter) to help students
get started on common software platforms (StatCrunch, Excel, MINITAB, Data Desk, and
JMP) and a TI-Nspire. The book’s resource site (www.pearsonhighered.com/bock) includes
additional guidance for students using a TI-89. Students will also find on the site applets
that let them explore key concepts.
Data. Because we use technology for computing, we don’t limit ourselves to small, artificial
data sets. In addition to including some small data sets, we have built examples and exer-
cises on real data with a moderate number of cases—usually more than you would want to
enter by hand into a program or calculator. These data are included on the book’s resource
site, www.pearsonhighered.com/bock.

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 T E C H N O LO GY R E S O U R C E S

MyLab Statistics Online Course (access code required)

Used by nearly one million students a year, MyLab Statistics is the world’s leading online
program for teaching and learning Statistics. MyLab Statistics delivers assessment, tutorials,
and multimedia resources that provide engaging and personalized experiences for each stu-
dent, so learning can happen in any environment.

Personalized Learning
Not every student learns the same way or at the same rate. Personalized learning in the
MyLab gives instructors the flexibility to incorporate the approach that best suits the needs
of their course and students.
  Based on their performance on a quiz or test, students can be given personalized
homework to allow them to focus on just the topics they have not yet mastered.
  With Companion Study Plan Assignments, instructors can assign the Study Plan as a
prerequisite to a test or quiz, guiding students through the concepts they need to master.

Preparedness
Preparedness is one of the biggest challenges in Statistics courses. Pearson offers a variety
of content and course options to support students with just-in-time remediation and key-
concept review as needed.
  Redesign-Ready Course Options: Many new course models have emerged in recent
years, as institutions “redesign” to help improve retention and results. At Pearson,
we’re focused on tailoring solutions to support instructors’ plans and programs.
  Getting Ready for Statistics Questions: This question library contains more than 450
exercises that cover the relevant developmental math topics for a given section. These
can be made available to students for extra practice or assigned as a prerequisite to
other assignments.

Conceptual Understanding
Successful students have the ability to apply their statistical ideas and knowledge to new
concepts and real-world situations. Providing frequent opportunities for data analysis and
interpretation helps students develop the 21st century skills that they need to be successful
in the classroom and workplace.
  Conceptual Question Library: There are 1,000 questions in the Assignment Manager
that require students to apply their statistical understanding.
  Modern statistics is practiced with technology, and MyLab Statistics makes learning
and using software programs seamless and intuitive. Instructors can copy data sets
from the text and MyLab Statistics exercises directly into software such as StatCrunch
or Excel®. Students can also access instructional support tools including tutorial vid-
eos, Study Cards, and manuals for a variety of statistical software programs, including
StatCrunch, Excel®, Minitab®, JMP®, R, SPSS, and TI 83/84 calculators.

Motivation
Students are motivated to succeed when they’re engaged in the learning experience and
understand the relevance and power of Statistics.

xii

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 TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES xiii

  Exercises with Immediate Feedback: Homework and practice exercises in MyLab

Statistics regenerate algorithmically to give students unlimited opportunity for practice
and mastery. Instructors can choose from the many exercises available for the author’s
approach—or even choose additional exercises from other MyLab Statistics courses.
Most exercises include learning aids, such as guided solutions, sample problems, extra
help at point-of-use, and immediate feedback when students enter incorrect answers.
  Instructors can create, import, and manage online homework assignments, quizzes,
and tests—or start with sample assignments—all of which are automatically graded,
allowing instructors to spend less time grading and more time teaching.

Data & Analytics

MyLab Statistics provides resources to help instructors assess and improve student results.
A comprehensive Gradebook with enhanced reporting functionality makes it easier for
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  Reporting Dashboard: Instructors can view, analyze, and report learning outcomes,
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fine-grain reports allow instructors and administrators to compare performance across
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  Item Analysis: Instructors can track classwide understanding of particular exercises in
order to refine lectures or adjust the course/department syllabus. Just-in-time teaching
has never been easier.

Accessibility
Pearson works continuously to ensure our products are as accessible as possible to all stu-
dents. We are working toward achieving WCAG 2.0 Level AA and Section 508 standards,
as expressed in the Pearson Guidelines for Accessible Educational Web Media, www.
pearson.com/mylab/statistics/accessibility.

StatCrunch
Integrated directly into MyLab Statistics, StatCrunch is powerful Web-based statistical
software that allows users to perform complex analyses, share data sets, and generate com-
pelling reports of their data.
  Collect. Users can upload their own data to StatCrunch or search a large library of
publicly shared data sets, spanning almost any topic of interest. A Featured Data
page houses the best data sets, making it easy for instructors to use current data in
their course. Data sets from the text and from online homework exercises can also be
accessed and analyzed in StatCrunch. An online survey tool allows users to quickly
collect data via Web-based surveys.
  Crunch. A full range of numerical and graphical methods allows users to analyze and
gain insights from any data set. Interactive graphics help users understand statistical con-
cepts and are available for export to enrich reports with visual representations of data.
  Communicate. Reporting options help users create a wide variety of visually appeal-
ing representations of their data.
StatCrunch is integrated into MyLab Statistics, but it is also available by itself to qualified
adopters. StatCrunch is also now available on your smartphone or tablet when you visit
www.statcrunch.com from the device’s browser. For more information, visit our Web site
at www.statcrunch.com, or contact your Pearson representative.

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 xiv TECHNOLOGY RESOURCES

MathXL Online Course (access code required)

Part of the world’s leading collection of online homework, tutorial, and assessment prod-
ucts, MathXL® delivers assessment and tutorial resources that provide engaging and per-
sonalized experiences for each student. Each course is developed to accompany Pearson’s
best-selling content, authored by thought leaders across the math curriculum, and can be
easily customized to fit any course format.
With MathXL, instructors can:
  Create, edit, and assign online homework and tests using algorithmically generated
exercises correlated at the objective level to the textbook.
  Create and assign their own online exercises and import TestGen tests for added
flexibility.
  Maintain records of all student work tracked in MathXL’s online Gradebook.
With MathXL, students can:
  Take chapter tests in MathXL and receive personalized study plans and/or personal-
ized homework assignments based on their test results.
  Use the study plan and/or the homework to link directly to tutorial exercises for the
objectives they need to study.
  Access supplemental animations and video clips directly from selected exercises.
MathXL is available to qualified adopters. For more information, visit our Web site at
www.pearson.com/MathXL, or contact your Pearson representative.

Minitab and Minitab Express™ make learning statistics easy and provide students with a
skill set that’s in demand in today’s data-driven workforce. Bundling Minitab software with
educational materials ensures students have access to the software they need in the class-
room, around campus, and at home. And having 12-month access to Minitab and Minitab
Express ensures students can use the software for the duration of their course. ISBN 13:
978-0-13-445640-9; ISBN 10: 0-13-445640-8 (access card only; not sold as a stand-alone).
JMP Student Edition is an easy-to-use, streamlined version of JMP desktop statistical
discovery software from SAS Institute, Inc. and is available for bundling with the text.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-467979-2; ISBN-10: 0-13-467979-2.
XLSTAT™ is an Excel add-in that enhances the analytical capabilities of Excel. XLSTAT
is used by leading businesses and universities around the world. It is available to bundle
with this text. For more information, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/xlstat/. ISBN-13:
978-0-321-75932-0; ISBN-10: 0-321-75932-X.

A01_BOCK5762_05_SE_FM_i-xviii.indd 14 26/12/17 7:14 PM

 Resources for Success
MyLab Statistics Online Course for
Stats: Modeling the World, 5e, by David E. Bock,
Floyd Bullard, Paul F. Velleman, and
Richard D. De Veaux (access code required)
MyLab™ Statistics is available to accompany Pearson’s market-leading text
offerings. To give students a consistent tone, voice, and teaching method, each
text’s flavor and approach is tightly integrated throughout the accompanying
MyLab Statistics course, making learning the material as seamless as possible.
Expanded Objective-Based
MathXL Coverage
MathXL® is newly mapped to im-
prove student learning outcomes.
Homework reinforces and supports
students’ understanding of key
Statistics topics.

Enhanced Video Program

Updated Step-by-Step Example videos
guide students through the process
of analyzing a problem using the “Think,
Show, and Tell” strategy from the
textbook.

Real-World Data Examples

Statistical concepts are applied
to everyday life through the
extensive current, real-world
data examples and exercises
provided throughout the text.

pearson.com/mylab/statistics

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 Resources for Success
Instructor’s Edition contains answers to all
exercises. (ISBN-13: 978-0-13-468795-7; ISBN-10:
0-13-468795-7)
Instructor’s Solutions Manual (download only),
by Adam Yankay and William Craine, contains
solutions to all the exercises. It can be downloaded
from within MyLab Statistics or from Pearson’s
online catalog, www.pearson.com.
Online Test Bank and Resource Guide (down-
load only), by John Diehl, Jane Viau, and William
Craine, includes chapter-by-chapter comments
on the major concepts, tips on presenting topics,
extra teaching examples, a list of resources,
chapter quizzes, part-level tests, and suggestions
for projects. It can be downloaded from within
MyLab Statistics or from Pearson’s online catalog,
www.pearson.com.
TestGen® (www.pearson.com/testgen) enables
instructors to build, edit, print, and administer tests
using a computerized bank of questions developed
to cover all the objectives of the text. TestGen®
is algorithmically based, allowing instructors to
create multiple but equivalent versions of the
same question or test with the click of a button.
Instructors can also modify test bank questions or
pearson.com/mylab/statistics
A01_BOCK5762_05_SE_FM_i-xviii.indd 16
add new questions. The software and test bank
are available for download from Pearson’s online
catalog, www.pearson.com. The questions are also
assignable in MyLab Statistics.
PowerPoint Lecture Slides (downloadable)
Classroom presentation slides feature key graphics,
concepts, and examples from this text. They can be
downloaded from within MyLab Statistics or from
Pearson’s online catalog, www.pearson.com.
Learning Catalytics™ is now included in
all MyLab Statistics courses. This student response
tool uses students’ smartphones, tablets, or laptops
to engage them in more interactive tasks and
thinking during lectures. Learning Catalytics
fosters student engagement and peer-to-peer
learning with real-time analytics and provides
access to pre-built exercises created specifically
for Statistics.
Graphing Calculator Manual (download only),
by John Diehl (Hinsdale Central High School),
includes worked-out examples from the text along
with a step-by-step guide on how to use the TI-84
Plus, TI-Nspire, and Casio graphing calculators. It
can be downloaded by students and instructors
from within MyLab Statistics.
26/12/17 7:14 PM
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have contributed to this book in all five of its editions. This edition would
have never seen the light of day without the assistance of the incredible team at Pearson.
Our Director of Portfolio Management, Deirdre Lynch, was central to the genesis, devel-
opment, and realization of the book from day one. Patrick Barbera, Courseware Portfolio
Manager, and Emily Ockay, Product Marketing Manager, provided much needed support.
Lauren Morse, Content Producer, kept us on task as much as humanly possible. Morgan
Danna, Courseware Portfolio Assistant, and Shannon McCormack, Product Marketing
Assistant, were essential in managing all of the behind-the-scenes work that needed to be
done. Nick Sweeney, Producer, put together a top-notch media package for this book. Carol
Melville, Manufacturing Buyer, LSC Communications, worked miracles to get this book in
your hands. We’d also like to thank Meredith Douthett who created some new cartoons for
this revision. Special thanks go out to Cenveo Publisher Services for the wonderful work
they did on this book, and in particular to Chere Bemelmans, Project Manager, for her
close attention to detail, for keeping the cogs from getting into the wheels where they often
wanted to wander, and for keeping the authors on task and on schedule . . . no easy feat!
We would like to thank Corey Andreasen of Qatar Academy Doha, Doha, Qatar, and Jared
Derksen of Rancho Cucamonga High School for their invaluable help with updating the
exercises, answers, and data sets. We’d also like to thank our accuracy checkers whose
monumental task was to make sure we said what we thought we were saying. They are
Susan Blackwell, First Flight High School; Douglas Cashing, St. Bonaventure University;
Benjamin Kirk, Ithaca High School; and Paul Lorczak.
We extend our sincere thanks for the suggestions and contributions made by the following
reviewers, focus group participants, and class-testers:

John Arko Bill Craine Randall Groth

Glenbrook South High School, Lansing High School, NY Illinois State University, IL
IL
Sybil Coley Donnie Hallstone
Kathleen Arthur Woodward Academy, GA Green River Community
Shaker High School, NY College, WA
Kevin Crowther
Allen Back Lake Orion High School, MI Howard W. Hand
Cornell University, NY St. Marks School of Texas,
Caroline DiTullio
TX
Beverly Beemer Summit High School, NJ
Ruben S. Ayala High Bill Hayes
Jared Derksen
School, CA Foothill High School, CA
Rancho Cucamonga High
Judy Bevington School, CA Miles Hercamp
Santa Maria High School, CA New Palestine High School,
Sam Erickson
IN
Susan Blackwell North High School, WI
First Flight High School, NC Michelle Hipke
Laura Estersohn
Glen Burnie Senior High
Gail Brooks Scarsdale High School, NY
School, MD
McLennan Community
Laura Favata
College, TX Carol Huss
Niskayuna High School, NY
Independence High School,
Walter Brown
David Ferris NC
Brackenridge High School,
Noblesville High School, IN
TX Sam Jovell
Linda Gann Niskayuna High School, NY
Darin Clifft
Sandra Day O’Connor High
Memphis University School,
School, TX
TN

xvii

A01_BOCK5762_05_SE_FM_i-xviii.indd 17 26/12/17 7:14 PM

 xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Peter Kaczmar John Maceli Karl Ronning

Lower Merion High School,
PA
John Kotmel
Lansing High School, NY
Beth Lazerick
St. Andrews School, FL
Michael Legacy
Greenhill School, TX
Guillermo Leon
Coral Reef High School, FL
John Lieb
The Roxbury Latin School, MA
Mark Littlefield
Newburyport High School, MA
Martha Lowther
The Tatnall School, DE
Ithaca College, NY Davis Senior High School, CA
Jim Miller Bruce Saathoff
Alta High School, UT Centennial High School, CA
Timothy E. Mitchell Agatha Shaw
King Philip Regional High Valencia Community College,
School, MA FL
Maxine Nesbitt Murray Siegel
Carmel High School, IN Sam Houston State University,
TX
Elizabeth Ann Przybysz
Dr. Phillips High School, Chris Sollars
FL Alamo Heights High School, TX
Diana Podhrasky Darren Starnes
Hillcrest High School, TX The Webb Schools, CA
Rochelle Robert Jane Viau
Nassau Community College, The Frederick Douglass
NY Academy, NY

And we’d be especially remiss if we did not applaud the outstanding team of teachers
whose creativity, insight, knowledge, and dedication create the many valuable resources
so helpful for Statistics students and their instructors:
Corey Andreasson, John Diehl Janice Ricks
Qatar Academy Doha Hindsdale Central High Marple Newtown High School,
School, IL PA
Anne Carroll
Kennett High School, PA Lee Kucera Jane Viau
Capistrano Valley High The Frederick Douglass
Ruth Carver
School, CA Academy, NY
Germantown Academy in Fort
Washington, PA John Mahoney Webster West
Benjamin Banneker Academic Creator of StatCrunch
William B. Craine
High School, Washington,
Lansing High School, NY Adam Yankay
D.C.
Western Reserve Academy,
Jared Derksen
Susan Peters OH
Rancho Cucamonga High
University of Louisville, KY
School, CA

David Bock
Floyd Bullard
Paul Velleman
Richard De Veaux

A01_BOCK5762_05_SE_FM_i-xviii.indd 18 17/01/18 9:32 AM


But where shall I
begin?” asked Alice. “Begin
at the beginning,” the King
said gravely, “and go on till
you come to the end: then
stop.
—Lewis Carroll,
Alice’s Adventures
in Wonderland
So, What Is (Are?) Statistics?
M01_BOCK5762_05_SE_C01_001-012.indd 1
1
Stats Starts
Here1
S tatistics gets no respect. People say things like “You can prove anything with
Statistics.” People will write off a claim based on data as “just a statistical trick.”
And a Statistics course may not be your friends’ first choice for a fun elective.
But Statistics is fun. That’s probably not what you heard on the street, but it’s true.
Statistics is about how to think clearly with data. We’ll talk about data in more detail soon,
but for now, think of data as any collection of numbers, characters, images, or other items
that provide information about something. Whenever there are data and a need for under-
standing the world, you’ll find Statistics. A little practice thinking statistically is all it takes
to start seeing the world more clearly and accurately.
How does it feel to live near the dawn of the Information Age? More data are collected
today (a lot of it on us) than ever before in human history. Consider these examples of how
data are used today:
◆◆ If you have a Facebook account, you have probably noticed that the ads you see online
tend to match your interests and activities. Coincidence? Hardly. According to the
Wall Street Journal (10/18/2010),2 much of your personal information has probably
1
We could have called this chapter “Introduction,” but nobody reads the introduction, and we wanted you to read
this. We feel safe admitting this here, in the footnote, because nobody reads footnotes either.
2
blogs.wsj.com/digits/2010/10/18/referers-how-facebook-apps-leak-user-ids/
1
23/10/17 1:55 PM
 2 PART I Exploring and Understanding Data

been sold to marketing or tracking companies. Why would Facebook give you a free
Q: What is Statistics? account and let you upload as much as you want to its site? Because your data are
A: Statistics is a way of valuable! Using your Facebook profile, a company might build a profile of your
reasoning, along with a interests and activities: what movies and sports you like; your age, sex, education level,
collection of tools and
and hobbies; where you live; and, of course, who your friends are and what they like.
methods, designed to help
us understand the world. ◆◆ Like many other retailers, Target stores create customer profiles by collecting data about
purchases using credit cards. Patterns the company discovers across similar customer
Q: What are statistics?
profiles enable it to send you advertising and coupons that promote items you might be
A: Statistics (plural) are particular particularly interested in purchasing. As valuable to the company as these marketing in-
calculations made from data.
sights can be, some may prove startling to individuals. Recently, coupons Target sent to
Q: So what is data? a Minneapolis girl’s home revealed she was pregnant before her father knew!3
A: You mean, “What are data?” ◆◆ How dangerous is texting while driving? Researchers at the University of Utah tested
Data is the plural form. The drivers on simulators that could present emergency situations. They compared reac-
singular is datum. tion times of sober drivers, drunk drivers, and texting drivers.4 The results were strik-
Q: OK, OK, so what are data? ing. The texting drivers actually responded more slowly and were more dangerous
than those who were above the legal limit for alcohol.
A: Data are values along with
their context. With this text you’ll learn how to design good studies and discern messages in data,
should you become a researcher yourself. More important—especially to those who, like
most of us, don’t become researchers—you’ll learn to judge with a more skilled and criti-
cal eye the conclusions drawn from data by others. With so much data everywhere, you
need such judgment just to be an informed and responsible citizen.

ARE YOU A STATISTIC?

The ads say, “Don’t drink and drive; you don’t want to be a statistic.” But you can’t
be a statistic.
We say: “Don’t be a datum.”

Statistics in a Word
It can be fun, and sometimes useful, to summarize a discipline in only a few words. So,
Economics is about . . . Money (and why it is good).
Psychology: Why we think what we think (we think).
Biology: Life.
Anthropology: Who?
History: What, where, and when?
Philosophy: Why?
Engineering: How?
Accounting: How much?
In such a caricature, Statistics is about . . . Variation.
Some of the reasons why we act and think differently from one another can be
explained—perhaps by our education or our upbringing or how our friends act and think.
But some of that variation among us will always remain unexplained.5 Statistics is largely
about trying to find explanations for why data vary while acknowledging that some amount
of the variation will always remain a mystery.

3
www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2012/02/16/how-target-figured-out-a-teen-girl-was-pregnant-before-her-
father-did/#1770c3576668
4
“Text Messaging During Simulated Driving,” Drews, F. A. et al. Human Factors: hfs.sagepub.com/
content/51/5/762
5
And that’s a good thing!

M01_BOCK5762_05_SE_C01_001-012.indd 2 23/10/17 1:55 PM

 CHAPTER 1 Stats Starts Here 3

But What Are Data?

Amazon.com opened for business in July 1995, bill-
ing itself as “Earth’s Biggest Bookstore.” By 1997,
Amazon had a catalog of more than 2.5 million book
titles and had sold books to more than 1.5 million
customers in 150 countries. In 2016, the company’s
sales reached $136 billion (more than a 27% increase
from the previous year). Amazon has sold a wide
variety of merchandise, including a $400,000 neck-
lace, yak cheese from Tibet, and the largest book in
the world. How did Amazon become so successful
and how can it keep track of so many customers and
such a wide variety of products? The answer to both
questions is data.
But what are data? Think about it for a minute.
What exactly do we mean by “data”? Do data have
to be numbers? The amount of your last purchase in
dollars is numerical data. But your name and
address in Amazon’s database are also data even
though they are not numerical. What about your
ZIP code? That’s a number, but would Amazon care about, say, the average ZIP code of its
customers?
Let’s look at some hypothetical values that Amazon might collect:

B0000010AA 0.99 Chris G. 902 105-2686834-3759466 1.99 0.99 Illinois

Los Angeles Samuel R. Ohio N B000068ZVQ Amsterdam New York, New York, Katherine H.
Will S. 002-1663369- Beverly Hills N N 103-2628345- 0.99 Massachusetts
6638649 9238664
312 Monique D. 105-9318443-4200264 413 B00000I5Y6 440 B000002BK9 0.99
Canada Detroit 567 105-1372500-0198646 N B002MXA7Q0 Ohio Y

Try to guess what they represent. Why is that hard? Because there is no context. If we
don’t know what values are measured and what is measured about them, the values are
meaningless. We can make the meaning clear if we organize the values into a data table
such as this one:

Order Number Name State/Country Price Area Code Download Gift? ASIN Artist
105-2686834-3759466 Katherine H. Ohio 0.99 440 Amsterdam N B0000015Y6 Cold Play
105-9318443-4200264 Samuel R Illinois 1.99 312 Detroit Y B000002BK9 Red Hot, Chili Peppers
105-1372500-0198646 Chris G. Massachusetts 0.99 413 New York, New York N B000068ZVQ Frank Sinatra
103-2628345-9238664 Monique D. Canada 0.99 902 Los Angeles N B0000010AA Blink 182
002-1663369-6638649 Will S. Ohio 0.99 567 Beverly Hills N B002MXA7Q0 Weezer

Now we can see that these are purchase records for album download orders from
THE W’S: Amazon. The column titles tell what information has been recorded. Each row is about a
WHO particular purchase.
What information would provide a context? Newspaper journalists know that the lead
WHAT and in what units
paragraph of a good story should establish the “Five W’s”: who, what, when, where, and (if
WHEN possible) why. Often, we add how to the list as well. The answers to the first two questions
WHERE are essential. If we don’t know what values are measured and who those values are mea-
sured on, the values are meaningless.
WHY
HOW

M01_BOCK5762_05_SE_C01_001-012.indd 3 23/10/17 1:55 PM

 4 PART I Exploring and Understanding Data

Who and What

In general, the rows of a data table correspond to individual cases about Whom (or about
which—if they’re not people) we record some characteristics. Cases go by different names,
depending on the situation.
◆◆ Individuals who answer a survey are called respondents.
◆◆ People on whom we experiment are subjects or (in an attempt to acknowledge the
importance of their role in the experiment) participants.
◆◆ Animals, plants, websites, and other inanimate subjects are often called experimental
units.
◆◆ Often we simply call cases what they are: for example, customers, economic quarters,
or companies.
◆◆ In a database, rows are called records—in this example, purchase records. Perhaps
the most generic term is cases, but in any event the rows represent the who of the data.6
The characteristics recorded about each individual are called variables. These are usually
shown as the columns of a data table, and they should have a name that identifies What has
been measured. The data table of Amazon purchases shows that some of the variables that
Amazon collected data for were Name, Price, and whether the purchase was a Gift.
Often, the cases are a sample of cases selected from some larger population that we’d
like to understand. Amazon certainly cares about its customers, but also wants to know how
to attract all those other Internet users who may never have made a purchase from Amazon’s
site. To be able to generalize from the sample of cases to the larger population, we’ll want the
sample to be representative of that population—a kind of snapshot image of the larger world.
We must know who and what to analyze data. Without knowing these two, we don’t
have enough information to start. Of course, we’d always like to know more. The more we
know about the data, the more we’ll understand about the world. If possible, we’d like to
know the when and where of data as well. Values recorded in 1803 may mean something
different than similar values recorded last year. Values measured in Tanzania may differ in
meaning from similar measurements made in Mexico. And knowing why the data were
collected can tell us much about its reliability and quality.

F O R E X AMP L E
Identifying the Who
Consumer Reports included an evaluation of 126 tablets from a variety of manufacturers.
QUESTION: Describe the population of interest, the sample, and the Who of the study.
ANSWER: The population of interest is all tablets currently available. The sample (and the
Who of the study) is the particular collection of 126 tablets that the consumer organization
purchased and studied.

How the Data Are Collected

How the data are collected can make the difference between insight and nonsense. For
example, as we’ll see later, data that come from a voluntary survey on the Internet are almost
always worthless. One primary concern of Statistics is the design of sound methods

6
If you’re going through the W’s in your head and your data are measurements of objects, “Who” should still
remind you to ask, “What objects were measured?”

M01_BOCK5762_05_SE_C01_001-012.indd 4 12/12/17 4:44 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Snakes. Such organs are found in the Sting-rays, the tail of which is
armed with one or more powerful barbed spines. Although they lack
a special organ secreting poison, or a canal in or on the spine by
which the venomous fluid is conducted, the symptoms caused by a
wound from the spine of a Sting-ray are such as cannot be
accounted for merely by the mechanical laceration, the pain being
intense, and the subsequent inflammation and swelling of the
wounded part terminating not rarely in gangrene. The mucus
secreted from the surface of the fish and inoculated by the jagged
spine evidently possesses venomous properties. This is also the
case in many Scorpænoids, and in the Weaver (Trachinis), in which
the dorsal and opercular spines have the same function as the
caudal spines of the Sting-rays; however, in the Weavers the spines
are deeply grooved, the groove being charged with a fluid mucus. In
Synanceia the poison-organ (Fig. 99,) is still more developed: each
dorsal spine is in its terminal half provided with a deep groove on
each side, at the lower end of which lies a pear-shaped bag
containing the milky poison; it is prolonged into a membranous duct,
lying in the groove of the spine, and open at its point. The native
fishermen, well acquainted with the dangerous nature of these
fishes, carefully avoid handling them; but it often happens that
persons wading with naked feet in the sea, step upon the fish, which
generally lies hidden in the sand. One or more of the erected spines
penetrate the skin, and the poison is injected into the wound by the
pressure of the foot on the poison-bags. Death has not rarely been
the result.
Fig. 99.—A dorsal spine, with
poison-bags, of Synanceia
verrucosa. Indian Ocean.
 Fig. 100.—Opercular part of the
Poison-apparatus of
Thalassophryne (Panama).
1. Hinder half of the head, with the
venom-sac* in situ. a, Lateral
line and its branches; b, Gill-
opening; c, Ventral fin; d, Base
of Pectoral fin; e, Base of
dorsal.
2. Operculum with the
perforated spine.

The most perfect poison-organs hitherto discovered in fishes are

those of Thalassophryne, a Batrachoid genus of fishes from the
coasts of Central America. In these fishes the operculum again and
the two dorsal spines are the weapons. The former (Fig. 100, 2) is
very narrow, vertically styliform and very mobile; it is armed behind
with a spine, eight lines long, and of the same form as the hollow
venom-fang of a snake, being perforated at its base and at its
extremity. A sac covering the base of the spine discharges its
contents through the apertures and the canal in the interior of the
spine. The structure of the dorsal spines is similar. There are no
secretory glands imbedded in the membranes of the sacs; and the
fluid must be secreted by their mucous membrane. The sacs are
without an external muscular layer, and situated immediately below
the thick loose skin which envelops the spines to their extremity; the
ejection of the poison into a living animal, therefore, can only be
effected, as in Synanceia, by the pressure to which the sac is
subjected the moment the spine enters another body.
Finally, a singular apparatus found in many Siluroids may be
mentioned in connection with the poison-organs, although its
function is still problematical. Some of these fishes are armed with
powerful pectoral spines and justly feared on account of the
dangerous wounds they inflict; not a few of them possess, in addition
to the pectoral spines, a sac with a more or less wide opening in the
axil of the pectoral fin; and it does not seem improbable that it
contains a fluid which may be introduced into a wound by means of
the pectoral spine, which would be covered with it, like the barbed
arrow-head of an Indian. However, whether this secretion is equally
poisonous in all the species provided with that axillary sac, or
whether it has poisonous qualities at all, is a question which can be
decided by experiments only made with the living fishes.
 CHAPTER XV.

DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES IN TIME.

Of what kind the fishes were which were the first to make their
appearance on the globe; whether or not they were identical with, or
similar to, any of the principal types existing at present; are
questions which probably will for ever remain hidden in mystery and
uncertainty. The supposition that the Leptocardii and Cyclostomes,
the lowest of the vertebrate series, must have preceded the other
sub-classes, is an idea which has been held by many Zoologists:
and as the horny teeth of the Cyclostomes are the only parts of their
body which under favourable circumstances might have been
preserved, Palæontologists have ever been searching for this
evidence.

Fig. 101. Right

dental plate of
Myxine affinis.
Indeed, in deposits belonging to the Lower Silurian and
Devonian, in Russia, England, and North America, minute, slender,
pointed horny bodies, bent like a hook, with sharp opposite margins,
have been found and described under the name of Conodonts. More
frequently they possess an elongated basal portion, in which there is
generally a larger tooth with rows of similar but smaller denticles on
one or both sides of the larger tooth, according as this is central or at
one end of the base. In other examples there is no prominent central
tooth, but a series of more or less similar teeth is implanted on a
straight or curved base. Modifications of these arrangements are
very numerous, and many Palæontologists entertain still doubts
whether the origin of these remains is not rather from Annelids and
Mollusks than from Fishes.
 [See G. J. Hinde, in “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,”
1879.]
The first undeniable evidence of a fish, or, indeed, of a vertebrate
animal, occurs in the Upper Silurian Rocks, in a bone-bed of the
Downton sandstone, near Ludlow. It consists of compressed, slightly
curved, ribbed spines, of less than two inches in length (Onchus); of
small shagreen-scales (Thelodus); the fragment of a jaw-like bar with
pluricuspid teeth (Plectrodus); the cephalic bucklers of what seems
to be a species of Pteraspis; and, finally, the coprolitic bodies of
phosphate and carbonate of lime, including recognisable remains of
the Mollusks and Crinoids inhabiting the same waters. But no
vertebra or other part of the skeleton has been found. The spines
and scales seem to have belonged to the same kind of fish, which
probably was a Plagiostome. It is quite uncertain whether or not the
jaw (if it be the jaw of a fish[16]) belonged to the buckler-bearing
Pteraspis, the position of which among Ganoids, with which it is
generally associated, is open to doubt.
No detached undoubted tooth of a Plagiostome or Ganoid scale
has been discovered in the Ludlow deposits: but so much is certain
that those earliest remains in Palæozoic rocks belonged to fishes
closely allied to forms occurring in greater abundance in the
succeeding formation, the Devonian, where they are associated with
undoubted Palæichthyes, Plagiostomes as well as Ganoids.

These fish-remains of the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone, can

be determined with greater certainty. They consist of spines or the
so-called Ichthyodorulites, which show sufficiently distinctive
characters to be referred to several genera, one of them, Onchus,
still surviving from the Silurian epoch. All these spines are believed
to be those of Chondropterygians, to which order some pluricuspid
teeth (Cladodus) from the Old Red Sandstone in the vicinity of St.
Petersburg have been referred likewise.
 The remains of the Ganoid fishes are in a much more perfect
state of preservation, so that it is even possible to obtain a tolerably
certain idea of the general appearance and habits of some of them,
especially of such as were provided with hard carapaces, solid
scales, and ordinary or bony fin-rays. A certain proportion of them,
as might have been expected, remind us, with regard to external
form, of Teleosteous fishes rather than of any of the few still existing
Ganoid types; but it is contrary to all analogy and to all
palæontological evidence to suppose that those fishes were, with
regard to their internal structure, more nearly allied to Teleosteans
than to Ganoids. If they were not true Ganoids, they may be justly
supposed to have had the essential characters of Palæichthyes.
Other forms exhibit even at that remote geological epoch so
unmistakably the characteristics of existing Ganoids, that no one can
entertain any doubt with regard to their place in the system. In none
of these fishes is there any trace of vertebral segmentation.
The Palæichthyes of the Old Red Sandstone, the systematic
position of which is still obscure, are the Cephalaspidæ from the
Lower Old Red Sandstone of Great Britain and Eastern Canada;
Pterichthys, Coccosteus, and Dinichthys: genera which have been
combined in one group—Placodermi; and Acanthodes and allied
genera, which combined numerous branchiostegals with
chondropterygian spines and a shagreen-like dermal covering.
Among the other Devonian fishes (and they formed the majority)
two types may be recognised, both of which are unmistakably
Ganoids. The first approaches the still living Polypterus, with which
some of the genera like Diplopterus singularly agree in the form and
armature of the head, the lepidosis of the body, the lobate pectoral
fins, and the termination of the vertebral column. Other genera, as
Holoptychius, have cycloid scales; many have two dorsal fins
(Holoptychius), and, instead of branchiostegals, jugular scutes;
others one long dorsal confluent with the caudal (Phaneropleuron).
In the second type the principal characters of the Dipnoi are
manifest, and some of them, for example Dipterus, Palædaphus,
Holodus, approach so closely the Dipnoi which still survive, that the
differences existing between them warrant a separation into families
only.
Devonian fishes are frequently found under peculiar
circumstances, enclosed in the so-called nodules. These bodies are
elliptical flattened pebbles, which have resisted the action of water in
consequence of their greater hardness, whilst the surrounding rock
has been reduced to detritus by that agency. Their greater density is
due to the dispersion in their substance of the fat of the animal which
decomposed in them. Frequently, on cleaving one of these nodules
with the stroke of the hammer, a fish is found embedded in the
centre. At certain localities of the Devonian, fossil fishes are so
abundant that the whole of the stratum is affected by the
decomposing remains emitting a peculiar smell when newly opened,
and acquiring a density and durability not possessed by strata
without fishes. The flagstones of Caithness are a remarkable
instance of this.

The fish-remains of the Carboniferous formation show a great

similarity to those of the preceding. They occur throughout the
series, but are very irregularly distributed, being extremely scarce in
some countries, whilst in others entire beds (the so-called bone-
beds) are composed of ichthyolites. In the ironstones they frequently
form the nuclei of nodules, as in the Devonian.
Of Chondropterygians the spines of Onchus and others still
occur, with the addition of teeth indicative of the existence of fishes
allied to the Cestracion-type (Cochliodus, Psammodus): a type which
henceforth plays an important part in the composition of the extinct
marine fish faunæ. Another extinct Selachian family, that of
Hybodontes, makes its appearance, but is known from the teeth
only.
Of the Ganoid fishes, the family Palæoniscidæ (Traquair) is
numerously represented; others are Cœlacanths (Cœlocanthus,
Rhizodus), and Saurodipteridæ (Megalichthys). None of these fishes
have an ossified vertebral column, but in some (Megalichthys) the
outer surface of the vertebræ is ossified into a ring; the termination of
their tail is heterocercal. The carboniferous Uronemus and the
Devonian Phaneropleuron are probably generically the same; and
the Devonian Dipnoi are continued as, and well represented by,
Ctenodus.

The fishes of the Permian group are very similar to those of the
Carboniferous. A type which in the latter was but very scantily
represented, namely the Platysomidæ, is much developed. They
were deep-bodied fish, covered with hard rhomboid scales
possessing a strong anterior rib, and provided with a heterocercal
caudal, long dorsal and anal, short non-lobate paired fins (when
present), and branchiostegals. The Palæoniscidæ are represented
by many species of Palæoniscus, Pygopterus and Acrolepis, and
Cestracionts by Janassa and Strophodus.

The passage from the Palæozoic into the Mesozoic era is not
indicated by any marked change as far as fishes are concerned. The
more remarkable forms of the Trias are Shark-like fishes represented
by ichthyodorulithes like Nemacanthus, Liacanthus, and Hybodus;
and Cestracionts represented by species of Acrodus and
Strophodus. Of the Ganoid genera Cœlacanthus, Amblypterus
(Palæoniscidæ), Saurichthys persist from the Carboniferous epoch.
Ceratodus appears for the first time (Muschel-Kalk of Germany).
Thanks to the researches of Agassiz, and especially Sir P.
Egerton, the ichthyological fauna of the Lias is, perhaps, the best
known of the Mesozoic era, 152 species having been described. Of
the various localities, Lyme Regis has yielded more than any other,
nearly all the Liassic genera being represented there by not less
than seventy-nine species. The Hybodonts and Cestracionts
continue in their fullest development. Holocephales (Ischyodus), true
Sharks (Palæoscyllium), Rays (Squaloraja, Arthropterus), and
Sturgeons (Chondrosteus) make their first appearance; but they are
sufficiently distinct from living types to be classed in separate
genera, or even families. The Ganoids, especially Lepidosteoids,
predominate over all the other fishes: Lepidotus, Semionotus,
Pholidophorus, Pachycormus, Eugnathus, Tetragonolepis, are
represented by numerous species; other remarkable genera are
Aspidorhynchus, Belonostomus, Saurostomus, Sauropsis,
Thrissonotus, Conodus, Ptycholepis, Endactis, Centrolepis,
Legnonotus, Oxygnathus, Heterolepidotus, Isocolum, Osteorhachis,
Mesodon. These genera offer evidence of a great change since the
preceding period, the majority not being represented in older strata,
whilst, on the other hand, many are continued into the succeeding
oolithic formations. The homocercal termination of the vertebral
column commences to supersede the heterocercal, and many of the
genera have well ossified and distinctly segmented spinal columns.
Also the cycloid form of scales becomes more common: one genus
(Leptolepis) being, with regard to the preserved hard portions of its
organisation, so similar to the Teleosteous type that some
Palæontologists refer it (with much reason) to that sub-class.
[See E. Sauvage, Essai sur la Faune Ichthyologique de la période
Liasique. In “Bibl. de l’école des hautes études,” xiii. art. 5. Paris 1875.
8o.]
As already mentioned, the Oolithic formations show a great
similarity of their fish-fauna to that of the Lias; but still more apparent
is its approach to the existing fauna. Teeth have been found which
cannot even generically be distinguished from Notidanus. The Rays
are represented by genera like Spathobatis, Belemnobatis,
Thaumas; the Holocephali are more numerous than in the Lias
(Ischyodus, Ganodus). The most common Ganoid genera are
Caturus, Pycnodus, Pholidophorus, Lepidotus, Leptolepis, all of
which had been more or less fully represented in the Lias. Also
Ceratodus is continued into it.
 The Cretaceous group offers clear evidence of the further
advance towards the existing fauna. Teeth of Sharks of existing
genera Carcharias (Corax), Scyllium, Notidanus, and Galeocerdo,
are common in some of the marine strata, whilst Hybodonts and
Cestracionts are represented by a small number of species only; of
the latter one new genus, Ptychodus, appears and disappears. A
very characteristic Ganoid genus, Macropoma, comprises
homocercal fishes with rounded ganoid scales sculptured externally
and pierced by prominent mucous tubes. Caturus becomes extinct.
Teeth and scales of Lepidotus (with Sphærodus as subgenus),
clearly a freshwater fish, are widely distributed in the Wealden, and
finally disappear in the chalk; its body was covered with large
rhomboidal ganoid scales. Gyrodus and Aspidorhynchus occur in the
beds of Voirons, Coelodus and Amiopsis (allied to Amra), in those of
Comen, in Istria. But the Palæichthyes are now in the minority;
undoubted Teleosteans have appeared, for the first time, on the
stage of life in numerous genera, many of which are identical with
still existing fishes. The majority are Acanthopterygians, but
Physostomes and Plectognaths are likewise well represented, most
of them being marine. Of Acanthopterygian families the first to
appear are the Berycidæ, represented by several very distinct
genera: Beryx; Pseudoberyx with abdominal ventral fins; Berycopsis
with cycloid scales; Homonotus, Stenostoma, Sphenocephalus,
Acanus, Hoplopteryx, Platycornus with granular scales; Podocys
with a dorsal extending to the neck; Acrogaster, Macrolepis,
Rhacolepis from the chalk of Brazil. The position of Pycnosterynx is
uncertain, it approaches certain Pharyngognaths. True Percidæ are
absent, whilst the Carangidæ, Sphyrænidæ, Cataphracti, Gobiidæ,
Cottidæ, and Sparidæ are represented by one or more genera.
Somewhat less diversified are the Physostomes, which belong
principally to the Clupeidæ and Dercetidæ, most of the genera being
extinct; Clupea is abundant in some localities. Scopelidæ
(Hemisaurida and Saurocephalus) occur in the chalk of Comen in
Istria, and of Mæstricht. Of all cretaceous deposits none surpass
those of the Lebanon with regard to the number of genera, species,
and individuals; the forms are exclusively marine, and the remains in
the most perfect condition.
 In the Tertiary epoch the Teleosteans have almost entirely
replaced the Ganoids; a few species only of the latter make their
appearance, and they belong to existing genera, or, at least, very
closely allied forms (Lepidosteus, Amia, Hypamia, Acipenser). The
Chondropterygians merge more and more into recent forms;
Holocephali continue, and still are better represented than in the
present fauna. The Teleosteans show even in the Eocene a large
proportion of existing genera, and the fauna of some localities of the
Miocene (Oeningen) is almost wholly composed of them. On the
whole, hitherto more than one-half have been found to belong to
existing genera, and there is no doubt that the number of seemingly
distinct extinct genera will be lessened as the fossils will be
examined with a better knowledge of the living forms. The
distribution of the fishes differed widely from that of our period, many
of our tropical genera occurring in localities which are now included
within our temperate zone, and being mixed with others, which
nowadays are restricted to a colder climate: a mixture which
continues throughout the Pliocene.

A few families of fishes, like the freshwater Salmonidæ, seem to

have put in their appearance in Post-pliocene times; however, not
much attention has been paid to fish-remains of these deposits; and
such as have been incidentally examined offer evidence of the fact
that the distribution of fishes has not undergone any further essential
change down to the present period.
[See E. Sauvage, Mémoire sur la Faune Ichthyologique de la
période Tertiaire. Paris 1873. 8°.]
Fig. 102.—Pycnodus rhombus, a Ganoid from the Upper
Oolite.
 CHAPTER XVI.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXISTING FISHES OVER THE EARTH’S SURFACE—GENERAL

REMARKS.

In an account of the geographical distribution of fishes the

Freshwater forms are to be kept separate from the Marine. However,
when we attempt to draw a line between these two kinds of fishes,
we meet with a great number of species and of facts which would
seem to render that distinction very vague. There are not only
species which can gradually accommodate themselves to a sojourn
in either salt or fresh water, but there are also such as seem to be
quite indifferent to a rapid change from one into the other: so that
individuals of one and the same species (Gastrosteus, Gobius,
Blennius, Osmerus, Retropinna, Clupea, Syngnathus, etc.), may be
found at some distance out at sea, whilst others live in rivers far
beyond the influence of the tide, or even in inland fresh waters
without outlet to the sea. The majority of these fishes belong to forms
of the fauna of the brackish water, and as they are not an
insignificant portion of the fauna of almost every coast, we shall have
to treat of them in a separate chapter.
Almost every large river offers instances of truly marine fishes
(such as Serranus, Sciænidæ, Pleuronectes, Clupeidæ, Tetrodon,
Carcharias, Trygonidæ), ascending for hundreds of miles of their
course; and not periodically, or from any apparent physiological
necessity, but sporadically throughout the year, just like the various
kinds of marine Porpoises which are found all along the lower course
of the Ganges, Yang-tseKiang, the Amazons, the Congo, etc. This is
evidently the commencement of a change in a fish’s habits, and,
indeed, not a few of such fishes have actually taken up their
permanent residence in fresh waters (as species of Ambassis,
Apogon Dules, Therapon, Sciæna, Blennius, Gobius, Atherina,
Mugil, Myxus, Hemirhamphus, Clupea, Anguilla, Tetrodon, Trygon):
all forms originally marine.
On the other hand, we find fishes belonging to freshwater genera
descending rivers and sojourning in the sea for a more or less limited
period; but these instances are much less in number than those in
which the reverse obtains. We may mention species of Salmo (the
Common Trout, the Northern Charr), and Siluroids (as Arius,
Plotosus). Coregonus, a genus so characteristic of the inland lakes
of Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, nevertheless offers
some instances of species wandering by the effluents into the sea,
and taking up their residence in salt water, apparently by preference,
as Coregonus oxyrhynchus. But of all the Freshwater families none
exhibit so great a capability of surviving the change from fresh into
salt water, as the Gastrosteidæ (Sticklebacks), of the northern
Hemisphere, and the equally diminutive Cyprinodontidæ of the
tropics; not only do they enter into, and live freely in, the sea, but
many species of the latter family inhabit inland waters, which, not
having an outlet, have become briny, or impregnated with a larger
proportion of salts than pure sea water. During the voyage of the
“Challenger” a species of Fundulus, F. nigrofasciatus, which inhabits
the fresh and brackish waters of the Atlantic States of North
America, was obtained, with Scopelids and other pelagic forms, in
the tow-net, midway between St. Thomas and Teneriffe.
Some fishes annually or periodically ascend rivers for the
purpose of spawning, passing the rest of the year in the sea, as
Sturgeons, many Salmonoids, some Clupeoids, Lampreys, etc. The
two former evidently belonged originally to the freshwater series, and
it was only in the course of their existence that they acquired the
habit of descending to the sea, perhaps because their freshwater
home did not offer a sufficient supply of food. These migrations of
freshwater fishes have been compared with the migrations of birds;
but they are much more limited in extent, and do not impart an
additional element to the fauna of the place to which they migrate, as
is the case with the distant countries to which birds migrate.
The distinction between freshwater and marine fishes is further
obscured by geological changes, in consequence of which the salt
water is gradually being changed into fresh, or vice versa. These
changes are so gradual and spread over so long a time, that many of
the fishes inhabiting such localities accommodate themselves to the
new conditions. One of the most remarkable and best studied
instances of such an alteration is the Baltic, which, during the second
half of the Glacial period, was in open and wide communication with
the Arctic Ocean, and evidently had the same marine fauna as the
White Sea. Since then, by the rising of the land of Northern
Scandinavia and Finland, this great gulf of the Arctic Ocean has
become an inland sea, with a narrow outlet into the North Sea, and
its water, in consequence of the excess of the fresh water pouring
into it over the loss by evaporation, has been so much diluted as to
be nearly fresh at its northern extremities: and yet nine species, the
origin of which from the Arctic Ocean can be proved, have survived
the changes, propagating their species, agreeing with their brethren
in the Arctic Ocean in every point, but remaining comparatively
smaller. On the other hand, fishes which we must regard as true
freshwater fishes, like the Rudd, Roach, Pike, Perch, enter freely the
brackish water of the Baltic.[17] Instances of marine fishes being
permanently retained in fresh water in consequence of geological
changes are well known: thus Cottus quadricornis in the large lakes
of Scandinavia; species of Gobius, Blennius, and Atherina in the
lakes of Northern Italy; Comephorus, of the depths of the Lake of
Baikal, which seems to be a dwarfed Gadoid. Carcharias gangeticus
in inland lakes of the Fiji Islands, is another instance of a marine fish
which has permanently established itself in fresh water.
In the miocene formation of Licata in Sicily, in which fish remains
abound, numerous Cyprinoids are mixed with littoral and pelagic
forms. Sauvage found in 450 specimens from that locality, not less
than 266, which were Leucisci, Alburni, or Rhodei. Now, although it
is quite possible that in consequence of a sudden catastrophe the
bodies of those Cyprinoids were carried by a freshwater current into,
and deposited on the bottom of, the sea, the surmise that they lived
together with the littoral fishes in the brackish water of a large
estuary, which was not rarely entered by pelagic forms, is equally
admissible. And, if confirmed by other similar observations, this
instance of a mixture of forms which are now strictly freshwater or
marine, may have an important bearing on the question to what
extent fishes have in time changed their original habitat.
Thus there is a constant exchange of species in progress
between the freshwater and marine faunæ, and in not a few cases it
would seem almost arbitrary to refer a genus or even larger group of
fishes to one or the other; yet there are certain groups of fishes
which entirely, or with but few exceptions are, and, apparently, during
the whole period of their existence have been, inhabitants either of
the sea or of fresh water; and as the agencies operating upon the
distribution of marine fishes differ greatly from those influencing the
dispersal of freshwater fishes, the two series must be treated
separately. The most obvious fact that dry land, which intervenes
between river systems, offers to the rapid spreading of a freshwater
fish an obstacle which can be surmounted only exceptionally or by a
most circuitous route, whilst marine fishes may readily and
voluntarily extend their original limits, could be illustrated by a great
number of instances. Without entering into details, it may suffice to
state as the general result, that no species or genus of freshwater
fishes has anything like the immense range of the corresponding
categories of marine fishes; and that, with the exception of the
Siluroids, no other freshwater family is so widely spread as the
families of marine fishes. Surface temperature or climate which is, if
not the most, one of the most important physical factors in the
limitation of freshwater fishes, similarly affects the distribution of
marine fishes, but in a less degree, and only those which live near to
the shore or the surface of the ocean; whilst it ceases to exercise its
influence in proportion to the depth, the true deep-sea forms being
entirely exempt from its operation. Light, which is pretty equally
distributed over the localities inhabited by freshwater fishes, cannot
be considered as an important factor in their distribution, but it
contributes towards constituting the impassable barrier between the
surface and abyssal forms of marine fishes. Altitude has stamped
the fishes of the various Alpine provinces of the globe with a certain
character, and limited their distribution; but the number of these
Alpine forms is comparatively small, ichthyic life being extinguished
at great elevations even before the mean temperature equals that of
the high latitudes of the Arctic region, in which some freshwater
fishes flourish. On the other hand, the depths of the ocean, far
exceeding the altitude of the highest mountains, still swarm with
forms specially adapted for abyssal life. That other physical
conditions of minor and local importance, under which fresh water
fishes live, and by which their dispersal is regulated, are more
complicated than similar ones of the ocean, is probable, though
perhaps less so than is generally supposed: for the fact is that the
former are more accessible to observation than the latter, and are,
therefore, more generally and more readily comprehended and
acknowledged. Thus, not only because many of the most
characteristic forms of the marine and freshwater series are found,
on taking a broader view of the subject, to be sufficiently distinct, but
also because their distribution depends on causes different in their
nature as well as the degree of their action, it will be necessary to
treat of the two series separately. Whether the oceanic areas
correspond in any way to the terrestrial will be seen in the sequel.

Fig. 103.—Ganoid scales of Tetragonolepis.