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Somero
Lockwood
Tomanek
Response to Environmental
Challenges from Life’s Origins
to the Anthropocene
I S B N 978-1-60535-564-1
9 781605 355641
George N. Somero
sinauer.com SINAUER Brent L. Lockwood • Lars Tomanek
Contents
3 Temperature 139
5.6 How “Close to the Edge” of Their Thermal Tolerance Limits Do Species
Live? 463
Congeners of turban snails (genus Chlorostoma) 465
Congeners of porcelain crabs (genus Petrolisthes) 467
Intraspecific (interpopulation) variation in green crabs 469
5.7 Genetic Resources: A Key to Surviving Global Change 472
Local adaptation: Can intraspecific variation “rescue” threatened species? 473
Standing genetic variation is a resource for adaption 483
Adaptation by symbiont shuffling: Having the right partners for the challenges at
hand 487
DNA decay in highly stable environments: Antarctic notothenioid fishes 489
Horizontal gene transfer: The most efficient and quickest way to adapt? 492
5.8 Unique Challenges of Global Change to Endothermic Homeotherms,
Including Humans 495
Limits to evaporative cooling: The importance of wet bulb temperature 495
The need for a long-term perspective 496
Wet bulb temperatures and human thermal limits: A status report 496
Global change and human biogeography: Predictions for a hot and humid future 497
Is the future close upon us? 498
The Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum: Another “distant mirror” 500
5.9 Where Do We Go from Here? 501
Literature Cited 503
Illustration Credits 535
Index 537
Preface
“Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?”
T. S. Elliot (1888-1965)
As we prepared to develop this volume, we discussed our intended project with a number
of colleagues who work in the broad area of biochemical adaptation. The responses we
received were at once highly encouraging, yet in one context also a bit discouraging.
Although all felt that it would be a worthwhile project, they wondered how it would be
possible to distill from the huge literature now available a clear “view of the forest,” a
perspective on the fundamental principles that characterize the types of adaptations
organisms make at the biochemical level. One colleague presented us with an explicit
and quantitative estimate of this challenge: Currently, there are close to 4,000 papers
published per day in the biological sciences, broadly defined to include both medical
and nonmedical research. The number of new journals increases daily, it seems, so track-
ing this literature becomes more challenging by the hour. As a point of reference, since
Strategies of Biochemical Adaptation1 was published in 1973, the number of publica-
tions per day in biology has risen by over an order of magnitude. Much of this material
is “chaff” that can be neglected—but how does one find the “wheat” in all of these
studies? And is it possible to glean overarching concepts from this vast wealth of infor-
mation? In view of the information overload we all face, we think our readers will share
the feeling expressed by T. S. Elliot back in 1934, to the effect that knowledge—here, an
appreciation of key principles—can be obscured by an over-abundance of information.
To address this challenge, we have tried to review an adequate fraction of the rel-
evant literature in order to provide an up-to-date perspective on some of the principal
strategies of biochemical adaptation found in the three domains of life, the Archaea,
Bacteria, and Eukarya. We have sought to identify strategies common to all domains of
life as well as unique adaptations that are found in only certain taxa. It would clearly be
impossible, at least in a book of this length, to cover a substantial fraction of the studies
that have a relevant message to deliver. We hope that our choices of stories to tell strike
the reader as appropriate for the task at hand. We especially hope that the new informa-
tion given about archaea and bacteria will provide new insights for our colleagues who
work on multicellular eukaryotes, which much of our past writing has focused on. In this
go-round, we’ve tried to be much more ecumenical, in an effort to present generaliza-
tions that span all types of life.
1
Strategies of Biochemical Adaptation (1973). P. W. Hochachka and G. N. Somero. Saunders, Philadelphia.
xviii Preface
Acknowledgments
The authors are extremely grateful for the marvelous collaboration we have enjoyed with
the folks at Sinauer Associates: Andy Sinauer, Laura Green, Liz Pierson, David McIntyre,
Chris Small, Ann Chiara, Jan Troutt, and the entire production staff. Laura Green’s editorial
contributions were so important to the evolution of the book that we even feel she rightly
merits being considered as a co-author! Evolution of the chapters was also facilitated
by the help of the several reviewers who provided us with very important critical input,
including Brad Buckley, Ronald Burton, Wes Dowd, John Duman, Peter Fields, Steve Hand,
Kristy Kroeker, Dietmar Kültz, Jason Podrabsky, Raul Suarez, Pat Walsh, and Paul Yancey.
Their broad knowledge of the topics we covered and their sense of how to organize and
present this knowledge were of major help in refining the five chapters of this volume.
George wishes to acknowledge the intellectual companionship he has enjoyed over
the years, especially that provided by Peter Hochachka, the mentor and friend to whom
this volume is dedicated. George wishes to give special thanks to the graduate students,
postdoctoral scholars, and sabbatical visitors who have populated his laboratory over
the past half-century. He hopes that, when their material is presented in the different
chapters, we have done justice to their intellectual efforts. He thanks Brent and Lars
for joining this project. Lars brought to the effort his deep knowledge of metabolism
and Brent brought his wide expertise in molecular biology, evolution, and genetics.
He thanks Jim Childress for getting him into the study of deep-living species and Art
DeVries for honing his skills in ice fishing and introducing him to the notothenioids, a
group of fishes he’s studied since 1963. During George’s years at the Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, he cherished the companionship and intellectual exchanges with Vic
Vacquier, Paul Dayton, Farooq Azam, and Nick and Linda Holland. The late Dick Rosen-
blatt at Scripps played a major role in George’s career by pointing him in the direction of
the longjaw mudsucker, which become another favorite study species. At Oregon State
University, George’s frequent exchanges with Bruce Menge and Jane Lubchenco helped
him put biochemistry into the context of the challenges that face intertidal organisms.
George’s Stanford colleagues Mark Denny, Jim Watanabe, and David Epel also merit
special thanks for their friendship and intellectual stimulation over many decades. Most
recently, George’s close interactions with colleagues in China—Yunwei Dong, Xianliang
Meng, and Cuiluan Yao—have opened up an exciting new chapter in his career. George’s
gratitude to Amy Anderson for coping with his obsessive preoccupation with the word
processor during the writing of this book (and, for that matter, during most of our long
and happy marriage) is deeper than can be put into words. Lastly, the roles of Gabe,
Sophie, Logan, Lily, and Luka, canine officemates who’ve kept George’s spirits high over
the years must be recognized; one writes better with a smile on one’s face.
Brent would like to acknowledge George Somero, Kristi Montooth, Colin Meiklejohn,
Russ Lande, Stephen Palumbi, Dmitri Petrov, Thom Kaufman, Brian Calvi, Peter Fields,
Lars Tomanek, and Ward Watt for their invaluable mentorship. He also thanks Jon Sanders
for his grace and friendship inside and outside the lab, and Brandon Cooper and Luke
Hoekstra for lively discussions of evolutionary genetics and thermal physiology. Brent
would like to thank Aurelia Lockwood and Charlie Lockwood for providing balance and
wonder in life. Lastly, Brent would like to thank his closest colleague and friend, Melissa
Pespeni, who continues to inspire him as a scientist, mother, and wife.
Lars would like to thank his academic mentors George Somero and Dietmar Kültz
for their invaluable guidance and the intellectual challenges they have provided. Lars
would also like to express his appreciation for his colleagues and collaborators over the
xx Preface
years, including Nikki Adams, Nann Fangue, Peter Fields, Kristin Hardy, Nishad Jayas-
undara, Sean Lema, Brent Lockwood, Frank Melzner, Don Mykles, Hans-Otto Pörtner,
Jonathon Stillman, Inna Sokolova, and Anne Todgham, who have contributed greatly
to his research efforts, some of which found their way into this book. He would also like
to express his gratitude for the tremendous energy that his many students at Cal Poly
San Luis Obispo have contributed to his research over the last ten years, who patiently
waited for his attention while he juggled his many projects. All of Lars’ research has
required expensive instrumentation, which was acquired with the support of Deans Phil
Bailey and Dean Wendt, whom he would like to acknowledge for seeding his research
program. Lars would also like to thank the National Science Foundation for their sup-
port and the many reviewers who have evaluated so many of his proposals. Lars wants
to give a special thanks to Christina Vasquez, who stepped in to deftly manage several
research projects and his bustling lab while he was busy writing this book. Finally, he is
grateful for the patience and understanding of his best friend Ruth Rominger, without
whom he would have been unable to sustain this effort.
Lastly, the authors wish to compliment and thank Lissa Hershschleb for her cover art-
work. Her wonderful composite critter is intended to emphasize the theme of “unity in
diversity” that plays a major role in structuring the analyses found in this volume.
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please visit www.sinauer.com/ebooks.
1
Chapter
A Conceptual Foundation
for Understanding
Biochemical Adaptation
“The ideal scientist thinks like a poet and only later works like a bookkeeper.”
E. O. Wilson
In this opening chapter we sketch out the central themes that will serve to focus and
structure the analyses of biochemical adaptation presented in this volume. These themes
are applicable to all of the individual abiotic (chemical and physical) environmental factors
we focus on in the specialized chapters that follow, whether the environmental issue in
question is oxygen availability, temperature, or water and osmotic relationships. These
same themes will prove helpful when, in the final chapter, we build on the foundation
established by Chapters 2, 3, and 4, to examine the complex issues the biosphere faces
in confronting the multifaceted challenges presented by anthropogenic global change.
Thus, it is our goal to, first, examine in fine detail how different abiotic factors affect the
structures and functions of different types of biochemical systems. Then, our analysis
moves from this mechanistic or reductionist mode of investigation to an integrative
analysis that addresses questions at higher levels of biological organization. By attaining
a deep understanding of how abiotic factors influence biochemical systems, we will be
in an advantageous position to analyze effects of the environment on such large-scale
phenomena as biogeographic patterning and ecosystem structure. This multilevel analysis
will also allow us to peer into the future and predict how anthropogenically driven global
change is likely to alter the biosphere. Our analytical approach, then, is somewhat like us-
ing a camera with a zoom lens. We initially use this tool to focus deeply—submicroscopi-
cally—into the structures and functions of the fundamental biochemical systems common
to all of life. And after completing this mechanistic analysis, we will “zoom out” and see
how these biochemical responses to environmental change contribute to determining
the properties of biological systems at the highest scales of complexity.
2 Chapter 1 ■ A Conceptual Foundation for Understanding Biochemical Adaptation
Table 1.1
Environmental ranges of abiotic conditions encountered by contemporary organisms
Examples of extremes of absolute values (lowest and highest) and breadth of ranges of values are
shown. Examples of organisms living in these habitats are given. Many of these organisms will be
discussed in specific contexts at relevant places in this volume.
Ranges Ranges
Ranges Ranges
–1
Narrowest: ~0 mosmol l Narrowest: ~0 mmol l–1
Stenohaline marine species Many terrestrial species and pelagic marine species
–1
Widest: 0–3500 mosmol l Widest (seasonal/daily): 0–24 mmol l–1
Archaea and bacteria in shallow salt-flat ponds Organisms inhabiting aquatic environments with high
biological activity (respiration and photosynthesis) such
as swamps, mudflats, tidepools, and surfaces of coral
reefs
treatments given to the specific topics treated in the subsequent four, more specialized
chapters. Each chapter is, indeed, a large ledger of information, whose comprehension
will be facilitated by keeping the appropriate thematic perspective in place.
4 Chapter 1 ■ A Conceptual Foundation for Understanding Biochemical Adaptation
5.—VÆ VICTIS!
A eloquencia do nobre Passos conseguira que se revogasse o
decreto iniquo das indemnisações:
Tendes vós calculado d’onde hão do saír os meios para
provêr á miseria de tantas familias que nós vamos fazer
desgraçadas? Ou havemos de tapar os ouvidos e fechar os
olhos ao coração, para não vermos espectaculo tão
lastimoso? Quando um filho vos pedir pão, dar-lhe-heis uma
pedra, ou um punhal ou o cadafalso? (Disc. de 28 de janeiro
de 35)
A camara, como é sabido, aboliu o decreto, mas os miguelistas
ainda pagaram muitas «perdas e damnos»; pouparam-nos ao
cadafalso, mas deram-lhes pedras, punhaes e tiros de trabuco em
desforra. A segurança de uma victoria tão custosa, tão disputada,
sobretudo incerta por tanto tempo, embriagava homens que ouviam
aos mestres doutrinas feitas a proposito para os desenfrear.
Soltaram-se com effeito todas as cubiças e odios; pagaram-se a tiro
todas as offensas; roubou-se e matou-se impunemente. O
miguelista era uma victima, um inimigo derrubado: o vencedor
punha-lhe o joelho no ventre e o punhal sobre a garganta.
Caçavam-se como se caçam os lobos, e cada offensa anterior, cada
crime, era punido com uma morte sem processo. Os vencedores,
suppondo-se arbitros de uma soberania absoluta, retribuiam a cento
por um o que antes haviam recebido.
Não era só, comtudo, a vingança que os movia, nem tambem a
cubiça: era um grande medo de que o monstro vencido erguesse a
cabeça, á maneira do que ás vezes faz o touro no circo, prostrado
pelo bote do matador, levantando-se e investindo, matando ás
vezes, já nas ancias da morte. Além do medo, havia ainda a
fraqueza da authoridade liberal, fraqueza inevitavel em que prégava
ao povo a sua soberania, fraqueza natural no dia seguinte ao da
victoria; mas fraqueza infame, pois d’ella viviam os chefes,
passando culpas aos seus clientes, fechando os olhos aos roubos e
mortes: quando positivamente os não ordenavam para se livrarem
de rivaes incommodos ou de inimigos perigosos. Tal é a ultima face
da anarchia positiva; assim termina a serie de manifestações de
uma doutrina aggravada pelas condições de um momento.
Destruira-se na imaginação do povo o respeito da authoridade,
condemnando-se-lhe o principio com argumentos de philosopho;
destruira-se todo o organismo social; e em lugar d’elle via-se,
portanto, a formação espontanea das clientelas, chocando-se,
disputando-se, consummando a ruina total, explorando em proveito
proprio a confusão dos elementos sociaes desaggregados.
Toda esta dança macabra de partidos e pessoas corria sobre uma
nação faminta, apesar das libras que rodavam em Lisboa, e dos
tivolis e dos bailes das Laranjeiras. Força fôra accudir com socorros
aos lavradores. (Lei de 4 de outubro de 34) Uns queriam que o
governo comprasse gados e sementes e os distribuisse; mas a
doutrina ergueu-se, chamando a isso communismo, exigindo
liberdade. Decidiu-se emprestar dinheiro—oh, tonta tyrannia dos
systemas!—para que o pequeno lavrador comprasse grão e rezes
n’um paiz assolado.[9] Toda esta dança macabra de bandidismo
infrene, dizemos, corria por sobre um paiz devastado. No governo
não havia força para impôr ordem, e havia interessados em
fomentar a desordem. Cada Ministro tinha o seu bando, os seus
bravi, para resolverem a tiro nos campos as pendencias que a
phrases se levantavam nas camaras. Mas ainda quando isto assim
não fosse, a condemnação em massa de todos os que no antigo
regime exerciam as funcções publicas; essa universal substituição
do pessoal do Estado, indispensavel para pagar os serviços, trazia
aos lugares os aventureiros, os incapazes, e verdadeiros bandidos.
Em vão se tinha duplicado (de 70 a 140) o numero dos julgados:
era impossivel corrigir uma desordem que a tantos convinha.
Guerrilhas armadas levavam de assalto as casas do miguelista
vencido, roubando, matando, dispersando as familias. Havia uma
verdadeira, a unica absoluta liberdade—a da força! Na Beira houve
exemplos de uma habilidade feroz singular. Matava-se a familia,
deixando a vida apenas ao chefe, em troca de um testamento a
favor de alguem. Dias depois o pobre apparecia morto e enriquecia-
se d’esse modo. (A dyn. e a revol. de set.)
Os tribunaes, com o seu novo jury, eram machinas de vingança.
De Campo-maior, um bom homem escrevia a Manuel Passos o que
observara. (29 de maio de 36; corr. autog. dos Passos) Saíra
maguado de uma audiencia, em que um negociante da terra pedia
seis contos de perdas e damnos a sete miguelistas que tinham
deposto como testemunhas contra elle, no tempo do Usurpador. O
povo invadira-lhe os armazens, partira lhe as janellas: nem uma
testemunha, comtudo, accusava os réus de terem praticado ou
ordenado esses actos; mas o advogado «concluiu dizendo aos
jurados que já que não podiamos tirar a vida aos realistas por causa
da convenção d’Evora-Monte, lhes tirassemos os bens, pois que era
esse o unico mal que lhes podiamos fazer.—Os jurados eram quasi
todos da guarda-nacional e querem tambem indemnisações:
condemnaram os réus na conta pedida. Isto me fez tremer pela
liberdade!» (Carta de José Nunes da Matta)
Os magistrados novos roubavam desaforadamente; e o juiz de
Angeja conseguiu tornar-se notavel: só lhe faltou levar as portas e
os telhados das casas. (A dyn. e a revol. de set.) Era um positivo
saque. O povo creou tal raiva a esse ladrão que a gente do Pinheiro
foi esperal-o, quando ia a Ovar, obrigando-o a fugir n’uma carreira
que só parou no Alemtejo. (Ibid.) Na propria Lisboa succediam
cousas incriveis. Por ordem do governo foi saqueada a casa do
visconde de Azurara, ausente, e dois amigos do ministro ficaram-lhe
com as mobilias. (Ibid.) O que succedeu ás dos conventos sabe-se
—ou antes ninguem soube. Bandeira, o Esopo liberal, que bom foi
não ter morrido em 28, publicava no novo diccionario: «Delicto-
Delirio.—A significação d’estas duas palavras ainda não está bem
fixada, e varía em tempos e paizes diversos».
NOTAS DE RODAPÉ: