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Oblique-Slip Faults 191 Earth’s Crust 198
Deformation and the Origin of Mountains 191 Floating Continents? 198
Mountain Building 191 Principle of Isostasy 198
Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building 192 Isostatic Rebound 199
Terranes and the Origin of Mountains 197

10 mass Wasting 202

Introduction 203 Triggering Mechanisms 207

Factors That Influence Mass Wasting 203 Types of Mass Wasting 207
Slope Angle 204 Falls 209
Weathering and Climate 205 Slides 210
Water Content 205 Flows 212
Vegetation 207 Complex Movements 217
Overloading 207 Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects
Geology and Slope Stability 207 of Mass Wasting 218

11 rUnning Water 224

Introduction 225 Deltas 233

Water on Earth 226 Alluvial Fans 234
The Hydrologic Cycle 226 Can Floods Be Controlled and Predicted?   236
Fluid Flow 226 Drainage Systems 236
Running Water 227 The Significance of Base Level 238
Sheet Flow and Channel Flow 227 What Is a Graded Stream? 239
Gradient, Velocity, and Discharge 228 The Evolution of Valleys 240
Running Water, Erosion, and Sediment Transport 228 Stream Terraces 241
Deposition by Running Water 231 Virtual Field trip: Running Water 242
The Deposits of Braided and Meandering Channels 231 Incised Meanders 245
Floodplain Deposits 232 Superposed Streams 245

12 groUndWater 246

Introduction 247 Groundwater Erosion and Deposition 254

Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle 247 Sinkholes and Karst Topography 254
Porosity and Permeability 248 Caves and Cave Deposits 256
The Water Table 249 Modifications of the Groundwater System and
Groundwater Movement 249 Its Effects 258
Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems 250 Lowering the Water Table 258
Springs 250 Saltwater Incursion 259
Water Wells 251 Subsidence 260
Artesian Systems 252 Groundwater Contamination 261

contents vii
Hydrothermal Activity 262 Virtual Field trip: Hydrothermal Activity 264
Hot Springs 263 Geysers 266

13 glaciers and glaciation 268

Introduction 269 Erosion by Valley Glaciers 277

The Kinds of Glaciers 270
Valley Glaciers 270
Continental Glaciers 270
Glaciers: Moving Bodies of Ice on Land 271
Glaciers: Part of the Hydrologic Cycle 272
How Do Glaciers Originate and Move? 272
Distribution of Glaciers 273
The Glacial Budget 273
How Fast Do Glaciers Move? 275
Erosion and Sediment Transport by Glaciers 276
Continental Glaciers and Erosional Landforms 279
Deposits of Glaciers 281
Glacial Drift 281
Landforms Composed of Till 281
Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift 283
Deposits in Glacial Lakes 284
What Causes Ice Ages? 284
The Milankovitch Theory 284
Short-Term Climatic Events 287

14 the Work of Wind and deserts 288

Introduction 289 Loess 295

Sediment Transport by Wind 290 Air-Pressure Belts and Global Wind Patterns 297
Bed Load 290 The Distribution of Deserts 298
Suspended Load 290 Characteristics of Deserts 298
Wind Erosion 291 Temperature, Precipitation, and Vegetation 298
Abrasion 291 Virtual Field trip: Desert Environments 300
Deflation 291 Weathering and Soils 302
Wind Deposits 292 Mass Wasting, Streams, and Groundwater 302
The Formation and Migration of Dunes 293 Wind 302
Dune Types 293 Desert Landforms 302

15 oceans, shorelines, and shoreline

Processes 306

Introduction 307 Beaches 319

Seawater, Oceanic Circulation, and Seafloor Seasonal Changes in Beaches 320
Sediments 308 Spits, Baymouth Bars, and Tombolos 321
Seawater—Its Composition 308 Barrier Islands 322
Oceanic Circulation 309 The Nearshore Sediment Budget 323
Seafloor Sediments 310 Types of Coasts 323
Shorelines and Shoreline Processes 311 Depositional and Erosional Coasts 324
Tides 312 Submergent and Emergent Coasts 324
Waves 313 The Perils of Living Along a Shoreline 325
Nearshore Currents 316 Storm Waves and Coastal Flooding 325
Erosion and Deposition Along Shorelines 317 How Are Coastal Areas Managed as Sea Level Rises? 326
Erosion and Wave-Cut Platforms 318 Resources from the Oceans 327
Sea Caves, Arches, and Stacks 318
viii contents
16 geologic time: concePts and
PrinciPles 330

Introduction 331 Virtual Field trip: Geologic Time 342

How Is Geologic Time Measured? 331
Early Concepts of Geologic Time and Earth’s Age 332
James Hutton and the Recognition of Geologic Time 333
Relative Dating Methods 333
Fundamental Principles of Relative Dating 333
Unconformities 335
Applying the Principles of Relative Dating 337
Correlating Rock Units 341
Absolute Dating Methods 344
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives 346
Sources of Uncertainty 347
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs 348
Carbon-14 Dating Method 350
Development of the Geologic Time Scale 351
Geologic Time and Climate Change 352

17 earth history 354

Introduction 355 The Cordilleran Mobile Belt 372

Precambrian Earth History 355 The Ouachita Mobile Belt 372
The Origin and Evolution of Continents 356 The Role of Microplates 374
Shields, Platforms, and Cratons 356 The Breakup of Pangaea 374
Archean Earth History 357 The Mesozoic History of North America 376
Proterozoic Earth History 358 Eastern Coastal Region 376
The Paleozoic Geography of Earth 361 Gulf Coastal Region 376
The Paleozoic Evolution of North America 365 Western Region 377
The Sauk Sequence 365 Cenozoic Earth History 381
The Tippecanoe Sequence 365 Cenozoic Plate Tectonics and Orogeny 382
The Kaskaskia Sequence 365 The North American Cordillera 383
The Absaroka Sequence 367 The Continental Interior and the Gulf Coastal Plain 385
The History of the Paleozoic Mobile Belts 371 Eastern North America 385
The Appalachian Mobile Belt 371 Pleistocene Glaciation 385

18 life history 388

Introduction 389 Birds 402

Precambrian Life History 389 Mammals 402
Paleozoic Life History 391 Plants 403
Marine Invertebrates 391 Cretaceous Mass Extinctions 403
The Permian Mass Extinction 393 Cenozoic Life History 404
Vertebrates 393 Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton 404
Plants 396 Diversification of Mammals 404
Mesozoic Life History 397 Cenozoic Mammals 404
Marine Invertebrates 397 Pleistocene Faunas 406
The Diversification of Reptiles 397 Primate Evolution 406

index 410

contents ix
Virtual Field Trips in GEOLogy: Let’s Go!

GOalS OF tHe tripS Get iNtO tHe Field!

1. Improve student understanding With access to the complete set of Virtual Field Trips in Geology, GEOL2 makes
of difficult geologic concepts it easier than ever to engage students while educating them on the geologic
2. Get students into the field concepts they need to succeed.  Virtual Field Trips provide dynamic panoramas,
high-definition videos and photos, key concepts, critical thinking questions, and
3. Deliver a more meaningful
more to serve diverse learning styles.  Now available with all 15 Virtual Field Trips,
experience to today’s students
GEOL2 enables students to explore famous national parks throughout the United
using today’s technology
States while being guided by a virtual instructor!

instructors: to learn more about virtual field trips, see a students: to access virtual field trips, sign in with
video demo, or get access, please visit www.cengage your access code at login.cengagebrain.com.
.com/earthscience/community and click on the virtual
field trips page.
All photographs: Copyright and Photograph by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
Mineral
Resources D
Bingham
Canyon Mine

A Plate Tectonics J Volcano Types

Mount St. Helens and Sideling Hill Syncline Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park and
Igneous Mount St. Helens
Rocks D
Hawaii Vol-
canoes and
Yosemite
National Parks

J Metamorphic Roadmap
Rocks Acadia Found in
National Park Chapter 6!
A Sedimentary Rocks
Arches and Capitol Reef National Parks
 Running Water D
Zion National Park

Roadmap
Found in
A Earthquakes Chapter 11!
and Seismicity
Los Trancos Open Space
Preserve and Pt. Reyes
National Seashore

Roadmap
Found in
Chapter 16! A Mass Wasting
Arches and Yosemite
National Parks

Roadmap
Found in
Chapter 12!
A Groundwater
Mammoth Cave National Park

G Shorelines and
Shoreline Processes
A Geologic Time Bandon Beach
Grand Canyon and Capitol
Reef National Parks
A Hydrothermal Activity
Yellowstone National Park

Roadmap
Found in
Chapter 14!

A Glaciers and Glaciation

Kenai Fjords National Park and J Desert Environments All photographs:
Copyright and
Photograph by Dr.
Prince William Sound Death Valley National Park Parvinder S. Sethi
 1 Understanding Earth:
A Dynamic and
Evolving Planet

Planet Observer/Universal Images Group/Getty Images

True color satellite image of Asia (partly in shadow), the Arctic ice cap, and the Sun. In this book, we examine Earth as
a system of interconnected components that interact with each other. The atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere are four of Earth’s major subsystems that are visible in this image. The complex interactions among these
subsystems, as well as Earth’s interior, results in a dynamically changing planet.

2 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
Introduction
“Earth is a complex, dynamic planet that has changed
continuously since its origin some 4.6 billion years ago.”
A
major benefit of the space age has been the
ability to look back from space and view
our planet in its entirety. Every astronaut has
remarked in one way or another on how Earth
stands out as an inviting oasis in the other-
wise black void of space. We are able to see not only the
beauty of our planet, but also its fragility. We can also
decipher Earth’s long and frequently turbulent history
by reading the clues preserved in the geologic record.
A major theme of this book is that Earth is a com-
plex, dynamic planet that has changed continuously
Learning Outcomes
after reading this unit, you should be able to do the following:
LO1 define geology
LO2 Understand the impact that the formulation
of theories has had on the study of geology
LO3 explain how geology relates to the human
experience
LO4 explain how geology affects our everyday
lives
LO5 describe global geologic and
environmental issues facing humankind
LO6 describe the origin of the universe and
solar system, and earth’s place in them
LO7 explain why earth is a dynamic and
evolving planet
LO8 describe the rock cycle
LO9 define organic evolution and its role in the
history of life
LO10 describe geologic time and
uniformitarianism
LO11 explain how the study of geology
benefits us
since its origin some 4.6
billion years ago. These system a combination
changes and the present- of related parts that
day features we observe interact in an organized
result from the interac- fashion; earth systems
include the atmosphere,
tions among Earth’s inter-
hydrosphere, biosphere,
nal and external systems,
and solid earth.
subsystems, and cycles.
By viewing Earth as a
whole—that is, thinking of it as a system—we not only
see how its various components are interconnected, but
we can also better appreciate its complex and dynamic
nature.
The system concept makes it easier for us to study
a complex subject such as Earth, because it divides
the whole into smaller components that we can easily
understand, without losing sight of how the compo-
nents fit together as a whole. In the same way, you can
think of this book as if it were a large, panoramic land-
scape painting. Each chapter thus fills in the details of
the landscape, thereby enhancing the overall enjoyment
and understanding of the entire painting.
A system is a combination of related parts that
interact in an organized manner. An automobile is a
good example of a system. Its various components, or
subsystems, such as the engine, transmission, steering,
and brakes, are all interconnected in such a way that a
change in any one of them affects the others.
We can examine Earth in the same way we view
an automobile—that is, as a system of interconnected
components that interact and affect each other in many
ways. The principal subsystems of Earth are the atmo-
sphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, mantle,
and core (Figure 1.1). The complex interactions among
these subsystems result in a dynamically changing
planet in which matter and energy are continuously
recycled into different forms.
We must also not forget that humans are part of the
Earth system, and our activities can produce changes
with potentially wide-ranging consequences. When
people discuss and debate such environmental issues
as pollution and global warming, it is important to
remember that these are not isolated issues but are part
of the larger Earth system. Furthermore, remember that
introdUc tion 3
 Atmosphere

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
Atmospheric gases and
precipitation contribute to
weathering of rocks.
Evaporation, condensation, Plant, animal, and human
and precipitation transfer activity affect composition of
water between atmosphere atmospheric gases.
and hydrosphere, influencing Atmospheric temperature and
weather and climate and precipitation help to determine
distribution of water. distribution of Earth’s biota.

Plants absorb and transpire water. Biosphere

Water is used by people for domestic,
Copyright and Photograph

Copyright and Photograph

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

agricultural, and industrial uses.

Water helps determine abundance,

diversity, and distribution of
Hydrosphere
organisms.

Plate movement affects size, Organisms break down rock

shape, and distribution of into soil. People alter the
ocean basins. Running water landscape. Plate movement
and glaciers erode rock and affects evolution and
sculpt landscapes. distribution of Earth’s biota.

Heat reflected from land surface affects

temperature of atmosphere. Distribution
of mountains affects weather patterns.

Lithosphere
Copyright and Photograph
by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

(plates)

Convection cells within mantle

contribute to movement of plates
(lithosphere) and recycling of
Figure 1.1 Subsystems of Earth lithospheric material.
Plate
The atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
lithosphere, mantle, and core are all subsystems
of Earth. This simplified diagram shows how Mantle

these subsystems interact, with some examples

of how materials and energy are cycled
© 2013 Cengage Learning

throughout the Earth system. The interactions Supplies heat

for convection
between these subsystems make Earth a in mantle
dynamic planet that has evolved and changed
Core
since its origin 4.6 billion years ago.

Earth goes through longer time cycles than humans are
used to. Although they may have disastrous short-term
effects on the human species, global warming and cool-
ing are also part of a longer-term cycle that has resulted
in many glacial advances and retreats during the past
2.6 million years.
As you study the various topics covered in this
book, keep in mind the themes discussed in this chapter
and how, like the parts of a system, they are interre-
lated. By relating each chapter’s topic to its place in the
entire Earth system, you will gain a greater appreciation
of why geology is so integral to our lives.

4 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
LO1 What IS GEOLOGy? Theories are formu-
lated through the process
known as the scientific
Geology, from the Greek geo and logos, is defined as
method. This method
the study of Earth, but now must also include the study
is an orderly, logical ap-
of the planets and moons in our solar system. It is gen-
erally divided into two broad areas—physical geology proach that involves gath-
and historical geology. Physical geology is the study of ering and analyzing facts
Earth materials, such as minerals and rocks, as well as or data about the prob-
the processes operating within Earth and on its surface. lem under consideration.
Tentative explanations,
Historical geology examines the origin and evolution of
or hypotheses, are then
Earth and its continents, oceans, atmosphere, and life.
Although the discipline of geology is very broad formulated to explain
and subdivided into numerous fields, or specialties, the observed phenom-
nearly every aspect of geology has some economic or ena. Next, the hypotheses
environmental relevance. For example, many geolo- are tested to see whether
what was predicted actu-
gists are involved in exploration for mineral and energy
ally occurs in a given situ-
resources, using their specialized knowledge to locate
the natural resources on which our industrialized soci- ation. Finally, if one of the
ety is based. hypotheses is found, after
Other geologists use their expertise to help solve repeated tests, to explain
environmental problems. Finding adequate sources of the phenomena, then that
groundwater for the ever-burgeoning needs of commu- hypothesis is proposed
nities and industries is becoming increasingly impor- as a theory. Remember,
tant, as is the monitoring of surface and underground however, that in science,
water pollution and its cleanup. Geologic engineers even a theory is still sub-
help find safe locations for dams, waste-disposal sites, ject to further testing and
and power plants, as well as designing earthquake- refinement as new data
resistant buildings. become available.
Geologists are also engaged in making short- and The fact that a sci-
long-range predictions about earthquakes and volcanic entific theory can be
eruptions, and the potential destruction that may result. tested and is subject to
such testing separates
it from other forms of
human inquiry. Because
LO2 GEOLOGy and thE scientific theories can
FOrmuLatIOn OF thEOrIES be tested, they have the
potential for being sup-
The term theory has various meanings. In colloquial ported or even proven
usage, it means a speculative or conjectural view of wrong. Accordingly, sci-
something—hence, the widespread belief that sci- ence must proceed with-
entific theories are little more than unsubstantiated out any appeal to beliefs
wild guesses. In scientific usage, however, a theory is a or supernatural explana-
coherent explanation for one or several related natu- tions, not because such
ral phenomena supported by a large body of objective beliefs or explanations
evidence. From a theory, scientists derive predictive are necessarily untrue,
statements that they test by observations and/or experi- but because we have no
ments so that their validity can be assessed. The law way to investigate them. For this reason, science makes
of universal gravitation is an example of a theory that no claim about the existence or nonexistence of a super-
describes the attraction between masses (an apple and natural or spiritual realm.
Earth in the popularized account of Newton and his Each scientific discipline has certain theories that
discovery). are particularly important. In geology, the formulation
g e o lo g y a n d t h e F o r m U l at i o n o F t h e o r i e s
geology the science
concerned with the
study of earth materials
(minerals and rocks),
surface and internal
processes, and earth
history.
mineral a naturally
occurring, inorganic,
crystalline solid that has
characteristic physical
properties and a narrowly
defined chemical
composition.
rock a solid aggregate
of one or more
minerals, as in limestone
and granite, or a
consolidated aggregate
of rock fragments, as in
conglomerate, or masses
of rocklike materials, such
as coal and obsidian.
theory an explanation
for some natural
phenomenon that has a
large body of supporting
evidence. to be scientific,
a theory must be testable
(e.g., plate tectonic
theory).
scientific method a
logical, orderly approach
that involves gathering
data, formulating and
testing hypotheses, and
proposing theories.
hypothesis a
provisional explanation
for observations that
is subject to continual
testing. if well-supported
by evidence, a hypothesis
may be called a theory.
5
of plate tectonic theory (discussed later eruptions, earthquakes, landslides,
in this chapter) has changed the way tsunami, and floods strike.
geologists view Earth. Geologists now Less apparent, but equally
view Earth from a global perspective in significant, are the con-

R. Gino Santa Maria/

which all of its subsystems and cycles nections between geology

Shutterstock.com
are interconnected, and Earth history is and economic, social, and
seen to be a continuum of interrelated political issues.
events that are part of a global pattern Consider, for exam-
of change. ple, just how dependent
Many sketches and paintings depict rocks
we are on geology in our
and landscapes realistically. Leonardo da
daily routines (Figure 1.3).
Vinci’s Virgin of the Rocks and Virgin and
LO3 hOW dOES GEOLOGy Child with Saint Anne, Giovanni Bellini’s Saint
Much of the electricity for
our appliances comes from
rELatE tO thE human Francis in Ecstasy and Saint Jerome, and Asher the burning of coal, oil, natu-
Brown Durand’s Kindred Spirits are just a few
ExpErIEncE? examples by famous painters.
ral gas, or uranium consumed in
nuclear-generating plants. Geolo-
You would probably be surprised at the gists locate the coal, petroleum (oil
extent to which geology pervades our everyday lives
and the numerous references to geology in the arts,
music, and literature. Many sketches and paintings by
famous painters depict rocks and landscapes realisti-
cally. Examples include Leonardo da Vinci’s Virgin of
the Rocks, Giovanni Bellini’s Saint Francis in Ecstasy,
and Asher Brown Durand’s Kindred Spirits.
In the field of music, Ferde Grofé’s Grand Canyon
Suite was no doubt inspired by the grandeur and time-
lessness of Arizona’s Grand Canyon and its vast rock
exposures (Figure 1.2). The rocks on the Island of Staffa
in the Inner Hebrides provided the inspiration for Felix
Mendelssohn’s famous Hebrides Overture.
References to geology abound in The German Leg-
ends of the Brothers Grimm. Jules Verne’s novel Jour-
ney to the Center of the Earth describes an expedition
into Earth’s interior. There is even a series of mystery
books by Sarah Andrews that features the fictional
geologist Em Hansen, who uses her knowledge of geol-
ogy to solve crimes.
Copyright and Photograph by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
Geology has also played an important role in the
history and culture of humankind. Empires throughout
history have risen and fallen on the distribution and
exploitation of natural resources. Wars have been fought
to secure such natural resources as oil and gas, and valu-
able minerals such as gold, silver, and diamonds.

LO4 hOW dOES GEOLOGy aFFEct

Our EvEryday LIvES? Figure 1.2 Geology and art
Ferde Grofés Grand Canyon Suite was inspired by the beauty of Arizona’s
The most obvious connection between geology and our Grand Canyon, where sedimentary rock layers grandly document some of
everyday lives is when natural disasters such as volcanic Earth’s past history.

6 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
 Geology and Economic and Political Power
Geology can be closely connected to economic and
political power. The configuration of Earth’s surface, or
its topography, which is shaped by geologic agents, has
often played a critical role in military tactics. For example,
Napoleon included two geologists in his expeditionary
forces when he invaded Egypt in 1798, and the Russians
used geologists as advisors in selecting fortification sites
during the Russo-Japanese war of 1904–1905. Natural bar-
riers such as mountain ranges and rivers have frequently
served as political boundaries, and the shifting of river
channels has sparked numerous border disputes. Mineral
and energy resources are not equally distributed, and no

© John Lund/Blend Images/Jupiterimages

country is self-sufficient in all of them. Throughout his-
tory, people have fought wars to secure these resources.
The United States was involved in the 1990–1991 Gulf War
largely because it needed to protect its oil interests in that
region. Many foreign policies and treaties develop from the
need to acquire and maintain adequate supplies of mineral
and energy resources.

5,454 kg 245 kg
Clays Zinc 274,438 l
Petroleum
and natural gas), and uranium. The copper or other
metal wires through which electricity travels are man-
499,500 kg
Stone, sand, ufactured from materials found as the result of min-
and gravel 14,301 kg
Salt eral exploration. The concrete foundation (concrete
is a mixture of clay, sand, or gravel, and limestone),
166,040 m3 drywall (made largely from the mineral gypsum), and
Natural gas 18,531 kg
Cement windows (the mineral quartz is the principal ingredi-
ent in the manufacture of glass) of the buildings we
19,720 kg
Other minerals 6,539 kg live and work in owe their very existence to geologic
and metals Iron ore resources.
The car or public transportation we use to go to
350 kg work is powered and lubricated by some type of petro-
© 2013 Cengage Learning

1,818 kg
Lead Bauxite leum by-product and is constructed of metal alloys and
(Aluminum)
plastics. And the roads or rails we ride over come from
244,336 kg
geologic materials such as gravel, asphalt, concrete, or
6,818 kg steel. All of these items are the result of processing geo-
Coal
43 g Phosphate rock
419 kg logic resources.
Gold
Copper As individuals and societies, we enjoy a standard
of living that is obviously directly dependent on the
Figure 1.3 Lifetime mineral usage
consumption of geologic materials. We therefore need
According to the Mineral Information Institute in Golden, Colorado, the to be aware of how our use and misuse of geologic
average American born in 2009 has a life expectancy of 77.7 years and resources may affect the environment. We need to sup-
will need 1,305,000 kg of minerals, metals, and fuels to sustain his or her port the development of policies that not only encour-
standard of living over a lifetime. This is an average of 16,959 kg of mineral age management of our natural resources, but also
and energy resources per year for every man, woman, and child in the allow for continuing economic development among all
United States. the world’s nations.

h o w d o e s g e o lo g y a F F e c t o U r e v e r y d ay l i v e s ? 7
LO5 GLObaL GEOLOGIc and of our dwindling nonrenewable resource base and to
increase our recycling efforts so that we can decrease
EnvIrOnmEntaL ISSuES our dependence on new sources of these materials.
The problems of overpopulation and how it affects
FacInG humankInd the global ecosystem vary from country to country. For
many poor and non-industrialized countries, the prob-
Most scientists would argue that overpopulation is the lem is too many people and not enough food. For the
greatest environmental problem facing the world today.
The world’s population reached 7 billion in 2011, and
projections indicate that this number will grow to 9 bil-
lion people by 2045. Although this may not seem to be
a geologic problem, remember that these people must

Brian Atkinson/PhotoLibrary
be fed, housed, and clothed, and all with a minimal
impact on the environment. Much of this population
growth will be in areas that are already at risk from
such hazards as earthquakes, tsunami, volcanic erup-
tions, and floods. Adequate water supplies must be
found and protected from pollution. Additional energy
resources will be needed to help fuel the economies of Overpopulation is the greatest environmental problem
nations with ever-increasing populations (Figure 1.4). facing the world today.
New techniques must be developed to reduce the use

Istockphoto.com/TebNad

Figure 1.4 Offshore Oil drilling

With increasing demand for energy, offshore drilling for oil and natural gas has increased in recent years.

8 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
 © 2013 Cengage Learning
a. Short-wavelength radiation b. Earth’s surface radiates heat in the form c. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases
from the Sun that is not of long–wavelength radiation back into trap more heat near Earth’s surface, causing a
reflected back into space the atmosphere, where some of it escapes general increase in surface and atmospheric
penetrates the atmosphere into space. The rest is absorbed by temperatures, which leads to global warming.
and warms Earth’s surface. greenhouse gases and water vapor
and reradiated back toward Earth.
Figure 1.5 the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

more developed and industrialized countries, it is too carbon dioxide levels is related to its role in the green-
many people rapidly depleting both the nonrenewable house effect.
and renewable natural resource base. And in the most The recycling of carbon dioxide between Earth’s
industrially developed countries, it is people producing crust (discussed shortly) and atmosphere is an impor-
more pollutants than the environment can safely recycle tant climate regulator, because carbon dioxide and other
on a human time scale. The common thread tying these gases, such as methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocar-
varied situations together is an environmental imbal- bons, and water vapor, allow sunlight to pass through
ance created by a human population exceeding Earth’s them but trap the heat reflected back from Earth’s sur-
short-term carrying capacity. face. This retention of heat is called the greenhouse effect.
Other global issues in the news all the time are the It results in an increase in the temperature of Earth’s sur-
greenhouse effect, global warming, and cli- face and, more importantly, its atmosphere, thus produc-
mate change. The relationship between ing global warming (Figure 1.5). The issue is not whether
the greenhouse effect and global we have a greenhouse effect, because we do, but rather
warming is an excellent example of the degree to which human activity, such as the burn-
how Earth’s various subsystems are ing of fossil fuels, is increasing the greenhouse effect,
interrelated. As a by-product of res- and thus contributing to global warming.
piration and the burning of organic Because of the increase in human-produced
material, carbon dioxide is a com- greenhouse gases during the past 200 years, many
ponent of the global ecosystem scientists are concerned that a global warm-
and is constantly being recycled ing trend has already begun and will result in
as part of the carbon cycle. The severe global climatic shifts. Presently, most
concern in recent years over climate researchers use a range of scenar-
the increase in atmospheric ios for greenhouse gas emissions when
Stephen Mallon/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images

g lo b a l g e o lo g i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n ta l i s s U e s Fa c i n g h U m a n k i n d 9
predicting future warming rates. State-of-the-art cli-
mate model simulations published in the 2007 Fourth
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change show a
predicted increase in global average temperature from
2000 to 2100 of 18–38C under the best conditions, to
a 2.58–6.58C rise under “business as usual” conditions.
These predicted increases in temperatures are based on
various scenarios that explore different global develop-

Copyright and Photograph by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi

ment pathways.
Regardless of which scenario is followed, the global
temperature change will be uneven, with the greatest
warming occurring in the higher latitudes of the North-
ern Hemisphere. As a consequence, rainfall patterns will
shift dramatically. That shift will have a major effect
on the largest grain-producing areas of the world, such
as the American Midwest. Drier and hotter conditions
will intensify the severity and frequency of droughts,
leading to more crop failures and higher food prices
(Figure 1.6). With such shifts in climate, Earth’s deserts Figure 1.6 Withered corn crop as a result of drought conditions
may expand, with a resulting decrease in valuable crop
and grazing land. Higher temperature will also affect
regional water supplies, creating potential water crises oceanic circulation patterns and its ultimate effect on
in the western United States within the next 20 years, Earth’s biota. It is, however, important to remember
as well as other areas such as Peru and western China. that although everyone is vulnerable to weather-related
As climates change, diseases such as malaria can eas- disasters, large-scale changes brought about by climate
ily spread into areas of warmer, wetter climates, regions change will impact people in poor countries more than
that heretofore were inhospitable to disease-carrying those in the more industrialized countries. Whether
mosquitoes. Moreover, continued global warming will these climate changes are part of a natural global cycle
result in a rise in mean sea level, as icecaps and glaciers taking place over thousands or hundreds of thousands
melt and contribute their water to the world’s oceans. of years—that is, on a geologic time scale—or are
At the current rate of glacial melting, sea level will rise driven, in part, by human activities, is immaterial. The
21 cm by around 2050, thus increasing the number of bottom line is that we already are, or eventually will be,
people at risk from flooding in coastal areas by approx- affected by them in some way, be it economic or social.
imately 20 million!
We would be remiss, however, if we did not point
out that many other scientists are not convinced that
the global warming trend is the direct result of increased LO6 OrIGIn OF thE unIvErSE and
human activity related to industrialization. They indi-
cate that although the level of greenhouse gases has
SOLar SyStEm, and Earth’S pLacE
increased, we are still uncertain about their rate of gen- In thEm
eration and rate of removal, and about whether the rise
in global temperatures during the past century resulted How did the universe begin? What has been its history?
from normal climatic variations through time or from What is its eventual fate, or is it infinite? These are just
human activity. Furthermore, they conclude that even if some of the basic questions people have asked and won-
a general global warming trend occurs during the next dered about since they first looked into the nighttime sky
hundred years, it is not certain that the dire predictions and saw the vastness of the universe beyond Earth.
made by proponents of global warming will come true.
Earth, as we know, is a remarkably complex sys- Origin of the universe: did It begin
tem, with many feedback mechanisms and intercon-
nections throughout its various subsystems and cycles.
with a big bang?
It is very difficult to predict all of the consequences Most scientists think that the universe originated
that global warming would have for atmospheric and about 14 billion years ago in what is popularly called

10 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
the Big Bang. The Big Bang is a model for the evolu- distance from Earth. He
tion of the universe in which a dense, hot state, was observed that the spec- Big Bang a model
followed by expansion, cooling, and a less-dense state. tral lines (wavelengths of for the evolution of the
According to modern cosmology (the study of the light) of the galaxies are universe in which a dense,
hot state was followed by
origin, evolution, and nature of the universe), the uni- shifted toward the red
expansion, cooling, and a
verse has no edge and therefore no center. Thus, when end of the spectrum; that
less-dense state.
the universe began, all matter and energy were com- is, the lines are shifted
pressed into an infinitely small high-temperature and toward longer wave-
high-density state in which both time and space were lengths. Galaxies receding from each other at tremen-
set at zero. Therefore, there is no “before the Big Bang,” dous speeds would produce such a redshift. This is an
only what occurred after it. As demonstrated by Ein- example of the Doppler effect, which is a change in the
stein’s Theory of Relativity, space and time are unalter- frequency of a sound, light, or other wave caused by
ably linked to form a space–time continuum; that is, movement of the wave’s source relative to the observer.
without space, there can be no time. One way to understand the Doppler effect is by anal-
How do we know that the Big Bang took place ogy to the sound of a passing train’s whistle. As the train
approximately 14 billion years ago? Why couldn’t the approaches, the sound waves are slightly compressed, so
universe have always existed as we know it today? Two an individual hears a shorter-wavelength, higher-pitched
fundamental phenomena indicate that the Big Bang sound. As the train passes, and recedes from the indi-
occurred: (1) the universe is expanding, and (2) it is vidual, the sound waves are slightly expanded, and a
permeated by background radiation. longer-wavelength, lower-pitched sound is heard.
When astronomers look beyond our own solar sys- An easy way to envision how velocity increases with
tem, they observe that everywhere in the universe gal- increasing distance is by reference to the popular analogy
axies are moving away from each other at tremendous of a rising loaf of raisin bread, in which the raisins are
speeds. Edwin Hubble first recognized this phenomenon uniformly distributed throughout the loaf (Figure 1.7).
in 1929. By measuring the optical spectra of distant gal- As the dough rises, the raisins are uniformly pushed away
axies, Hubble noted that the velocity at which a galaxy from each other at velocities directly proportional to the
moves away from Earth increases proportionally to its distance between any two raisins. The farther away a
given raisin is to begin with,
the farther it must move to
After
maintain the regular spac-
ing during the expansion,
and hence the greater its
velocity must be.
In the same way that
Before
raisins move apart in a ris-
ing loaf of bread, galax-
ies are receding from each
© 2013 Cengage Learning

other at a rate proportional

to the distance between
them, which is exactly what
astronomers see when they
observe the universe. By
measuring this expansion
6 cm 12 cm rate, astronomers can cal-
culate how long ago the
Figure 1.7 the Expanding universe
galaxies were all together at
The motion of raisins in a rising loaf of raisin bread illustrates the relationship that exists between distance and speed a single point, which turns
and is analogous to an expanding universe. In this diagram, adjacent raisins are located 2 cm apart before the loaf rises. out to be about 14 billion
After one hour, any raisin is now 4 cm away from its nearest neighbor and 8 cm away from the next raisin over, and so on. years, the currently accepted
Therefore, from the perspective of any raisin, its nearest neighbor has moved away from it at a speed of 2 cm per hour, age of the universe.
and the next raisin over has moved away from it at a speed of 4 cm per hour. In the same way that raisins move apart in a In 1965, Arno Penzias
rising loaf of bread, galaxies are receding from each other at a rate proportional to the distance between them. and Robert Wilson of Bell

origin oF the Universe and solar system, and ear th’s place in them 11
solar nebula theory
Telephone Laboratories
made the second impor-
a theory for the evolution tant observation that pro-
of the solar system from a
vided evidence of the Big
rotating cloud of gas.
Bang. They discovered
that there is a pervasive
background radiation of 2.7 Kelvin (K) above absolute
zero (absolute zero equals –2738C; 2.7 K = –270.38C)
everywhere in the universe. This background radiation is
thought to be the fading afterglow of the Big Bang.
Currently, cosmologists cannot say what it was like at
time zero of the Big Bang, because they do not understand
the physics of matter and energy under such extreme con-
ditions. However, it is thought that during the first second
following the Big Bang, the four basic forces—(1) gravity
(the attraction of one body toward another), (2) electro-
magnetic force (combines electricity and magnetism into
one force and binds atoms into molecules), (3) strong
nuclear force (binds protons and neutrons together), and
(4) weak nuclear force (responsible for the breakdown of
an atom’s nucleus, producing radioactive decay)—sepa-
rated, and the universe experienced enormous expansion.
As the universe continued expanding and cool-
ing, stars and galaxies began to form, and the chemical
makeup of the universe changed. Initially, the universe
was 100% hydrogen and helium, whereas today it is
98% hydrogen and helium and 2% all other elements
by weight.
Our Solar System: Its Origin and Evolution
Our solar system, which is part of the Milky Way gal-
axy, consists of the Sun, eight planets, five dwarf plan-
ets (including Pluto), 101 known moons or satellites
(although this number keeps changing with the dis-
covery of new moons and satellites surrounding the
Jovian planets, discussed shortly), a tremendous num-
ber of asteroids—most of which orbit the Sun in a zone
between Mars and Jupiter—and millions of comets and
meteorites, as well as interplanetary dust and gases (Fig-
ure 1.8). Any theory formulated to explain the origin
and evolution of our solar system must therefore take
into account its various features and characteristics.
Many scientific theories for the origin of the solar
system have been proposed, modified, and discarded
since the French scientist and philosopher René Des-
cartes first proposed, in 1644, that the solar system
formed from a gigantic whirlpool within a universal
fluid. Today, the solar nebula theory for the forma-
tion of the solar system not only best explains the fea-
tures of the solar system, but also provides a logical
explanation for its evolutionary history (Figure 1.9).
According to the solar nebula theory, the conden-
sation and subsequent collapse of interstellar mate-
rial in a spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy resulted
in a counterclockwise-rotating disk of gases and small
grains. About 90% of this material was concentrated in

Pluto
Earth
Venus Mars
Mercury

Asteroid Uranus
belt Jupiter Saturn Neptune

Sun
© 2013 Cengage Learning

Figure 1.8 diagrammatic representation of the Solar System

This representation of the solar system shows the planets and their orbits around the Sun. On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union downgraded
Pluto from a planet to a dwarf planet. A dwarf planet has the same characteristics as a planet, except that it does not clear the neighborhood around its orbit.
Pluto orbits among the icy debris of the Kuiper Belt, and therefore does not meet the criteria for a true planet.

12 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
 the central part of the disk, thus forming an embryonic
Sun, around which swirled a rotating cloud of mate-
Earth: Its place in terrestrial planets
rial called a solar nebula. Within this solar nebula were Our Solar System any of the four innermost
localized eddies in which gases and solid particles con- Some 4.6 billion years planets (mercury, venus,
densed. During the condensation process, gaseous, liq- ago, planetesimals in earth, and mars). they are
all small and have high
uid, and solid particles began to accrete into ever-larger our solar system gath-
mean densities, indicating
masses called planetesimals, which collided and grew ered enough material
that they are composed
in size and mass until they eventually became planets. together to form Earth of rock and metallic
The composition and evolutionary history of the and the other planets. elements.
planets are a consequence, in part, of their distance from Scientists think that this
the Sun. The terrestrial planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, early Earth was prob- Jovian planets any of
the four planets (Jupiter,
and Mars—so named because they are similar to terra, ably cool, of generally
saturn, Uranus, and
Latin for “earth,” are all small and composed of rock and uniform composition
neptune) that resemble
metallic elements that condensed at the high tempera- and density throughout, Jupiter. all are large and
tures of the inner nebula. The Jovian planets—Jupiter, and composed mostly have low mean densities,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune—so named because they of silicates (compounds indicating that they are
resemble Jupiter (the Roman god was also called Jove), consisting of silicon composed mostly of
all have small, rocky cores compared to their overall size, and oxygen), iron and lightweight gases, such
and are composed mostly of hydrogen, helium, ammonia, magnesium oxides, and as hydrogen and helium,
and methane, which condense at low temperatures. smaller amounts of all and frozen compounds,
While the planets were accreting, material that had the other chemical ele- such as ammonia and
been pulled into the center of the nebula also condensed, ments (Figure 1.10a). methane.
collapsed, and was heated to several million degrees by Subsequently, when the
gravitational compression. The result was the birth of combination of meteor-
a star, our Sun. ite impacts, gravitational compression, and heat from
During the early accretionary phase of the solar radioactive decay increased the temperature of Earth
system’s history, collisions between various bodies were enough to melt iron and nickel, this homogeneous
common, as indicated by the craters on many plan- composition disappeared (Figure 1.10b) and was re-
ets and moons. Asteroids probably formed as plan- placed by a series of concentric layers of differing
etesimals in a localized eddy between what eventually composition and density, resulting in a differentiated
became Mars and Jupiter in much the same way that planet (Figure 1.10c).
other planetesimals formed the terrestrial planets. The This differentiation into a layered planet is prob-
tremendous gravitational field of Jupiter, however, pre- ably the most significant event in Earth’s history. Not
vented this material from ever accreting into a planet. only did it lead to the formation of a crust and even-
Comets, which are interplanetary bodies composed of tually continents, but it also was probably responsible
loosely bound rocky and icy materials, are thought to for the emission of gases from the interior that even-
have condensed near the orbits of Uranus and Neptune. tually led to the origin of the oceans and atmosphere.
NASA

NASA

NASA

a. A huge rotating cloud of gas contracts and b. to form a disk of gas and dust with the Sun c. and eddies gathering up material to form
flattens forming in the center planets.
Figure 1.9 Solar nebula theory
According to the currently accepted theory for the origin of our solar system, the planets and the Sun formed from a rotating cloud of gas.

origin oF the Universe and solar system, and ear th’s place in them 13
 Crust
Mantle

Liquid
outer
core
Solid
inner
core

© 2013 Cengage Learning

a. Early Earth probably had b. The temperature of early Earth reached the c. In this way, a differentiated Earth formed,
a uniform composition and melting point of iron and nickel, which, being consisting of a dense iron–nickel core, an
density throughout. denser than silicate minerals, settled to Earth’s iron-rich silicate mantle, and a silicate crust
center. At the same time, the lighter silicates with continents and ocean basins.
flowed upward to form the mantle and the crust.
Figure 1.10 homogenous accretion theory for the Formation of a differentiated Earth

core the interior part
of earth beginning at a
depth of 2,900 km that
probably consists mostly
of iron and nickel.
mantle the thick layer
between earth’s crust and
core.
asthenosphere the
part of the mantle that lies
below the lithosphere; it
behaves plastically and
flows slowly.
magma molten rock
material generated within
earth.
lithosphere earth’s
outer, rigid part,
consisting of the upper
mantle, oceanic crust, and
continental crust.
plate an individual
segment of the
lithosphere that moves
over the asthenosphere.
active interior, and folded and fractured rocks are testi-
mony to the tremendous power of Earth’s internal forces.
LO7 Why Earth Earth consists of three concentric layers: the core,
the mantle, and the crust (Figure 1.11). This orderly
IS a dynamIc division results from density differences between the
layers as a function of variations in composition, tem-
and EvOLvInG perature, and pressure.
pLanEt The core has a calculated density of 10–13 grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) and occupies about 16% of
Earth is a dynamic planet Earth’s total volume. Seismic (earthquake) data indicate
that has continuously that the core consists of a small, solid inner region and a
changed during its 4.6- larger, apparently liquid, outer portion. Both are thought
billion-year existence. The to consist mostly of iron and a small amount of nickel.
size, shape, and geograph- The mantle surrounds the core and comprises
ic distribution of conti- about 83% of Earth’s volume. It is less dense than the
nents and ocean basins core (3.3–5.7 g/cm3) and is thought to be composed
have changed throughout mostly of peridotite, a dark, dense, igneous rock con-
time; the composition taining abundant iron and magnesium. The mantle is
of the atmosphere has divided into three distinct zones based on physical char-
evolved; and life-forms acteristics. The lower mantle is solid and forms most of
existing today differ from the volume of Earth’s interior. The asthenosphere sur-
those that lived during rounds the lower mantle. It has the same composition
the past. Mountains and as the lower mantle but behaves plastically and flows
hills have been worn slowly. Partial melting within the asthenosphere gener-
away by erosion, and ates magma (molten material), some of which rises to
the forces of wind, water, the surface, because it is less dense than the rock from
and ice have sculpted a which it was derived. The upper mantle surrounds the
diversity of landscapes. asthenosphere. The solid upper mantle and the overly-
Volcanic eruptions and ing crust constitute the lithosphere, which is broken
earthquakes reveal an into numerous individual pieces called plates that
move over the asthenosphere, partially as a result of
underlying convection cells (Figure 1.12). Interactions

14 c h a p t e r 1: U n d e r s ta n d i n g e a r t h : a dy n a m i c a n d e v o lv i n g p l a n e t
Another random document with
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 At the outset I was more fortunate than on the previous day, for
when I had gotten up close to them I found in front of me cows and
calves, young things of one or two years old. Singling out a fat young
cow, distinguished by her glossy coat of hair, I forced my horse right
up against her and brought her down at the second shot. I pulled
rein, stopping my horse as suddenly as was possible at the
breakneck speed at which he was going, and in another moment the
herd had spread out, and I was completely surrounded by the
rushing mass of animals which my attack had set in motion.
The air was so clouded with dust that I could hardly see more
than twenty yards from where I was standing, near the carcass of the
cow I had killed. There was danger of being run over by them, but
they separated as they approached, passing on either side of me, a
few yards distant. After a while the rushing crowd thinned, and up
rode Captain Chiles exclaiming: “Why don’t you kill another?”
Fifty yards from us they were rushing by, all in the same
direction. I again dashed into the midst of them, pressing my horse in
pursuit of another young cow. She shot ahead of everything,
increasing her speed so that I could hardly keep sight of her. While
thus running at full speed my horse struck a calf with his breast,
knocking the calf down flat, and almost throwing himself also. I
pulled up as quickly as possible, turned around and shot the
prostrate calf before it could get up. So I had two dead in, say twenty
minutes. After this day’s experience I had no trouble in killing all the
buffalo we needed for our own consumption. For a week or ten days
they were hardly out of sight. We found them as far west as Pawnee
Rock. All told, I killed about twenty on the journey out and back. A
good steak, cut from the loin of a buffalo cow, broiled on the coals
with a thin slice of bacon attached to it to improve its flavor, was
“good eating,” and I soon became an accomplished broiler.
 IV.
Companions of Voyage.

Before reaching Pawnee Rock we overtook a train of thirty

wagons belonging to the leading freighters of the West, Majors,
Russell & Waddell, with which we traveled to Fort Union, their freight
being consigned to that post. This train had thirty wagons, built, I
believe, in Philadelphia, with heavy iron axles and spindles, which
seemed superior to any others I had seen on the prairies. Hagan
was wagonmaster and Hines his assistant. The former was a sandy-
haired man, who rode a large bay mule, a drowsy animal with
immense lop ears that moved back and forth as he walked. This
ungainly mule, I found out, in a day or two afterwards, had his good
points. He could run as fast and get up as close to a buffalo as any
horse in either outfit.
Notwithstanding Hagan’s generally uncouth appearance, he was
a man of sterling worth and a capital hand at killing buffalo.
Subsequently we joined in many chases, and I found him an
agreeable companion. On the rear end of each of the wagons in
Hagan’s train there was pasted a set of printed rules for the
government of the employees in the service of Majors, Russell &
Waddell. Both liquor and profanity were absolutely prohibited, but of
the strict enforcement of the rules I cannot speak.
While riding in advance of the train, in company with Captain
Chiles, we saw our Mexican friend, whose acquaintance we had
formed at Westport, the master of his own train, galloping toward us,
with a buffalo cow following close behind his horse. As was his habit,
he had attacked the animal with his spear, stabbing her until she
became infuriated so that she turned on him and was following him;
it occurred to me she was pressing him a little too closely to be
agreeable. We rode rapidly toward him, and as we were drawing
near the cow became so exhausted by loss of blood that she
stopped still, when Captain Chiles rode up and gave her a broadside
with his shotgun, which finished her.
Whenever they found buffalo in plenty the Mexicans would halt
for several days and kill enough to supply their trainmen. They
preserved the meat by cutting it into thin strips and hanging it on
ropes about the corral until it was dried by the sun. But thus cured, it
had a sour and disagreeable taste to me. The Mexicans would stew
it with quantities of red pepper and devour it with great relish.
As we approached the valley of the Little Arkansas, where the
view of the country was more extensive than any we had yet seen,
there was no limit to the herds of buffalo, the face of the earth being
covered with them. We camped at noon at the crossing of this
stream. The buffalo were crossing the creek above us, moving
westward, in bands of from twenty-five to a hundred or more. At the
crossing they had a trail cut down through the steep banks of the
stream three or four feet in depth.
But I had had enough of buffalo chasing, except when we were
in need of fresh meat. It was too much like riding out into the pasture
and killing your own domestic cattle. I found antelope hunting much
better sport.
After Walnut creek, the next place of interest was Pawnee Rock
near which many battles between the traders and the Indians had
taken place. This bluff, facing the road on the right hand side, at a
distance, perhaps, of a hundred yards, was of brown sandstone
about fifty feet high, the bluff end of the ridge extending down to the
river bottom. I climbed up the almost perpendicular face of the
elevation, where I found many names cut in the soft stone—names
of Santa Fé traders who had traveled the trail, among them that of
Colonel M. M. Marmaduke, who crossed to Mexico as early as 1826,
and was afterwards governor of Missouri, and James H. Lucas, a
prominent and wealthy citizen of St. Louis.
We were not particularly apprehensive of Indian troubles,
although we knew the Cheyennes were turbulent. Elijah Chiles, a
brother of our captain, had been loading goods at Kansas City when
we left—a train of twenty-six wagons for the Kiowas and Comanches
—and was doubtless a few days’ drive behind us. But we kept on the
lookout day and night; the guard around the cattle was doubled, and
each teamster had a gun of some sort, which he kept strapped to the
wagon bed, loaded and ready for service.
 V.
Pestiferous Indians.

All the while we knew the Indians could wipe us out if they were
determined to do so. In both trains there were not above sixty men,
while there were, nearby, warriors by thousands.
A day’s journey beyond Pawnee Rock, we were visited by a
hunting party of fifteen or twenty young Kiowa bucks, the first real
“wild” Indians we had seen. They did not seem the least wild, however,
but uncomfortably “tame,” and disposed to get very familiar on short
acquaintance. They were evidently out on a lark, and disposed to
make us the objects of their amusement that afternoon.
They scattered up and down the length of both trains, talking and
laughing with the teamsters. Two of them took particular fancy to my
friend Reece, riding on either side of him, taking hold of his arms and
seeming to admire his long hair and the handsome horse he rode.
Reece was not at all afraid of them and permitted no undue
interference with his person or property.
Reece was no coward. While we were still in the dangerous region,
he would ride for miles ahead of the train, alone, dismount and lie
down to rest or sleep. When I said to him that he was incurring
unnecessary risk of being killed by the Indians, he remarked that if
they did kill him they could not rob him of much in this world.
Along where we were traveling at the time of the visit of the Kiowa
bucks, the river bottom was as smooth as a billiard table. Hagan’s train
was in the lead of ours a space of perhaps thirty yards intervening.
Hagan and I were riding abreast at the rear of his train, when suddenly,
two of the young bucks raised up a loud whoop and started their
horses at full speed. Taking a corner of their blankets in each hand and
holding them above their heads so that they made a flapping sound in
the air, they went sweeping along right against the cattle, almost
instantly creating a stampede, the cattle turning out of the highway
making the big wagons rattle as they went.
For an instant Hagan sat on his mule stock still, apparently
dumbfounded. In another moment he put spurs to his mule, intending
to head the fleeing cattle. But instead of running, the mule suddenly
“bucked,” throwing Hagan and his saddle also (the girth breaking) over
his head and landing him in the road, flat on his back. Hagan got up,
pulled himself together and rubbed the dust out of his eyes, but said
nothing, though gifted in the way of eloquent profanity.
No great harm resulted from the stampede. Some others of the
party of Indians ran ahead and stopped the cattle. There was no
collision of wagons and no damage, but the affair left an ugly feeling of
resentment among the teamsters toward the Indians. The Indians
laughed and talked about the affair among themselves. Any effort to
punish them was out of the question, the entire tribes of Kiowas and
Comanches being encamped within a day’s journey above us.
 THE MULE SUDDENLY BUCKED.

The Indians kept along with the train all of the afternoon.
Observing my horse and accoutrements, they inquired through Juan,
the Spaniard, if he was fleet and good for buffalo, and pressed me to
go out with them for buffalo the next day. I would gladly have seen the
Indians engaged in a buffalo chase, but declined the invitation, making
such excuses as I could without expressing any want of confidence as
to their good fellowship. My scalp was intact and I felt disposed to keep
it so.
 The Kiowas begged Captain Chiles and Hagan to give them some
flour and sugar, but they refused, knowing that a donation would be
necessary later on, when we should meet the entire tribes of Kiowas
and Comanches encamped above us, awaiting the arrival of their
agent and the train load of goods for them.
Late in the evening, after we had corralled and the cooks were
preparing to get supper these Indians having ridden off in the direction
of the river, two of them reappeared. They returned to the camp, each
with a bundle of dry driftwood, picked up on the river bank, which they
threw down near the camp fire. This meant that they wanted supper,
and Captain Chiles gave directions for the preparation of food for
them. The Indians took supper with us, after which they departed,
evidently feeling better and good naturedly disposed toward us.
That night there was much discussion of the Indian problem, with
which we seemed now confronted. At noon the next day, as the cattle
were being driven into the corral, another party of young warriors made
their appearance at our camp, and came near involving us in a serious
conflict. The trouble was brought on by the impatient action of our
assistant wagonmaster, Rice. Four or five young fellows rode up into
the rear entrance of our corral and were sitting there on their horses
looking on at the yoking of the cattle. They partially blocked up the
opening and interfered with egress of the teams. Rice, coming up
behind them, without warning gave one of their horses a blow with a
heavy blacksnake whip. The horse sprang forward, nearly unseating
the rider, who, as soon as he could gather up the reins of his bridle,
turned upon Rice in a towering rage, jerked an arrow from its quiver
and fixed it in his bow. Forcing his horse right upon Rice, the Indian
punched him with the point of the arrow until he knocked his hat off his
head. Rice made no effort to resist the affront and threatened assault,
but kept backing out of the Indian’s reach.
I was standing near by and seized my pistol, thinking that a fight
was imminent. At the height of the excitement, Captain Chiles made
his appearance and commanded peace, in manner and language that
the Indians could understand, but it required some time and a deal of
talk to get them quieted. They denounced Rice’s conduct as an insult
they were bound to resent, and declared they would kill Rice sooner or
later. Captain Chiles, speaking through Juan, our Spaniard, told them
that if they commenced killing they would have to kill us all, for we
were bound to stand together when it came to that. After a long
wrangle the Indian said he would be satisfied if allowed to give Rice a
sound flogging with a whip, but Captain Chiles refused. Finally the
Indians seemed to recover their composure, to some extent, and rode
off in the direction of the main camp.

* * * * *
Somewhere thereabout, in the river bottoms, I saw the ruins of an
old adobe fort. “Old Fort Atkinson,” doubtless named for and
established and built by the command of Colonel Henry Atkinson of the
regular army, with whose military career I happened to be somewhat
familiar. The remains of the old fort excited my interest, but I do not
recollect to have seen the place mentioned by any of the numerous
accounts that have been written of the Santa Fé trail.
 PUNCHED HIM WITH THE POINT.

The fort was probably built in 1829. At that time a body of regular
troops was sent out on the trail as a protection to the traders. Colonel
Henry Atkinson was ordered west in 1818 and placed in command of
the Ninth Military department, then comprising the entire country west
of St. Louis, as well as Illinois and Wisconsin, with headquarters at
Fort Bellefontaine, near St. Louis. He was soon afterward advanced in
rank to brigadier general and held the command at Jefferson barracks
until his death in 1842. The military post at Council Bluffs, Ia., was
established by Colonel Atkinson in 1819, when he and his troops were
transported on the first steamboats ascending the Missouri river. He
served with distinction in the Black Hawk War, in command of the
forces.
 VI.
At the Kiowa Camp.

The train had got under way the next morning when the lodges
of the Kiowas loomed up in sight of us. The camp seemed to extend
over territory a mile square. The Indians said the entire tribe was
assembled there—chiefs, warriors, squaws and papooses. Presently
we could see them moving towards us, hundreds of them, on
horseback and on foot, all sorts and sizes, men, women and
children, coming to take a view of the white man and his belongings
as they passed.
Soon we could see also the lodges of the Comanches,
appearing about equal in number, and covering a like extent of
country. The two camps were a mile or more apart.
It had been agreed between the wagonmasters that we would
not make the usual noonday halt that day, but would drive by the
Indian camps and as far beyond as it was possible for the cattle to
stand the travel. We had anticipated a great throng of Indians, and
here they came by the hundreds!
Some of the “big men” among them had guns or pistols, but the
greater number, in fact almost every one, had a bow and quiver of
arrows slung over his shoulders, even the children who looked not
over ten years old. One chief wore a complete outfit of blue, with the
insignia of a captain of the United States army, and had a Colt’s
revolver, but nearly all of them were naked to the waist, with a
breech-clout and a sort of kilt of buckskin around the loins, hanging
down nearly to the knees. Some wore moccasins, while many were
barefooted.
 The little fellows, nude, save for a breech-clout, had little bows
about a foot long, with arrows of cactus thorn, with which they would
shoot grasshoppers and other insects, showing astonishing skill.
Numbers of the warriors carried spears, with long handles, glittering
in the sunlight as they rode along, giving the caravan the
appearance of a vast army of Crusaders on the march to the Holy
Land.
Captain Chiles, endeavoring to shift the responsibility and
escape the annoyance of the Indians, pointed to Reece, on his fine
horse, and said: “There is the captain; talk to him. Ask him for what
you want.” But they could not be so easily deceived. It is said that
you cannot fool Indians in this particular; that they never fail to
distinguish the wagonmaster, and appear to select the chief of any
crowd or caravan intuitively.
As we were traveling along the Indians gave frequent exhibitions
of the speed of their horses, running races with each other, but at a
sufficient distance not to frighten or stampede our cattle. The
younger men kept up a continual chattering and laughing; horse
racing seemed their great amusement. The young fellows of the visit
renewed their invitation, urging me to join them in a buffalo chase,
explaining that the herds were not far off, and expressing a great
desire to see a trial of my buffalo horse in a chase with theirs. I again
declined. The train was continually moving and would not be stopped
to suit my convenience, and there were other reasons, not
unreasonably discreet.
The head men of the tribes, addressing the wagonmasters,
complained that they were in great need of supplies, owing to the
delay in the arrival of their annuities, and asked a gift from the two
trains. The two wagonmasters, after some demurring, proposed to
them that if they, with all their people, would withdraw from, and
cease to follow the train, and desist from annoying us, after we had
corralled, we would go into camp and give them such supplies as we
could spare.
To this proposition the chiefs agreed. One of the leaders began
talking in a loud voice to the multitude, gradually riding off from us,
the crowd following. Reaching a knoll which elevated him so that he
could overlook them, he dismounted and proceeded to make a
speech. They seemed a little slow about leaving, the multitude
appearing to be not altogether governed by the leaders, but nearly
all finally withdrew in the direction of their own camp. Driving on a
few hundred yards further, our corrals were formed and the cattle
were driven off some distance for water, while preparations were
made for cooking dinner.
In a little while the chiefs, representing both tribes, made their
appearance at our corral, where the wagonmasters of both trains
had met to hold the diplomatic conference to determine how much of
a gift of supplies they were expecting from us.
The Indian chiefs dismounted from their horses, walked into the
corral and sat down on the ground, in the semi-circle, to the number
of perhaps a dozen and were soon joined by the wagonmasters,
together with our interpreter Juan.
Writing now, in the year 1901, solely from memory, forty-three
years since this scene occurred, I am unable to recollect all that was
said, or the names of any of the Indians who were present and took
part in this parley. No doubt San Tanta, that famous Kiowa chief, was
among them, but I took no notes whatever of this journey, and am
forced now to rely entirely on my memory. I recall that it was stated
that one of the most influential of the Comanche chiefs who was
there was an out-and-out Spaniard or Mexican, speaking the Indian
language as well as anybody, and was generally known and
recognized as among the meanest, most cruel and blood thirsty of
the Comanche tribe. One of the elder looking Indians produced a big
pipe, filled it with tobacco, lighted it, and after taking a few puffs
himself passed it to the one next to him. Thus the pipe was passed
around to each one in the circle until all had taken part in the smoke.
The Indians were dignified, discreet and cautious, as appeared to
me during the conference, leaving the impression that our troubles
with them were about to terminate, and this proved to be the fact.
At the close, and as a result of the council, a half-dozen sacks of
flour, half that many sacks of sugar, and a lot of sides of bacon were
brought forth from the mess wagons and stacked up on the ground,
near where the collection of dignitaries of the prairies were sitting,
smoking the pipe of peace and good fellowship.
I thought the Indians regarded the things we were giving them,
as a sort of tribute we were under obligations to pay for the privilege
of passing through their country unmolested.
Pack mules were brought up, the supplies were loaded on them
and they departed in the direction of the general camp, those
engaged in the conference soon following.
In the evening, before we broke camp, two young bucks came
galloping into the camp. Addressing Captain Chiles, they said that by
instruction of their chief they had come to return a pair of blankets
that had been stolen by one of the tribe. They threw down the
blankets and the captain called to the men at the mess wagon to
give them a cup of sugar each, saying that it was the first instance in
his life when an Indian had restored stolen property.
 VII.
To the Cimarron.

Escaping any further delay from Indians or from other causes,

good headway was made by the trains up the Arkansas until we
reached the “lower crossing.” It had been determined by the
wagonmasters that we would cross the river here, taking the
Cimarron route. Although the river was fordable, yet it was quite
tedious and difficult to get the heavily loaded wagons across the
stream, the water being waist-deep and the bottom uneven.
Neither an ox nor a mule will pull when he gets into water
touching his body. The mule, under such circumstances, always has
a tendency to fall down, and so get drowned, by becoming entangled
in the harness. To meet this emergency the ox teams were doubled,
ten yoke being hitched to each wagon, and were urged to do their
duty by a half-dozen drivers on each side, wading through the water
beside them.
The greater part of one day was taken up in getting the wagons
across, but it was accomplished without serious loss. Everything
being over, we encamped at the foot of the hill on the opposite side,
and rested a day, in recognition of the Fourth of July. We fired some
shots, and Captain Chiles brought forth from his trunk some jars of
gooseberries, directing the cooks to make some pies, as an
additional recognition of the national holiday. The gooseberries were
all right, but the pie crust would have given an ostrich a case of
indigestion.
The old Santa Fé trail, from the lower crossing of the Arkansas,
ran southwest to the Cimarron, across a stretch of country where
there was no water for a distance of nearly sixty miles, if my memory
serves me correctly. All the water casks were filled from the
Arkansas river for the use of the men, but of course there was no
means of carrying water for horse or ox.
The weather was warm and dry, and now we were about to enter
upon the “hornada,” the Spanish word for “dry stretch.” Intending to
drive all night, starting was postponed until near sundown. Two or
three miles from the Arkansas we apparently reached the general
altitude of the plains over which we trudged during the whole night,
with nothing but the rumbling of the wagons and the occasional
shout of one of the drivers to break the silence of the plain.

DIFFICULT TO GET THE HEAVILY LOADED WAGONS ACROSS.

It was my first experience of traveling at night, on this journey.

Toward midnight I became so sleepy that I could hardly sit on my
horse, so dismounting, I walked and led him. Advancing to a point
near the head of the trains I ventured to lie down on the ground to
rest, as the trains were passing at least. Instantly my clothes were
perforated with cactus needles which pricked me severely, and
waking me thoroughly. In the darkness it was with great difficulty I
could get the needles out. Mounting my horse again I rode some
distance in advance of everybody, completely out of hearing of the
trains, and riding thus alone, with nothing visible but the stars, a
feeling of melancholy seized me, together with a sense of
homesickness, with which I had not hitherto been troubled. Each
day’s travel was increasing the distance between me, my home and
my mother, to whom I was most dearly attached; and here amid the
solitude, darkness and perfect quietude of the vast plains I began to
reflect upon the dangers besetting me, and the uncertainty of ever
returning to my home or seeing my relatives again.
The approach of morning and the rising of the sun soon
dispelled these forebodings of evil and revived my spirits. Old Sol,
like a ball of fire, emerged from the endless plain to the east of us, as
from the ocean, soon overwhelming us with a flood of light such as I
had never experienced before. During all that day’s march the heat
was intense and the sunlight almost blinding, the kind of weather that
creates the mirage of the plains. In the distance on either hand, fine
lakes of clear water were seen glistening in the sun, sometimes
appearing circular in shape, surrounded with the proper shores, the
illusion being apparently complete, so much so that several times
during the day I rode some distance seeking to ascertain if they were
really lakes or not. I found them receding as I approached, and was
unable to get any closer to them than when as a boy I set out to find
the sack of gold at the end of the rainbow.
About midday we passed a great pile of bleached bones of
mules that had been thrown up in a conical shaped heap by the
passing trainmen, in the course of the ten years they had been lying
there. They were the remains of 200 or 300 mules belonging to John
S. Jones, a Missourian, a citizen of Pettis county, whom I knew
personally. In 1847, and for many years afterward, Jones was
engaged in freighting across the plains. In ’47, having obtained a
contract from the government to transport freight for the troops at
Santa Fé, he got a start late in the season, and had only reached the
crossing of the Arkansas when he was overtaken by such deep
snow and severely cold weather as to compel him to stop and go
into quasi-winter quarters. While there, protected by such barracks
for man and beast as could be hastily constructed, he received
orders from the commander of the troops in New Mexico that he
must hurry up with the supplies, orders of such urgency that they
could not be disregarded. He had a mule train of thirty wagons.
Orders were given to hitch up and start. The weather moderated the
first day, but on the second they encountered a heavy and cold rain
freezing as it fell, and were forced to go into corral. Intense cold
followed and every one of the mules froze to death, huddling in the
corral, during the night. Years afterwards, through the influence of
Colonel Benton in the Senate and John G. Miller of Missouri in the
House of Representatives an appropriation was made by Congress
of $40,000 to pay Mr. Jones for the loss of his mules.
In the forenoon of the second day from the Arkansas we reached
Sand creek, a tributary of the Cimarron, where we found a pool of
stagnant water, not enough for the oxen, but sufficient for the
trainmen to make coffee with, and there we camped. A few hours
afterwards we struck the valley of the Cimarron, and, after riding up
the bed of the apparently dry stream, we discovered a pool of clear
water. The cattle were so famished that they ran into it, hitched to the
wagons, their drivers being unable to restrain them, and it was with
considerable difficulty that the wagons were afterwards pulled out of
the mud.
 VIII.
My First Antelope.

After reaching the Cimarron we began seeing herds of antelope

in the distance. At first I tried “flagging” them. I had been told that on
approaching within two or three hundred yards of them, concealed
from their view behind an intervening ridge, these animals were
possessed of such inordinate curiosity that they could be enticed to
within gunshot of the hunter by tying a handkerchief on the end of a
stick and elevating it in sight of the antelope, the hunter, of course,
keeping concealed. I made several efforts at this plan of exciting
their curiosity, and while some of them came toward me at first sight
of the flag, their curiosity seemed counterbalanced by caution or
incredulity, and in no instance could I get one to come near enough
for a sure or safe shot. I then tried a rifle, with which I was also
unsuccessful, not then being able to make a correct estimate of the
distance between me and the antelope, a troublesome task, only to
be acquired by experience and constant practice.