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to easily highlight, take notes, and review key vocabulary all in one place-
even when offline. Seamlessly integrated videos, rich media, and embedded
interactives engage students and give them access to the help they need when
they need it. Pearson eText is available within Mastering when packaged with a
new book or as an upgrade students can purchase online.

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 University Physics with
Modern Physics includes a full
suite of instructor support materials
in the Instructor Resources area in
Mastering Physics. Resources include
accessible PowerPoint lecture outlines;
all annotated equations and problem-
solving strategies; all figures, photos,
tables, and end-of-chapter elements
from the text; simulations; plus a
solutions manual and test bank.

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Instructors also have access to Learning Catalytics. With Learning Catalytics, you'll hear from every student when
it matters most. You pose a variety of questions that help students recall ideas, apply concepts, and develop critical-
thinking skills. Your students respond using their own smartphones, tablets, or laptops. You can monitor responses
with real-time analytics and find out what your students do-and don't-understand. Then, you can adjust your
teaching accordingly and even facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay motivated and engaged.
SEARS AND ZEMANSKY'S

UNIVERSITY PHYSICS
WITH MODERN PHYSICS
FIFTEENTH EDITION

HUGH D. YOUNG

ROGER A. FREEDMAN
University of California, Santa Barbara

CONTRIBUTING AUTHOR
A. LEWIS FORD
Texas A&M University

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Young, Hugh D., author. I Freedman, Roger A., author. IYoung, Hugh D. Sears and Zemansky's university physics.
Title: University physics with modern physics I Hugh D. Young and Roger A. Freedman.
Other titles: Some previous editions have title: Sears and Zemansky's university physics with modern physics
Description: 15th edition. I Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson Higher Education, [2020] I Includes bibliographical references
and index. Content.~: Mechanics. Units, physical quantities, and vectors- Motion along a straight line--Motion in
two or three dimensions-Newton's laws of motion- Applying Newton's laws- Work and kinetic energy-
Potential energy and energy conservation- Momentum, impulse, and collisions- Rotation of rigid bodies-
Dynamics of rotational motion- Equilibrium and e lasticity- Fluid mechanics-Gravitation- Periodic motion-
Waves, acoustics. Mechanical waves- Sound and hearing- Thermodynamics. Temperature and heat- Thermal
properties of matter- The first law of thermodynamics- The second law of them1odynamics. Contents:
Electromagnetism. Electric charge and electric field-Gauss's law- Electric potential-Capacitance and dielectrics-
Currenc, resistance, and electromotive force- Direct-current circuit.~-Magnetic field and magnetic forces-
Sources of magnetic field- Electromagnetic induction- Inductance- Alternating current- Electromagnetic
waves-Optics. The nature and propagation of light-Geometric optics- Interference- Diffraction-
Modem physics. Relativity- Photons : light waves behaving as particles- Particles behaving as waves-
Quantum mechanics I : wave functions-Quantum mechanics II : atomic structure- Molecules and condensed
matter- Nuclear physics- Particle physics and cosmology.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018042240 I ISBN 9780135159552 (hardcover: alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Physics- Textbooks. I Physics-Study and teaching (Higher)
Classification: LCC QC2l.3 .Y68 2020 I DOC 530-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018042240

ISBN 10: 0- 135- 15955-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-1 351 -5955-2 (Extended edition)

@Pearson www.pearsonhighered.com
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Roger A. Freedman is a Lecturer in Physics at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He
was an undergraduate at the University of California campuses in San Diego and Los Angeles
and did his doctoral research in nuclear theory at Stanford University under the direction of Pro-
fessor J. Dirk Walecka. Dr. Freedman can1e to UCSB in 198 J after three years of teaching and
doing research at the University of Washington.
At UCSB, Dr. Freedman bas taught in both the Department of Physics and the College of
Creative Studies, a branch of the university intended for highly gifted and motivated under-
graduates. He bas published research in nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, and laser
physics. In recent years, be bas worked to make physics lectures a more interactive experience
through the use of classroom response systems and pre-lecture videos.
In the 1970s Dr. Freedman worked as a comic book letterer and helped organize the San
Diego Comic-Con (now the world's largest popular culture convention) during its first few
years. Today, when not in the classroom or slaving over a computer, Dr. Freedman can be found
either flying (he holds a commercial pilot's license) or with his wife, Caroline, cheering on the
rowers of UCSB Men's and Women's Crew.

IN MEMORIAM: HUGH YOUNG ( 1930- 2013)

Hugh D. Young was Emeritus Professor of Physics at Carnegie Mellon University. He earned
both his undergraduate and graduate degrees from that university. He earned his Ph.D. in fun-
dan1ental particle theory under the direction of the late Richard Cutkosky. Dr. Young joined the
faculty of Carnegie Mellon in 1956 and retired in 2004. He also had two visiting professorships
at the University of California, Berkeley.
Dr. Young's career was centered entirely on undergraduate education. He wrote several
undergraduate-level textbooks, and in 1973 he became a coauthor with Francis Sears and Mark
Zemansky of their well-known introductory textbooks. In addition to his role on Sears and
Zemansky's University Physics, he was the author of Sears and Zemansky's College Physics.
Dr. Young earned a bachelor's degree in organ performance from Carnegie Mellon in
1972 and spent several years as Associate Organist at St. Paul's Cathedral in Pittsburgh.
He often ventured into the wilderness to hike, climb, or go caving with students in Carn-
egie Mellon's Explorers Club, which he founded as a graduate student and later advised.
Dr. Young and his wife, Alice, hosted up to 50 students each year for Thanksgiving dinners
in their home.
Always gracious, Dr. Young expressed his appreciation earnestly: " I want to extend my
heartfelt thanks to my colleagues at Carnegie Mellon, especially Professors Robert Kraemer,
Bruce Sherwood, Ruth Chabay, Helmut Vogel , and Brian Quinn , for many stimulating dis-
cussions about physics pedagogy and for their support and encouragement during the writing
of several successive editions of this book. I am equally indebted to the many generations of
Carnegie Mellon students who have helped me learn what good teaching and good writing are,
by showing me what works and what doesn't. It is always a joy and a privilege to express my
gratitude to my wife, Alice, and our children, Gretchen and Rebecca, for their love, support,
and emotional sustenance during the writing of several successive editions of this book. May
all men and women be blessed with love such as theirs." We at Pearson appreciated his profes-
sionalism, good nature, and collaboration. He will be missed.

A. Lewis Ford is Professor of Physics at Texas A&M University. He received a B.A. from Rice
University in 1968 and a Ph.D. in chemical physics from the University of Texas at Austin in
1972. After a one-year postdoc at Harvard University, be joined the Texas A&M physics fac-
ulty in 1973 and has been there ever since. Professor Ford has specialized in theoretical atomic
physics- in particular, atomic collisions. At Texas A&M be bas taught a variety of undergradu-
ate and graduate courses, but primarily introductory physics.

iii
 TO THE STUDENT
HOW TO SUCCEED IN PHYSICS
BY REALLY TRYING
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College, Emeritus

Physics encompasses the large and the small, the o ld and the new. From the atom to galaxies,
from electrical circuitry to aerodynamics, physics is very much a part of the world around
us. You probably are taldng this introductory course in calculus-based physics because it is
required for subsequent courses that you plan to take in preparation for a career in science or
engineering. Your professor wants you to learn physics and to enjoy the experience. He or she
is very interested in helping you learn this fascinating subject. That is part of the reason your
professor chose this textbook for your course. That is also the reason Ors. Young and Freedman
asked me to write this introductory section. We want you to succeed!
The purpose of this section of University Physics is to give you some ideas that will assist
your leaming. Specific suggestions on how to use the textbook will follow a brief discussion of
general study habits and strategies.

PREPARATION FOR THIS COURSE

If you had high school physics, you will probably leam concepts faster than those who have not
because you will be fan1iliar with the language of physics. If English is a second language for
you, keep a glossary of new terms that you encounter and make sure you understand how they
are used in physics. Likewise, if you are further along in your mathematics courses, you will
pick up the mathematical aspects of physics faster. Even if your mathematics is adequate, you
may find a book such as Edward Adelson 's Get Ready for Physics to be a great help for sharp-
ening your math skills as well as your study skills.

LEARNING TO LEARN
Each of us has a different learning style and a preferred means of learning. Understanding your
own learning style will help you to focus on aspects of physics that may give you difficulty and
to use those components of your course that will help you overcome the difficulty. Obviously
you will want to spend more time on those aspects that give you the most trouble. If you learn
by hearing, lectures will be very important. If you learn by explaining, then working with other
students will be useful to you. If solving problems is difficult for you, spend more time learning
how to solve problems. Also, it is important to understand and develop good study habits. Per-
haps the most important thing you can do for yourself is set aside adequate, regularly scheduled
study time in a distraction-free environment.

Answer the following questions for yourself:

Am I able to use fundamental mathematical concepts from algebra, geometry, and trig-
onometry? (If not, plan a program of review with help from your professor.)
In similar courses, what activity has given me the most trouble? (Spend more time on
this.) What has been the easiest for me? (Do this first; it will bui ld your confidence.)
Do I understand the material better if I read the book before or after the lecture? (You
may learn best by skimming the material, going to lecture, and then undertaking an in-
depth reading.)
Do I spend adequate time studying physics? (A rule of thumb for a class like this is to de-
vote, on average, 2.5 hours out of class for each hour in class. For a course that meets 5 hours
each week, that means you should spend about I 0 to 15 hours per week studying physics.)
Do I study physics every day? (Spread that I 0 to 15 hours out over an entire week!) At
what time of the day am I at my best for studying physics? (Pick a specific time of the
day and stick to it.)
Do I work in a quiet place where I can maintain my focus? (Distractions w ill break
your routine and cause you to miss important points.)

iv
 HOW TO SUCCEED IN PHYSICS BY REALLY TRYING

WORKING WITH OTHERS

Scientists or engineers seldom work in isolation from one another but rather work coopera-
tively. You will learn more physics and have more fun doing it if you work with other students.
Some professors may fom1alize the use of cooperative learning or facilitate the fom1ation of
study groups. You may wish to form your own infom1al study group with members of your
class. Use e-mail to keep in touch with one another. Your study group is an excellent resource
when you review for exams.

LECTURES AND TAKING NOTES

An important component of any college course is the lecture. lo physics this is especially
important, because your professor will frequently do demonstrations of physical principles,
run computer simulations, or show video clips. All of these are learning activities that will help
you understand the basic principles of physics. Don't miss lectures. If for some reason you do,
ask a friend or member of your study group to provide you with notes and let you know what
happened.
Take your class notes in outline form, and fill in the details later. It can be very difficult to
take word-for-word notes, so just write down key ideas. Your professor may use a diagran1
from the textbook. Leave a space in your notes and add the diagran1 later. After class, edit your
notes, filling in any gaps or omissions and noting things that you need to study further. Make
references to the textbook by page, equation number, or section number.
Ask questions in class, or see your professor during office hours. Remember that the only
"dumb" question is the one that is not asked. Your college may have teaching assistants or peer
tutors who are available to help you with any difficulties.

EXAMINATIONS
Taking an examination is stressful. But if you feel adequately prepared and are well rested,
your stress will be lessened. Preparing for an exan1 is a continuous process; it begins the mo-
ment the previous exan1 is over. You should immediately go over the exam to understand any
mistakes you made. If you worked a problem and made substantial errors, try this: Take a piece
of paper and divide it down the middle with a line from top to bottom. lo one colunm, write the
proper solution to the problem. In the other column, write what you did and why, if you know,
and why your solution was incorrect. If you are uncertain why you made your mistake or how
to avoid making it again, talk with your professor. Physics constantly builds on fundan1ental
ideas, and it is important to correct any misunderstandings immediately. Warning: Although
cramming at the last minute may get you through the present exam, you will not adequately
retain the concepts for use on the next exam.

Standard, Extended,
and Three-Volume Editions
With Mastering Physics:
• Standard Edition: Chapters 1- 37
(ISBN 978-0 -135-64663-2)
• Extended Edition: Chapters 1-44
(ISBN 978-0 -135-15970-5)
Without Mastering Physics:
• Standard Edition: Chapters 1- 37
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21611-8)
• Extended Edition: Chapters 1-44
(ISBN 978-0 -135-15955-2)
• Volume 1: Chapters 1- 20
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21672-9)
• Volume 2: Chapters 21- 37
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21612-5)
• Volume 3: Chapters 37- 44
(ISBN 978-0 -135-21673-6)
vi
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
PREFACE
In the years since it was first published, University Physics has always embraced change,
not just to include the latest developments in our understanding of the physical world, but
also to address our understanding of how students learn physics and how they study.
In preparing for this new Fifteenth Edition, we listened to the thousands of students
who have told us that they often struggle to see the connections between the worked ex-
amples in their textbook and problems on homework or exams. Every problem seems
different because the objects, situations, numbers, and questions posed change with each
problem. As a result, students experience frustration and a lack of confidence. By contrast,
expert problem-solvers categorize problems by type, based on the underlying principles.
Several of the revisions we have made therefore address this particular challenge by,
for example, helping students see the big picture of what each worked example is trying
to illustrate and allowing them to practice sets of related problems to help them identify
repeating patterns and strategies. These new features are explained in more detail below.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
• Worked example KEYCONCEPT statements appear at the end of every Example and
Conceptual Example, providing a brief summary of the key idea used in the solution to
consolidate what was most important and what can be broadly applied to other prob-
lems, to help students identify strategies that can be used in future problems.
J
• KEY EXAMPLE ARIATION PROBLEMS in the new Guided Practice section at the
end of each chapter are based on selected worked examples. They build in difficulty
by changing scenarios, swapping the knowns and unknowns, and adding complexity
and/or steps of reasoning to provide the most helpful range of related problems that
use the same basic approach to solve. These scaffolded problem sets help students see
patterns and make connections between problems that can be solved using the same un-
derlying principles and strategies so that they are more able to tackle different problem
types when exam time comes.
• Expanded Caution paragraphs focus on typical student misconceptions and problem
areas. Over a dozen more have been added to this edition based on common errors
made in Mastering™ Physics.
• Updated and expanded Application sidebars give students engaging and relevant
real-world context.
• Based on data from Mastering Physics and feedback from instructors, changes to
the homework problems include the following:
• Over 500 new problems, with scores of other problems revised to improve clarity.
• Expanded three-dot-difficulty and Challenge Problems significantly stretch
students by requiring sophisticated reasoning that often involves multiple steps or
concepts and/or mathematical skills. Challenge Problems are the most difficult
problems in each chapter and often involve calculus, multiple steps that lead stu-
dents through a complex analysis, and/or the exploration of a topic or application
not explicitly covered in the chapter.
• New estimation problems help students learn to analyze problem scenarios, assess
data, and work with orders of magnitude. This problem type engages students to
more thoroughly explore the situation by requiring them to not only estimate some
of the data in the problem but also decide what data need to be estimated based on
real-world experience, reasoning, assumptions, and/or modeling.
• Expanded cumulative problems promote more advanced problem-solving tech-
niques by requiring knowledge and skills covered in previous chapters to be inte-
grated with understanding and skills from the current chapter.
• Expanded alternative problem sets in Mastering Physics provide textbook-specific
problems from previous editions to assign for additional student practice.
 PREFACE v ii

KEY FEATURES OF UNIVERSITY PHYSICS

• A QR cod e at the beginning of the new Guided Practice section in each chapter allows
(!).!
. ·'(!.)
(. '
students 10 use a mobile phone to access the Study Area of Mastering Physics, where
they can watch interactive videos of a physics professor giving a relevant physics dem-
onstration (Video Tutor Demonstrations) or showing a narrated and animated worked
~:t
(!)~ ~ :_.,.
Example (Video Tutor Solutions). All videos also play directly through links within the
Pearson eText.
• End-of-chapter Bridging Problems provide a transition between the single-concept
Examples and the more chal lenging end-of-chapter problems. Each Bridging Problem
poses a difficult, multiconcept problem that typically incorporates physics from earlier
chapters. The Solution Guide that follows each problem provides questions and hints
that help students approach and solve challenging problems with confidence.
• Deep and extensive problem sets cover a wide range of difficulty (with blue dots to in-
dicate relative difficulty level) and exercise both physical understanding and problem-
solving expertise. Many problems are based on complex real-life situations.
• This textbook offers more Examples and Conceptual Examples than most other lead-
ing calculus-based textbooks, allowing students to explore problem-solving challenges
that are not addressed in other textbooks.
• A research-based problem-solving approach (Identify, Set Up, Execu te, Evaluate)
is used in every Example as well as in the Problem-Solving Strategies, in the Bridging
Problems, and throughout the Instructor's Solutions Manual and the Study Guide. This
consistent approach teaches students to tackle problems thoughtfully rather than cut-
ting straight to the math.
• Problem-Solving Strategies coach students in how to approach specific types of problems.
• The figures use a simplified graphical style to focus on the physics of a situation, and
they incorporate blue explanatory annotations. Both techniques have been demon-
strated to have a strong positive effect on learning.
• Many figures that illustrate Example solutions take the form of black-and-white pencil
sketches, which directly represent what a student should draw in solving such problems
themselves.
• The popular Caution paragraphs focus on typical misconceptions and student
problem areas.
• End-of-section Test Your Understanding questions let students check their grasp of
the material and use a multiple-choice or ranking-task format to probe for common
misconceptions. Answers are now provided immediately after the question in order to
encourage students to try them.
• Visual Summa ries at the end of each chapter present the key ideas in words, equations,
and thumbnai l pictures, helping students review more effectively.
Masteringrn is the teaching and learning platform that empowers you 10 reach every
student. By combining trusted author content with digital tools developed to engage
students and emulate the office-hour experience, Mastering personalizes learning and
improves results for each student. Now providing a fully integrated experience, the eText
is linked 10 every problem within Mastering for seamless integration among homework
problems, practice problems, the textbook, worked examples, and more.
Reach every student with Mastering
• Teach your course your wa y: Your course is unique. Whether you'd like to build your
own auto-graded assignments, foster student engagement during class, or give students
anytime, anywhere access, Mastering gives you the flexibility to easi ly create your
course to fit your needs.
• With Leaming Catalytics, you'll hear from every student when it mailers most.
You pose a variety of questions that help students recall ideas, apply concepts, and
develop critical-thinking skills. Your students respond using their own smartphones,
tablets, or laptops. You can monitor responses with real-time analytics and find out
what your students do--and don't- understand. Then you can adjust your teach-
ing accordingly and even facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay
motivated and engaged.
 PREFACE v ii

KEY FEATURES OF UNIVERSITY PHYSICS

• A QR cod e at the beginning of the new Guided Practice section in each chapter allows
(!).!
. ·'(!.)
(. '
students 10 use a mobile phone to access the Study Area of Mastering Physics, where
they can watch interactive videos of a physics professor giving a relevant physics dem-
onstration (Video Tutor Demonstrations) or showing a narrated and animated worked
~:t
(!)~ ~ :_.,.
Example (Video Tutor Solutions). All videos also play directly through links within the
Pearson eText.
• End-of-chapter Bridging Problems provide a transition between the single-concept
Examples and the more chal lenging end-of-chapter problems. Each Bridging Problem
poses a difficult, multiconcept problem that typically incorporates physics from earlier
chapters. The Solution Guide that follows each problem provides questions and hints
that help students approach and solve challenging problems with confidence.
• Deep and extensive problem sets cover a wide range of difficulty (with blue dots to in-
dicate relative difficulty level) and exercise both physical understanding and problem-
solving expertise. Many problems are based on complex real-life situations.
• This textbook offers more Examples and Conceptual Examples than most other lead-
ing calculus-based textbooks, allowing students to explore problem-solving challenges
that are not addressed in other textbooks.
• A research-based problem-solving approach (Identify, Set Up, Execu te, Evaluate)
is used in every Example as well as in the Problem-Solving Strategies, in the Bridging
Problems, and throughout the Instructor's Solutions Manual and the Study Guide. This
consistent approach teaches students to tackle problems thoughtfully rather than cut-
ting straight to the math.
• Problem-Solving Strategies coach students in how to approach specific types of problems.
• The figures use a simplified graphical style to focus on the physics of a situation, and
they incorporate blue explanatory annotations. Both techniques have been demon-
strated to have a strong positive effect on learning.
• Many figures that illustrate Example solutions take the form of black-and-white pencil
sketches, which directly represent what a student should draw in solving such problems
themselves.
• The popular Caution paragraphs focus on typical misconceptions and student
problem areas.
• End-of-section Test Your Understanding questions let students check their grasp of
the material and use a multiple-choice or ranking-task format to probe for common
misconceptions. Answers are now provided immediately after the question in order to
encourage students to try them.
• Visual Summa ries at the end of each chapter present the key ideas in words, equations,
and thumbnai l pictures, helping students review more effectively.
Masteringrn is the teaching and learning platform that empowers you 10 reach every
student. By combining trusted author content with digital tools developed to engage
students and emulate the office-hour experience, Mastering personalizes learning and
improves results for each student. Now providing a fully integrated experience, the eText
is linked 10 every problem within Mastering for seamless integration among homework
problems, practice problems, the textbook, worked examples, and more.
Reach every student with Mastering
• Teach your course your wa y: Your course is unique. Whether you'd like to build your
own auto-graded assignments, foster student engagement during class, or give students
anytime, anywhere access, Mastering gives you the flexibility to easi ly create your
course to fit your needs.
• With Leaming Catalytics, you'll hear from every student when it mailers most.
You pose a variety of questions that help students recall ideas, apply concepts, and
develop critical-thinking skills. Your students respond using their own smartphones,
tablets, or laptops. You can monitor responses with real-time analytics and find out
what your students do--and don't- understand. Then you can adjust your teach-
ing accordingly and even facilitate peer-to-peer learning, helping students stay
motivated and engaged.
viii PREFACE

• Expanded alternative problem sets, with hundreds of vetted problems from pre-
vious editions of the book, provide additional problem-solving practice and offer
instructors more options when creating assignments.
• Empower each learner: Each student learns at a different pace. Personalized learning,
including adaptive tools and wrong-answer feedback, pinpoints the precise areas where
each student needs practice and gives all students the support they need- when and
where they need it- to be successful.
• Interactive Pre-lecture Videos provide an introduction to key topics with embed-
ded assessment to help students prepare before lecture and to help professors iden-
tify student misconceptions.
• NEW! Quantitative Pre-lecture Videos now complement the conceptual Inter-
active Pre-lecture Videos designed to expose students to concepts before class
and help them learn how problems for a specific concept are worked.
• NEW! Direct Measurement Videos are short videos that show real situations of physi-
cal phenomena. Grids, rulers, and frame counters appear as overlays, helping students to
make precise measurements of quantities such as position and time. Students !hen apply
these quantities along with physics concepts to solve problems and answer questions
about the motion of the objects in the video. The problems are assignable in Mastering
Physics and can be used to replace or supplement traditional word problems; they can
also serve as open-ended questions to help develop problem-solving skills.
• NEW! Dynamic Study Modules help students study effectively- and at their own
pace. How? By keeping them motivated and engaged. The assignable modules rely
on the latest research in cognitive science, using methods- such as adaptivity, gami-
fication, and intermiuent rewards- to stimulate learning and improve retention.
Each module poses a series of questions about a course topic. These question sets
adapt to each student's performance and offer personalized, targeted feedback to
help students master key concepts.
• NEW! The Physics Primer relies on videos, hints, and feedback to refresh students'
math skills in the context of physics and prepares them for success in the course.
These tutorials can be assigned before the course begins or throughout the course as
just-in-time remediation. They ensure that students practice and maintain their math
skills, while tying together mathematical operations and physics analysis.
• Deliver trusted content: We partner with highly respected authors to develop interactive
content and course-specific resources that keep students on track and engaged.
• Video Tutor Demonstrations and Video Tutor Solutions tie directly to relevant
content in the textbook and can be accessed through Mastering Physics, via the eText,
or from QR codes in the textbook.
• Video Tutor Solutions (VTSs) for every worked example in the book walk stu-
dents through the problem-solv ing process, providing a virtual teaching assistant
on a round-the-clock basis.
• Video Tutor Demonstrations (VTDs) feature "pause-and-predict" demonstra-
tions of key physics concepts and incorporate assessment to engage students in
understanding key concepts. New VTDs build on the existing collection, adding
new topics for a more robust set of demonstrations.
• NEW! Enhanced end-of-chapter questions provide expanded remediation built
into each question when and where students need it. Remediation includes scaf-
folded support, links to hints, links to appropriate sections of the eText, links from
the eText to Mastering Physics, Video Tutor Solutions, math remediation, and
wrong-answer feedback for homework assignments. Half of all end-of-chapter prob-
lems now have wrong-answer feedback and links to the eText.
• NEW! Key Example Variation Problems, assignable in Mastering Physics, build
in difficulty by changing scenarios, swapping the knowns and unknowns, and add-
ing complexity and/or steps of reasoning to provide the most helpful range of related
problems that use the same basic approach to find their solutions.
• NEW! Bridging Problems are now assignable in Mastering Physics, thus pro-
viding students with additional practice in moving from single-concept worked
examples to multi-concept homework problems.
 PREFACE ix

• Improve student r esults: Usage statistics show that when you teach with Mastering,
student performance improves. That's why instructors have chosen Ma~tering for over
15 years, touch ing the lives of more than 20 mil lion students.

INSTRUCTIONAL PACKAGE
University Physics with Modem Physics, Fifteenth Edition, provides an integrated teaching
and learning package of support material for students and instructors.

NOTE: For convenience, instructor supplements can be downloaded from the Instructor
Resources area of Mastering Physics.

Supplement Print
Mastering Physics
with Pearson eText
(ISBN 0135180678)
Instructor's Solutions
Manual
( ISBN Ot35275881)
Instructor's Resource
Materials
Student's Study
Guide/Solutions
Manual
Volume 1 (Chs t- 20)
( ISBN Ot35216958)
Volume 2 (Chs 2 1- 37)
( ISBN Ot3521694X)
Volume 3 (Chs 37-44)
( ISBN Ot3559202X)
Ins tructor
or Student
Online Supplemeut Description
Instructor This product features all of the
and Student resources of Mastering Physics
Supplement in addition to Pearson eText
2.0. Available on smartphones
and tablets, Pearson eText
2.0 comprises the full text,
including videos and other
rich media.
.I Instructor This comprehensive solutions
Supplement manual contains complete
solutions to all end-of-chapter
questions and problems.
.I Instructor All art, photos, and tables
Supplement from the book are avail-
able in JPEG fom1a1 and as
modifiable PowerPointsTM.
In addition, instructors can
access lecture outlines as
well as "clicker" questions
in PowerPoint fonnat; edit-
able content for key features,
including key equations and
Problem-Solving Strategies;
and the TestGen test bank.
Student This combination srudy
Supplement guide and solutions manual
reinforces the textbook's
research-based problem-
solving approach (Identify,
Set Up, Evaluate, Execute).
The solutions manual contains
solutions to most of the odd-
numbered problems in the text,
and the srudy guide provides
a chapter-by-chapter review
of key concepts and equations
as well as additional example
problems with solutions .
PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank the hundreds of reviewers and colleagues who have offered valuable
comments and suggestions over the life of this textbook The continuing success of University
Physics is due in large measure to their contributions.

Miah Adel (U. of Arkansas at Pine Bluff), Edward Adelson (Ohio State U.), Julie Alexander
(Camosun C.), Ralph Alexander (U. of Missouri at Rolla), J. G. Anden;on, R. S. Anderson, Wayne
Anderson (Sacramento City C.), Sanjeev Arora (Fort Valley State U.), Alex Azima (Lansing Comm.
C.), Dilip Balamore (Nassau Comm. C.), Harold Bale (U. of North Dakota), Arun Bans il
(Northeastern U.), John Barach (Vanderbilt U.), J . D. Bamen, H. H. Barschall, Albert Bartlett (U. of
Colorado), Marshall Bartlen (Hollins U.), Paul Baum (CUNY, Queens C.), Frederick Becchetti (U.
of Michigan), B. Beden;on, David Bennum (U. of Nevada, Reno), Lev I. Berger (San Diego State
U.), Angela Biselli (Faitfteld U.), Robert Boeke (William Rainey Harper C.), Bram Boroson
(Cla}~On State U.), S . Borowil2, A. C. Braden, James Brooks (Boston U.), Nicholas E. Brown
(California Polytechnic State U., San Luis Obispo), Tony Buffa (California Polytechnic State U., San
Luis Obispo), Shane Bums (Colorado C.), A. Capecelatro, Michael Cardamone (Pennsylvania State
U.), Duane Cannony (Purdue U.), Troy Carter (UCLA), P. Catranides, John Cerne (SUNY at
Buffalo), Shini l Cho (La Roche C.), Tim Chupp (U. of Michigan), Roger Clapp (U. of South
Florida), William M. Cloud (Eastern lllinois U.), Leonard Cohen (Drexel U.), W. R. Coker (U. of
Texas, Austin), Malcolm D. Cole (U. of Missouri at Rolla), H. Conrad, David Cook (Lawrence U.),
Gayl Cook (U. of Colorado), Hans Courant (U. of Minnesota), Carl Covano (Arizona State U.),
Bruce A. Craver (U. of Dayton), Larry Curtis (U. of Toledo), Jai Dahiya (Southeast Missouri State
U.), Dedra Demaree (Georgetown U.), Steve Detweiler (U. of Florida), George Dixon (Oklahoma
State U.), Steve Drasco (Grinnell C.), Donald S. Duncan, Boyd Edwards (West Virginia U.), Robert
Eisenstein (Carnegie Mellon U.), Amy Emerson Missoum (Virginia Institute of Technology), Olena
Erhardt (Richland C.), William Faissler (Northeastern U.), Gregory Falabella (Wagner C.), William
Fasnacht (U.S. Naval Academy), Paul Feldker (St. Louis Comm. C.), Carlos Figueroa (Cabrillo C.),
L. H. Fisher, Nei l Fletcher (Florida State U.), Allen Flora (Hood C.), Robert Folk, Peter Fong
(Emory U.), A. Lewis Ford (Texas A&M U.), D. Frantszog, James R. Gaines (Ohio State U.),
Solomon Gartenhaus (Purdue U.), Ron Gautreau (New Jersey Institute of Technology), J . David
Gavenda (U. of Texas, Austin), Dennis Gay (U. of North Florida), Elizabeth George (Winenberg U.),
James Gerhart (U. of Washington), N. S . Gingrich, J. L. Glathart, S . Goodwin, Rich Gottfried
(Frederick Comm. C.), Walter S. Gray (U. of Michigan), Paul Gresser (U. of Maryland), Benjamin
Grinstein (UC, San Diego), Howard Grotch (Pennsylvania State U.), John Gruber (San Jose State
U.), Graham D. GuL'>Che (U.S. Naval Academy), Michael J . Harrison (Michigan State U.), Harold
Hart (Western Illinois U.), Howard Hayden (U. of Connecticut), Carl Helrich (Goshen C.), Andrew
Hirsch (Purdue U.), Linda Hirst (UC, Merced), Laurent Hodges (Iowa State U.), C. D. Hodgman,
Elizabeth Holden (U. of Wisconsin, Planeville), Michael Hones (Vi llanova U.), Keith Honey (West
Virginia Institute of Technology), Gregory Hood (Tidewater Comm. C.), John Hubisz (North
Carolina State U.), Eric Hudson (Pennsylvania State U.), M. Jona, Bob Jacobsen (UC, Berkeley),
John Jaszczak (Michigan Technical U.), Alvin Jenkins (North Carolina State U.), Charles Johnson
(South Georgia State C.), Robert P. Johnson (UC, Santa Cruz), Lorella Jones (U. of lllinois), Manoj
Kaplinghat (UC, Irvine), John Karchek (GMI Engineering & Management Institute), Thomas Keil
(Worcester Polytechnic Institute), Robert Kraemer (Carnegie Mellon U.), Jean P. Krisch (U. of
Michigan), Robert A. Kromhout, Andrew Kunz (Marquette U.), Charles Lane (Berry C.), Stewart
Langton (U. of Victoria), Thomas N. Lawrence (Texas State U.), Robert J. Lee, Alfred Leimer
(Rensselaer Polytechnic U.), Frederic Liebrand (Walla Walla U.), Gerald P. Lie12 (DePaul U.),
Gordon Lind (Utah State U.), S. Livingston (U. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee), Jorge Lopez (U. of
Texas, El Paso), Elihu Lubkin (U. of Wisconsin, Milwaukee), Robert Luke (Boise State U.), David
Lynch (Iowa State U.), Michael Lysak (San Bernardino Valley C.), Jeffrey Mallow (Loyola U.),
Robert Mania (Kentucky State U.), Robert Marchina (U. of Memphis), David Markowil2 (U. of
Connecticut), Philip Matheson (Utah Valley U.), R. J. Maurer, Oren Maxwell (Florida International
U.), Joseph L. McCauley (U. of Houston), T. K. McCubbin, Jr. (Pennsylvania State U.), Charles
McFarland (U. of Missouri at Rolla), James Mcguire (Tulane U.), Lawrence Mcintyre (U. of
Arizona), Fredric Messing (Carnegie Mellon U.), Thomas Meyer (Texas A&M U.), Andre Mirabelli
(St. Peter's C., New Jersey), Herbert Muether (SUNY, Stony Brook), Jack Munsee (California State
U., Long Beach), Lorenzo Narducci (Drexel U.), Van E. Neie (Purdue U.), Forrest Newman
(Sacramento City C.), David A. Nordling (U.S. Naval Academy), Benedict Oh (Pennsylvania State
U.), L. 0 . Olsen, Michael Oninger (Missouri Western State U.), Russell Palma (Minnesota State U.,
Mankato), Jim Pannell (DeVry Institute of Technology), Neeti Parashar (Purdue U., Calumet), W. F.
Parks (U. of Missouri), Robert Paulson (California State U., Chico), Jerry Peacher (U. of Missouri at
Rolla), Arnold Perlmuner (U. of Miami), Lennart Peten;on (U. of Florida), R. J. Peterson (U. of
 PREFACE xi

Colorado, Boulder), R. Pinkston, Ronald Poling (U. ofMinneso1a), Yuri Popov (U. of Michigan), J. G.
Potter, C. W. Price (Millersville U.), Francis Prosser (U. of Kansas), Shelden H. Radin, Robeno
Ramos (Drexel U.), Michael Rappon (Anne Arundel Comm. C.), R. Resnick, James A. Richards, Jr.,
John S. Risley (Nonh Carolina S!a!e U.), Francese Roig (UC, San!a Barbara), T. L. Rokoske,
Richard Roth (Eastern Michigan U.), Carl Roner (U. ofWes1 Virginia), S. Clark Rowland (Andrews
U.), Rajarshi Roy (Georgia Institute o f Technology), Russell A. Roy (Santa Fe Comm. C.), Desi
Saludes (Hillsborough Comm. C.), Thomas Sandin (Nonh Carolina A&T S1a1e U.), Dhiraj Sardar
(U. of Texas, San Antonio), Tumer Sayman (Ea~1ern Michigan U.), Bruce Schunun (UC, Santa
Cruz), Melvin Schwanz (St. John's U.), F. A. Scou, L. W. Seagondollar, Paul Shand (U. of Northern
Iowa), Stan Shepherd (Pennsylvania State U.), Douglas Sherman (San Jose Staie U.), Bruce
Sherwood (Carnegie Mellon U.), Hugh Siefkin (Greenville C.), Christopher Sirola (U. of Southern
Mississippi), Tomasz Skwarnicki (Syracuse U.), C. P. Slichter, Jason Slinker (U. of Texas, Dallas),
Charles W. Smith (U. of Maine, Orono), Malcolm Smith (U. of Lowell), Ross Spencer (Brigham
Young U.), Julien Sprott (U. of Wisconsin), Victor S1anionis (Jona C.), James Sti!h (American
Institute o f Physics), Chuck Stone (Nonh Carolina A&T State U.), Edward Strother (Florida
Institute o f Technology), Conley Stutz (Bradley U.), Albert Stwenka (U.S. Merchant Marine
Academy), Kenneth Szpara-DeNisco (Harrisburg Area Comm. C.), Devki Talwar ( Indiana U. o f
Pennsylvania), Fiorella Terenzi (Florida International U.), Manin liersten (CUNY, City C.), David
Toot (Alfred U.), Greg Trayling (Rochester Institute of Technology), Somdev Tyagi (Drexel U.),
Matthew Vanneue (Saginaw Valley Slate U.), Eswara Venugopal (U. of Detroit, Mercy),
F. Verbrugge, Helmut Vogel (Carnegie Mellon U.), Aaron Warren (Purdue U., North Central), Roben
Webb (Texas A&M U.), Thomas Weber (Iowa Slate U.), M. Russell Wehr (Pennsylvania Slate U.),
Robert Weidman (Michigan Technical U.), Dan Whalen (UC, San Diego), LesterV. Whitney,
Thomas Wiggins (Pennsylvania State U.), Roby n Wi lde (Oregon Institute o f Technology), David
Willey (U. of Piusburgh, Johnstown), George Williams (U. of Utah), John Williams (Auburn U.),
Stanley Williams (Iowa State U.), Jack Willis, Suzanne Willis (Nonhem Illinois U.), Roben Wilson
(San Bernardino Valley C.), L. Wolfenstein, James Wood (Palm Beach Junior C.), Lowell Wood (U.
of Houston), R. E. Worley, D. H. Ziebell (Manatee Comm. C.), George 0. Zimmerman (Boston U.)

In addition, I would like to !hank my past and present colleagues at UCSB, including Rob Geller,
Carl Gw inn, Al Nash, Elisabeth Nicol, and Francese Roig, for !heir wholehearted support and for many
helpful discussions. I owe a special debt of gratitude to my early teachers Willa Ramsay, Peter Zim-
mennan, William Little, Alan Schwettman, and Dirk Walecka for showing me what clear and engaging
physics teaching is all about, and to Stuart Johnson for inviting me to become a coauthor of University
Physics beginning wi!h the Ninth Edition. Special acknowledgments go out to Lewis Ford for !he
huge and essential 1ask of creating the revised end-of-chapter problem sets, and 10 Wayne Anderson,
who carefully reviewed all of !he new problems and solved !hem, and updated !he Instructor's Solu-
tions Manual. Thanks also go to Michael Faux, Elizabeth Holden, and Tom Sandin for their numerous
contributions to the end-of-chapter problems. I want 10 express special !hanks 10 !he editorial s1aff
at Pearson: to Jeanne Zalesl]' for her editorial vision; to Alice Houston for her keen eye and careful
development of !his edition; to Karen Karlin, Margot Otway, Joanna Dinsmore, and Jason Harlow for
!heir careful reading of !he page proofs; and 10 Martha Steele for keeping the editorial and production
pipelines flowing. Most of all, I want to express my gratitude and love 10 my wife, Caroline, to whom I
dedicate my contribution to !his book. Hey, Caroline, !he new edition's done at last- let's go flying!

PLEASE TELL ME WHAT YOU THINK!

I welcome communications from students and professors, especially concerning errors or
deficiencies that you find in this edition. The late Hugh Young and I have devoted a lot of
time and effort to writing the best book we know how to write, and I hope it will help as
you teach and learn physics. In tum, you can help me by lelling me know what still needs
to be improved! Please feel free to contact me either electronically or by ordinary mail.
Your comments will be greatly appreciated.
August 2018
Roger A. Freedman
Department of Physics
University of California, Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, CA 93106-9530
airboy@physics.ucsb.edu
hllp://www.physics.ucsb.edu/-airboy/
Twiller: @RogerFreedman
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 BUSINESS ORGANISATION.
Shortly after the outbreak of war, the Canadian Government made
a donation to the Mother Country of a large quantity of flour, and in
the beginning of 1915 the Baking Society purchased 10,000 sacks of
this flour. The committee decided that when the bags were emptied
they should be sold as souvenirs, and from their sale the sum of £87
was realised, which was distributed amongst local war charities. In
March of this year, the board had a very satisfactory conference with
the board of Kinning Park Society and the dairy employees of that
society. The subject of the conference was a project of Kinning Park
board that the dairy shops of that society should be fitted up for the
sale of teabread and pastries. Later, the board of the Baking Society
discussed the question of opening shops throughout the city for the
sale of smallbread and pastries, but owing to the difficulties imposed
by war conditions, the subject was dropped for the time being.
Immediately the Armistice was signed, however, the subject was
again taken up by the board, with the result that, at the 200th
quarterly meeting, proposals were submitted in which were
embodied a suggestion that the Society should open a development
account and offer to those societies operating in the Glasgow and
Suburban area, which were willing to co-operate with the Federation,
a proportion of the cost of fitting up shops for the sale of teabread
and pastry. In this offer it was provided that the shop, locality, and
scheme of fitting should be approved by the directors of the
Federation; that only U.C.B.S. goods and confections of Co-operative
manufacture should be sold for a period, the period suggested being
ten years. If these provisions were agreed to the Baking Society
would be responsible for one third of the cost of fitting up the shop,
provided that one third did not exceed £150. The scheme received
the hearty commendation of the delegates at the meeting at which it
was submitted, the only objection taken being to the fact that for the
time being it was confined to the Glasgow area.
 THE PRICE OF BREAD.
Reference is made above to the part which was played by the
Federation in keeping down the price of bread. In November 1914
the price of the 4–lb. loaf was increased by a halfpenny; in January
1915 another halfpenny advance took place; and in March of that
year another halfpenny; while by the month of May the price had
risen to 8d. per 4–lb. loaf. In February 1916 another halfpenny was
imposed, and in May of that year yet another halfpenny; while before
control came into operation the price in Glasgow and Clydebank had
risen to 11½d. and in Belfast to 1/ for the 4–lb. loaf. A rather
remarkable note in one of the board minutes for 1916 is that which
states that a letter had been received from a co-operative society,
protesting against the action of the Federation in refusing to consent
to an increase in the price of bread. The secretary of the Federation
mercifully kept the name of the society out of the minute of the
meeting.
Prior to the beginning of 1915, the catering for the meals of the
employees had been done by a committee of themselves, but in
March of that year they approached the board with the request that
the Society should take over and carry on this work. During these
years the output of the Society was increasing gradually but surely.
For the year which ended in January 1915, the output was 230,780
sacks, an average of 4,440 sacks per week for the year, and an
increase of 440 per week in three years. On the 3rd of April, it was
reported that during the preceding week 5,351 sacks had been baked.
This constituted a record week’s baking for the Society, but for some
time afterwards, until the coming of Government Regulation flour,
record after record was made only to be broken. By the month of
September 1916, the turnover had risen to 5,410 sacks per week, or
almost a thousand sacks of a weekly increase in eighteen months. In
the end of that month, the output was 5,925 sacks, and by the end of
February 1917 the record figures of 6,012 sacks were reached. In
these increases all three bakeries participated, and the rapid increase
for 1916 and the early months of 1917 is all the more remarkable in
view of the fact that the amount of baking which was done for the
military was not nearly so great as it had been in the earlier months
of the war. On the last Saturday in 1916, 21,546 dozens of bread were
baked and seventy bridecakes made. There had evidently been an
epidemic of war marriages at this Hogmanay.
 BISCUIT AND TEABREAD TRADE.
In the biscuit trade as well as in the bread trade, the directors
carried out as far as possible their policy of keeping prices as low as
was consistent with securing the Federation against loss, but the
rapidity with which the various ingredients for these luxuries of the
baking trade increased in price caused the prices to the societies to
be raised shortly after the outbreak of war. In March 1915, it was
decided to reduce the discount allowed on teabread by two and a half
per cent., in order to compensate in some measure for the increases
in the cost of materials. Toward the end of 1915 the Society found
that their stocks of biscuits were falling very low, owing to the
shortage of labour, as about 30,000 tins of biscuits were being sent
out every week. Systematic overtime was worked in the biscuit
factory with the object of overcoming the shortage. The Society were
also faced with a serious shortage of biscuit tins, due to the fact that
societies were not returning the empty tins promptly, while the
manufacturers were not able to supply the demand for new tins. To
meet this difficulty the directors authorised the purchase of a
machine for the manufacture of the tins. By the beginning of 1916 the
shortage of materials necessary for the manufacture of pastries, and
especially of sugar, was becoming very marked, and in March of that
year it was decided to stop the manufacture of a number of the
varieties of which sugar was a considerable ingredient. In May, it was
found necessary to advance the price of biscuits by, on the average,
nine shillings per cwt., yet, notwithstanding the high price, the
Society were having difficulty in fulfilling their orders. Earlier in the
year it had been decided to look out for suitable ground for an
extension of the biscuit factory, and at the quarterly meeting held in
September power was granted the directors to spend up to £9,500 in
purchasing land for this purpose. By October, the price of biscuits
was advanced other eight shillings per cwt., but as this was four
shillings per cwt. below the price which other merchants were
charging the societies were getting a very good bargain. In
November, it was decided to cease the manufacture of all French,
iced, and sugar-coated pastries, owing to the increasing shortage of
sugar.
 THE SOCIETY AND ITS WORKERS.
At the outbreak of war many employees joined the Army or Navy,
and to these the Society decided to pay half-wages. As the months
passed, more and more of the younger men joined up, first under the
Derby Scheme and later under the Conscription Act, so that the
carrying out of the policy of paying half-wages meant the disbursing
of a considerable sum every half-year, and by the end of 1916 the sum
of £10,628 had been so expended; £7,892 being paid to dependants
and £2,736 retained in the hands of the Society at the credit of
employees serving with the Colours. At this time, 304 of the Society’s
employees had joined the Services, and eighteen had made the great
sacrifice.
This drain on the male workers of the Society brought troubles of
its own in its train. We have already seen that considerable difficulty
was being experienced in meeting the demand of customer societies
for biscuits, while the difficulty in meeting the demand for bread was
equally great. Toward the end of 1915, the Operative Bakers’ Union
consented to allow their members to begin work one hour earlier on
Saturday mornings, while a number of men who had been formerly
employed as “jobbers” were given full-time employment. In the
beginning of the following year an attempt was made to induce the
Bakers’ Union to permit the employment of women in the bakery,
but this permission they refused, although they admitted that
“dilution” was in operation in similar establishments. In July of 1916
an agreement with regard to dilution was reached, whereby it was
decided that, after all reasonable efforts had been made to obtain
male labour, females should be appointed in the same proportion as
apprentices; that two girls could be appointed for every man who
left, and that the arrangement was to continue for the duration of the
war or of conditions created by the war.
In that year some difficulty was experienced in getting the bakers
to come to terms with the employers in the Glasgow district on the
question of wages, but the dispute was finally adjusted after notices
to cease work had been handed in. The terms finally agreed on were
substantially those which had been offered by the Federation, and
gave the bakers an increase in wages of four shillings per week. The
bakers did not take kindly to the proposal to introduce female labour
into the bakehouse, and when the directors proposed to take that
step protested strongly, notwithstanding the agreement which had
been arrived at on the subject, and although they were working very
many hours of overtime each week. The directors therefore decided
that the question of the employment of female labour should be
referred to the War Emergency Committee, and that committee gave
their award in favour of the introduction of female labour into the
pastry and smallbread flats, but would not allow them to take part in
the baking of loaf bread.
 DELIVERY DIFFICULTIES.
We have already seen that the needs of the war transcended all
other considerations in the opinion of the War Office officials, who
commandeered many horses and vans from the Society at the
outbreak of war and later. The difficulties of delivery thus created the
directors endeavoured to overcome by the use of motors for delivery.
But even machinery will not go on for ever without requiring repairs,
and as breakdowns became more frequent increasing difficulty was
being found in having the necessary repairs done, because of
shortage of labour of the necessary skill, and because also of the
shortage of the necessary material. Another delivery difficulty had a
different cause. The shortage of labour was general, and the retail
stores were as greatly handicapped as were other businesses. In 1916,
with the view of overcoming this handicap to some extent and at the
same time ensuring as far as possible that the shops should not be
open in the absence of skilled supervision, the societies adopted the
policy of closing their shops during the lunch hour. To some extent
this policy attained the object which the societies had in view, but as
soon as it was put into operation the Baking Society found their
delivery difficulties increased, for their vans had to stand idle while
the shops were closed. Representations on the subject were made to
the various societies, which gave very favourable consideration in
most cases, and the practice grew up of leaving one employee in each
shop to take delivery of goods which arrived during the lunch hour.
Early in 1916 the societies gave tangible form to their recognition
of the strenuous work which was being imposed on the directors by
circumstances brought about by the war; this tangible recognition
taking the form of an all-round increase in salaries and allowances
for committee work.
Yet strenuous as had been their work during those first two years
of the war, and great as had been their difficulties, the two years on
which they were about to enter were to provide even more strenuous
work and to produce difficulties which were so great as to prove
almost insurmountable. They were to provide conditions of bread
baking which were to change loaf bread from being one of the most
palatable forms of food into for the time being one of the most
detestable and detested.
 While the Congress was meeting at Leicester in 1915, the news
arrived that Mr Duncan M‘Culloch, who had done so much to build
up the Baking Society, had passed away, and fitting reference was
made to his decease at the quarterly meeting in June, and also at the
annual meeting with the representatives of the Irish societies in July.
His death removed a man to whom the shareholders of the Baking
Society, and particularly the shareholders in Ireland, owed much,
and many were the expressions of regret when the news became
generally known.
 CHAPTER XIX.
BREAD BAKING UNDER CONTROL.

FAMINE POSSIBILITIES—CHANGES IN QUALITY OF FLOUR—

FOOD CONTROL DEPARTMENT ESTABLISHED—BAKERS’
DIFFICULTIES—THE POSITION OF THE U.C.B.S.—A BIG
LAND PURCHASE—ILLNESS OF THE PRESIDENT—A
NATURAL WORKING DAY BY ORDER—ITS DIFFICULTIES
—ENTERTAINMENTS TO SOLDIERS—BRANCH BAKERIES
—IRELAND—LEADHILLS—ROTHESAY—BUTE CO-
OPERATIVE SOCIETY FORMED—SUBSIDISED BREAD—AN
INDUSTRIAL COUNCIL—DELIVERY DIFFICULTIES—
EMPLOYEES ON MILITARY SERVICE—THE END OF THE
TASK.

The first two years of the war had brought difficulties in their train
which the bakers of the country found considerable difficulty in
overcoming; but the conditions under which they were called on to
produce bread in the following two years were such as had not been
experienced for at least a hundred years, and there came a time when
the country was faced with the possibility of having to do without
bread altogether for a period. Fortunately this possibility did not
become reality, but it was the cause of material changes in the quality
of the flour used for breadmaking and of the conditions under which
the bread was made and sold which would have seemed impossible
before the war began. By the early winter of 1916 the possibility of a
condition of things obtaining which would prevent the importation
of foodstuffs, and particularly of wheat, in sufficient quantities to
provide full supplies for the population of the British Isles began to
force itself on the Government, so they appointed a gentleman to the
position of Food Controller and conferred on him almost despotic
powers. One result of this control of food was a drastic interference
with the milling of flour. In Scotland the millers produced flour in
ordinary times which contained a little more than 70 per cent. of the
wheat; the first fruits of the new order of things was a regulation that
the extraction from the wheat should be increased, by about 8 per
cent.
There can be no doubt that under the circumstances this
regulation was necessary. There was a time in the history of these
islands when practically all the food consumed by the people was
grown in the country; but during the lifetime of the last generation
this position had gradually altered until Britain was dependent on
wheat imported from abroad for four-fifths of the bread supply of her
people. There had always been pessimists who foresaw, as a result of
a war with a maritime power, a danger of interruption to the steady
supply of seaborne food which was necessary if the people were to be
saved from starvation, and who uttered warnings which passed more
or less unheeded; but the time had arrived when these warnings
seemed likely to become justified. Towards the end of 1916 it was
becoming apparent that there was likely to be a world shortage of
foodstuffs, and particularly of wheat, and doubts were being
expressed in well-informed circles as to whether there would be
supplies sufficient to enable the people to carry on until the 1917 crop
was ready. While this world shortage was due in a measure to the
war, because of the number of men who usually devoted themselves
to agricultural pursuits who were then engaged in war work of one
form or another or serving with the Forces, it was also due in large
measure to a world shortage for which Nature, through the medium
of a bad summer and a wet autumn, was responsible.
The result was that in this country the regulations affecting flour
extraction became more and more rigorous, until not only were
millers extracting a proportion approaching 25 per cent. additional
from the wheat, rejecting practically nothing but the outer husk, but
many other varieties of cereal, even including a considerable
proportion of maize, were pressed into service and mixed with the
flour from which bread had to be baked. In some cases potato flour
was also used for this purpose. Fortunately, the famine which had
threatened in the summer of 1917 was staved off, but the inveterate
submarine campaign waged by the Germans during the whole of that
year was responsible for the destruction of many food-carrying ships
and of many thousands of tons of wheat and flour which were being
conveyed to this country from America as well as of many other
varieties of food.
 BAKERS’ DIFFICULTIES.
All this was the cause of much worry to bakers. They had been
accustomed to the manufacture of bread from flour the quality of
which was well known and regulated with almost scientific accuracy,
but under the new order of things they found the knowledge which
they had acquired laboriously over a long period of years almost
useless to them. So long as they were dealing with wheat flour, even
if that flour did contain a large proportion of offal which had
formerly been used to feed cattle, the position was not quite so bad,
for most of them had been in the habit of baking a greater or lesser
proportion of what was termed “wheaten” and “wholemeal” bread.
But when flour produced from rye, barley, and even maize had to be
added their troubles began, for only by chemical analysis was it
possible for them to determine the proportions in which the various
cereals were used, and these proportions were varied arbitrarily week
by week at the whim of the Wheat Commission authorities; while the
millers were absolutely prohibited from giving any information on
the subject. Thus, when after a series of experiments they had
ascertained the method by which they could produce the best loaf
from a given flour, they suddenly discovered that the mixture had
been altered, and that their experiments had to begin all over again;
and this continued to be the position for some time even after the
end of the war.
 THE POSITION OF THE U.C.B.S.
While the position of the average private baker was that which has
been described above, the baking departments of Co-operative
societies found themselves in a very much worse position in direct
ratio as they had been loyal hitherto in the use of Co-operatively
milled flour. The flour mills of Scotland did not produce more than
one half of the flour which was used in the country, with the result
that the remainder had to be imported; but the Scottish Co-operative
Wholesale Society imported wheat and themselves milled practically
all the flour sold by them. The consequence was that as the quality of
“Government Regulation” flour deteriorated, the flour which was
supplied by the Wholesale Society’s mills, in common with that
supplied by the other millers, was of such a nature that bread baked
with it was inferior in quality and unpalatable. As, however, bakers
were compelled to take flour from the source from which they
procured it at the time when the Food Control regulations came into
force, those who had formerly used a considerable proportion of
imported flour were allowed to mix a good percentage of the flour
which was still being imported with the “Regulation” flour, and were
thus enabled to produce a comparatively white and palatable loaf;
while the Wholesale Society, which had not been in the habit of
importing much flour, were now allowed by those responsible for the
bread regulations to import only a very small proportion, and their
customers suffered accordingly. It was only after repeated
representations had been made to the Government and the Wheat
Commission that, ultimately, the proportion of imported flour which
Co-operative bakers generally were allowed to use was raised
considerably.
From this cause the Baking Society was as great a sufferer as were
the others. The bread became more and more unpalatable as the
admixture of foreign cereals in the flour used increased, and
complaints about the quality of the bread began to come in with
irritating frequency. The receipt of these complaints, justifiable as
they were, must have been all the more irritating to the committee
from the fact that they found themselves the victims of
circumstances over which they had not the slightest control. They
knew that the bread which they were producing was unpalatable, and
the fact that the Germans had to eat bread which was very much
inferior was but poor consolation in view of the fact that many of
their trade rivals were able to produce better bread because of the
larger proportion of white flour which they were allowed to use.
There ensued, as a consequence, a very considerable decline in the
bread sales of the Society. The customer societies would have taken
the bread, but their members could not and would not eat it. From
much the same causes the trade in biscuits and in teabread declined
also. The use of sugar in biscuits or in teabread was prohibited, as
was the manufacture of pastries. The result was that while the output
for the quarter which ended in October 1916 was 68,533 sacks, that
for the quarter which ended in October 1917 was 67,132 sacks, and
that for the corresponding quarter of 1918 was 62,867. And if the
details for loaf bread in M‘Neil Street alone are taken, the contrast is
still more striking. The output for 1918 had fallen below that of 1915
by over 400 sacks, and below that of the quarter which ended in
April 1917 by over 12,000 sacks.
 A BIG LAND PURCHASE.
By the end of 1916 M‘Neil Street bakery, and particularly the
biscuit factory, was again becoming congested, and power was
obtained from the quarterly meeting to spend up to £9,750 on the
purchase of more ground. At the time this power was obtained, the
committee had under consideration the fact that the ground on the
east side of M‘Neil Street, extending from the Clydeside to Govan
Street, was in the market, and ultimately the purchase of this ground
was completed at a cost of £9,750. The ground contained an area of
6,590 yards. Much of it was occupied by buildings of a temporary
character; the only buildings of a permanent nature on the site being
two tenements at the southern end. This site has not yet been utilised
by the Society, but it forms an admirable property which is available
for any extensions which may require to be undertaken in the future.
Meantime it is let at a rental which gives a net return of 3⅓ per cent.
on the capital cost of the site.
 ILLNESS OF PRESIDENT.
In November of 1916 Mr Gerrard was laid aside for a number of
weeks by a severe illness, from which, fortunately, he recovered after
a time. With the exception of one short interval, he was able to carry
out his duties until the beginning of November 1918, when he was
again laid aside with an illness so severe in its nature that ultimately
he was informed by his medical adviser that he would have to give up
all thought of public work for the future. The last regular meeting of
the committee at which he was able to be in attendance was that held
on 10th October 1918.
 A NATURAL WORKING DAY—BY ORDER.
Several years before the outbreak of war the directors of the
Baking Society made a determined effort to institute a natural
working day for bakers, but were unsuccessful, as a natural working
day meant the use of bread which was cold before it reached the
shops, and this the members of the stores refused to accept. In
March of 1917, however, the Government, impelled by the exigencies
of war, were able to do, practically with the stroke of a pen, what the
unaided efforts of the Baking Society had failed to do. This Order of
the Food Controller decreed that bread must be at least twelve hours
old before it was sold in the shops. It is quite likely that those who
devised the Order did not know and did not desire to know how their
proposals were going to affect those engaged in the trade. The bakers
were faced with the necessity of rearranging their methods at a
moment’s notice. They had to rearrange the working day, and also to
find storage accommodation overnight for their total day’s output,
and on Friday nights for almost double that quantity. One good
result of the Order was, as has already been mentioned, that the
working bakers at last obtained a natural working day, for their
hours of work were fixed to begin at 8 a.m. and to end at 4.30 p.m.
The storage difficulty was one which was more difficult to
overcome. At M‘Neil Street storage accommodation had to be found
for 84,000 2–lb. loaves on ordinary weekdays and for 156,000 on
Fridays. This meant the fitting up of every available space with racks
and trays in which to place the bread, and a very serious addition to
the amount of labour necessary. On the other hand it meant that
there would be a considerable saving on delivery charges, as societies
were able to take in larger quantities in the mornings, and so
minimise the duplication of deliveries. The difficulties were all
overcome, and, in a very short time, the delivery side of the business
was working as smoothly as the attenuated state of the delivery staff
could be expected to permit.
 ENTERTAINING SOLDIERS.
During the years of war a feature of the philanthropic work of the
Society was the entertaining of large parties of convalescent soldiers
from the Glasgow military hospitals. The Society began this good
work in August 1916, when a party of convalescent soldiers from
Stobhill Hospital, numbering 200, were conveyed to Calderwood
Castle in brakes, and entertained there. The party were accompanied
by the Society’s Silver Band, and an enjoyable afternoon was passed.
Then, early in 1917, another party of wounded were taken to a
matinee at a theatre in the afternoon, and were afterwards conveyed
in brakes to the Society’s premises, where they had tea, and a
splendid concert was provided. Several of these theatre
entertainments were given, and were much appreciated by the
recipients of the Society’s kindness.
In another way the Society also showed kindness to men who had
been fighting their country’s battles. An “Overseas Club” for
members of the Colonial Forces had been established in Glasgow,
and during 1918 and 1919 a party of visitors from this club were
taken over the bakery every Thursday, being afterwards entertained
to tea, when the work which was being done by the Federation and
the principles on which it was managed were explained to the
visitors. Early in 1919, a letter was received from the Scottish
Sectional Board of the Co-operative Union, commending the
propaganda work which was being done in this way by the U.C.B.S.
directors, and offering a number of copies of “Working Men Co-
operators” for distribution. The Baking Society directors were much
gratified by this commendation and gladly accepted the gift of books,
which were afterwards distributed to the Colonial visitors.
 BRANCH BAKERIES.
Various difficulties attach to a gigantic bread bakery which are not
apparent in the working of any other commercial concern of similar
size, and chief amongst these is that of rapid and cheap delivery. The
perishable nature of bread and the ease with which it is injured by
crushing make carriage by railway impracticable, while combined
with these difficulties is the fact that the majority of bread customers
desire to have it as soon after it is baked as possible. All these
disadvantages combine to limit the distance within which a bakery
can operate successfully to a radius of about twelve miles, and even
on the outer edges of that radius it is doubtful if the cost of delivery
does not counterbalance the saving caused by larger production. Yet
the advantages of having bread baked by a large Co-operative
organisation, instead of by many small ones, are obvious. In the first
place, the large buyer has the advantage of buying all the raw
materials used at rock-bottom prices: he has the advantage also of a
wider knowledge of the fluctuations of a market notorious for
rapidity of rise and fall, and this expert knowledge enables him in
normal times so to average the cost of flour used that it is always at
the lowest average possible.
It can be easily understood, therefore, that Co-operators,
struggling with adversity and yet desirous of providing Co-
operatively-baked bread for their members, should turn to the
U.C.B.S. for help.
In this way there had come to the directors within recent years
numerous calls for help. Unfortunately, the majority of these arrived
at a time when it was impossible to give the help desired. The first of
these calls came from Ireland. In and around Dublin there were
several small societies, having a combined membership of
somewhere over two thousand. The Dublin Industrial Society, after
unsuccessfully endeavouring a few years earlier to get the Baking
Society to help in the financing of a bakery in Dublin, had gone
ahead with the erection of a bakery for themselves, but it had never
been very successful. The Society itself was not too successful for a