Alt 202 Courtesy of Ayub Brian The 20th

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE BASED PROGRAMMES
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
LITERATURE DEPARTMENT
ALT 202 SURVEY OF AFRICAN

LITERATURE (MODULE)
Wallace Mbugua [PhD]
September 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LECTURE 1. Burning of Rags by Francis Imbuga
Introduction 1
Lesson 1: Theme of tradition in Burning of Rags 2
Lesson 2: Style as a medium of thematic expression in Burning of Rags 7
Lesson 3: Characterisation in the Burning of Rags 14
LECTURE 2: A Man of the People by Chinua Achebe

Introduction 18
Lesson 4: Thematic concerns in A Man of the People 19
Lesson 5: Style in A Man of the People 26
Lesson 6: Characterisation in A Man of the People 31
LECTURE 3: A Walk in the Night by Alex la Guma

Introduction 37
Lesson 7: Thematic concerns in A Walk in the Night 39
Lesson 8: Characters and style in A Walk in the Night 49
Lesson 9: The other short stories in A Walk in the Night 56
LECTURE 4: So Long a Letter by Mariama Ba

Introduction: So Long A Letter as a feminist novel 59
Lesson 10: The character of Ramatoulaye in So Long A Letter 60
Lesson 11: Thematic concerns in So Long A Letter 66
Lesson 12: Style in So Long A Letter 71
LECTURE 5: When Bullets Begin to Flower by Margaret Dickinson

Introduction 74
Lesson 13: Themes in When Bullets Begin to Flower 76
Lesson 14: Style in When Bullets Begin to Flower 81
Lesson 15: During the struggle 92
LECTURE 6: Oral Literature: Introduction 98

Lesson 16: A Generic Overview of Oral Literature 99
Lesson 17: Oral poetry 115
Lesson 18: Oral Literature and Society 122
References 129
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INTRODUCTION
ALT202: SURVEY OF AFRICAN LITERATURE
Welcome to this second year unit.
There are two aspects of this course that need explanation. The first is that it is a
“Survey”.
Meaning that it provides a few borders on the landscape of African Literature. It is
difficult to have an in-depth analysis of the entire African Literature in one text leave
alone a unit like this one. The second point is that we have assumed that the learner
broadly understands what we mean by African Literature. We must hasten to add that
what constitutes African Literature remains a problematic matter. I am sure that by the
time you are through with the unit, you will have tasted a slice of African Literature.
Then you will have come closer to accurately defining it.
The aim of the current unit is to stimulate your interest in African Literature. We start
from East Africa to West Africa and in deed sample literature from both the Francophone
and Anglophone countries. We have exposed you to varied religious settings; African,
Muslim and Christian social contexts. Therefore, we are certain that by the time you
have completed your study of the unit you will have conducted an intellectual survey of
the literature from the African continent.
Methodology: This unit will comprise eighteen lessons devoting at least three
lessons to each of the six areas to learn, namely:
1) Oral Literature
2) Poetry – Margaret Dickinson’s Poetry Anthology When Bullets Begin to
Flower
3) Drama – Imbuga’s Play: The Burning of Rags
4) Alex La Guma’s Collection of Short Stories– A Walk in the Night
5) Chinua Achebe’s Novel – A Man of the People
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6) Mariama Ba’s epistolary Novel – So Long a Letter
UNIT OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit you will be able to achieve the following specific objectives:
a) Identify and explain African response to colonialism as revealed in the selected
poetry.
b) Describe the nature and function of oral literature.
c) Discuss the role of drama in the promotion of cultural diversity.
d) Critically describe through analysis the response of literary writers to apartheid.
e) Discuss the plight of women in an Islamic environment.
f) Analyse how literature captures the dynamics of life in post – colonial African
states.
Students are encouraged to read the primary texts and discuss them with their colleagues
so as to internalize their understanding. In addition to this, they should conduct library
research to familiarize themselves with the critical considerations that inform the primary
texts.
Each lecture comprises three lessons. There are six lectures covering eighteen lessons in
all.
It is my sincere prayer and hope that you will enjoy studying this unit.
Wallace Kamau Mbugua (Ph.D)

Lecturer
Literature Department
Kenyatta University
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LECTURE 1
THE BURNING OF RAGS – Francis Imbuga
Introduction to lecture one

This lecture will deal with the following;
 The Theme of African Tradition
 Style as a medium of thematic expression
 Characterisation
The Burning of rags was first performed in 1971 under the title “Sons and Parents” and
published in 1973 under the title The Married Bachelor. The different titles only
emphasize the different aspects of the theme of cultural clash between modernism and
traditionalism. The major confrontation is between old Agala and his son Denis, a
university professor, over the circumcision of Denis’s son and the ceremonial burning of
his rags.
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LESSON 1
THEME OF TRADITION IN BURNING OF RAGS
Introduction
Theme refers to the main idea that revolves around a work of art. The Burning of Rags
revolves around different aspects of the theme of cultural clash between modernism and
traditionalism. The major confrontation is between old Agala and his son Denis, a
university professor, over the circumcision of Denis’s son Yona, and the subsequent
ceremonial burning of his rags.
Lesson Objective
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to identify and analyse the theme of
tradition in The Burning of Rags,
The old uncompromising father reflects a way of life that is on the wane, and his son
Denis reflects the dilemma of the intellectual who has abandoned his traditional values
and become traumatized by Western ones; he becomes grounded on neither and
consequently cannot adequately synthesize them. Denis’s oscillation between the two
cultures can explain his hypocrisy. The Burning of Rags is not just a confrontation
between father and son but also a dramatization of how foreign values can be
constructively integrated into the cosmology of the old traditions. The integration is
achieved at the end of the play. The sudden death of the father has cathartic effect on
Dennis. It shakes him to the bone and makes him look introspectively at his past in a new
light of self-evaluation. The Burning of Rags, which has been to the father a mere
traditional rite, has become an initiation ceremony for Dennis’s self-realization.
Later in the play, he tells Hilda, his feminine counterpart, “He is there … I looked at
myself, Hilda, through their [his father’s and son’s] eyes. And I saw that I am nothing
but a rag. Just a rag to be burnt after the ceremony is over.” Thus “the victory at the
end” as Imbuga says, “is neither Dennis’s nor Agala’s. It is the victory of the notion of
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the interdependency of men and women, the interdependency of cultures, so that each
case is uniquely different from the next.”
Learning Activity
?  How is this integration achieved at the end of the play?
Tradition in the play manifests itself in various ways:
 Belief in the living dead
Aspects of  Institution of marriage

tradition  Circumcision
 Patriarchal authority
Agala represents preservation of culture. He is tied to it and cannot comprehend and

tolerate the likes of Denis and his friends diluting it. He, old Agala, believes in the
existence of the living dead and their spirits. At the beginning of the play, he converses
with the apparition of Matilda, his daughter-in-law who committed suicide. Matilda
makes the first speech in the play:
Not a single evil eye among you today, eeh? That is

good for a change. And that is what I always hope for
… unfortunately, it has been all hell where I have
come from …? (1)
The word “among” tells us she is addressing the audience – among them Agala and Elima
who are on stage. The word “hope” creates the idea that Matilda expected hope, peace
and good wishes for herself that is spoilt by the word “unfortunately.”
In the conversation with Matilda’s ghost, old Agala says: “Be careful woman. Now I
understand your game. That is not the kind of ‘fatherless’ that I was talking about. Not
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for as long as I am still alive. The boy is my grandchild therefore, he is not fatherless.”
(4). This is a community of a people who believe in, revere dreams and consult with the
living dead. Probably they might be sent by an ancestor to deliver a particular message
which is bound to unite the society. In Agala’s case Maltilda appears to him in a dream.
There is danger where she comes from, with people carrying knives up to point when
they are convinced that there is peace. This is after they have examined each other’s
organs – organ by organ – meaning systematically.
When they sit to watch the play – once in a while, they become totally united. Examine
these aspects of life that unite them:
 A national catastrophe
 A plane crash
 Death of an important thief
Note that the theatre represents fiction and the streets represent the harsh realities of life.
Marital relation between Denis and Matilda on the one hand and Denis and Hilda on the
other hand should be examined. Matilda accuses old Agala of bringing Denis to pay
dowry and beg for the son to marry her. She says she has visited Agala to advise him
against the failure on his son, Denis. Matilda further accuses old Agala:
Was is not you who brought dowry to my people and begged on

your knees for a speedy union? Who was it who bragged of a son
strong in limb and mind? Was it not you? (3)
Agala disowns Denis saying that he had gone to join “sons of other people” leaving his
own son at home. Yona goes to lie in Agala’s bed; symbolically this might imply that
Yona shares the same values as Agala, the grandfather. However, this makes the matter
more complicated. It’s Agala whose authority has been questioned by his own son,
Denis. His powers are no longer recognized.
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?
 Compare Denis’s relationships with Matilda and his late
relationship with Hilda in the play. Which of the two would
old Agala approve? Why?
This issue of initiation is brought to the fore. Matilda calls out Yona’s name who
responds – “Yes mummy!” This shocks Agala who had not seen him hitherto. Matilada
explains that Yona is in Agala’s bed because he is “craving for initiation.” Yet he is
“fatherless” (4). Agala says that as long as he is alive, the boy is not “fatherless.” The
cardinal issue here is filial binding between son and father. Matilda, it is clear, supports
tradition.
Matilda claims she took Yona to the knife but Agala protests such a move. “… You
would have to castrate me first! What did I here you say?” (4). Subtly, the idea of
patriarchy is implied here. In the dream, Matilda has circumcised Yona. She has a
hidden knife which she exposes. This act by a woman is taboo, and Agala says, “I am
done. I am finished,” Agala orders her to give him the knife but she refuses. He faces
her and for the first time he realizes that he has been arguing with Matilda’s spirit.
Throughout the play patriarchal authority is manifest in the hands of old Agala. He
issues orders and makes decisions because he is the custodian of culture. He argues that
Yona must face the same knife that his ancestors faced so that Yona’s blood trickles on
the soil that covers the bones of their ancestors.
Old Agala also decides that the brandy, which Denis has brought, won’t be taken in his
home:
Lion’s tears. No one will drink lion’s tears in my compound when we
have a nice pot of busaa here. It is either busaa or tea.
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Denis complies with his father’s position. And when Elima talks as if doubting Agala’s
strength, she immediately gives in and says:’
Cool down, man... This is your home and you can have your way. (10)
Their fathers, and never their mothers, own children in this society. Agala says Bandi is
his son and not Elima’s because Elima had no son when she came. He tells Elima;
“Hold your tongue you daughter of somebody. If women own sons where
you come from, they don’t do it here. (9)
Summary: This lesson has illuminated your understanding on how the theme of tradition
manifests itself in the play.
Learning Activities
 Discuss the impact of education and religion on the traditional culture in the play.
 What other aspects of tradition are highlighted in The Burning of Rags?
 With specific references to this text, discuss how the living dead influence the
living in your community.
 Look at the theme of tradition in other selected plays of the playwright and
compare it with this.
 Find our other instances of male chauvinism.
LESSON 2
STYLE AS A MEDIUM OF THEMATIC EXPRESSION IN
BURNING OF RAGS
Introduction
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Style is a distinctive manner of doing, performing or presenting something. Imbuga
employs various stylistic devices in order to present his thematic concerns.
Lesson Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to identify and analyse the following:
 Symbolism
 Imagery
Style
 Flashback
 Folklore – proverbs, stories etc.
as aspects of style employed by the playwright to inform his play Burning of Rags.
Symbolism
Symbolism in the play is widely used. It is the use of objects or names to represent issues
or things. The two drums represent cultural conflict – one drum symbolizes the Western
way of life while the other symbolizes traditional way of life. The choice of the name
Denis represents Western way of life because it is alien in Africa while Agala, his father,
symbolizes tradition. This is why Denis insists on taking his son, Yona to hospital for
circumcision – a shift from tradition. But Agala maintains that the same knife that
worked on their forefathers must circumcise his grandchild traditionally.
Denis’s mother wars a large crucifix around her neck as described on page five. This
symbolizes religion. The playwright seems to imply that religion is a burden to Africans
and that it has contributed to the erosion of the indigenous culture. Formal education is
another foreign aspect that has helped crumble the African culture. Denis is alienated
culturally as he cannot sit with Africans. He looks down upon Africans because they do
not have the foreign education. He becomes friendly to the whites.
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The long rope that Matilda is pulling symbolizes culture, which has long history of
existence. Imbuga implies that the traditional culture is not something that is easily
uprooted, as it is deeply rooted. Nobody can abandon his culture forever. Denis does not
succeed in evading his culture as his father brings bananas, which implies that the culture
has to survive even to the city. Matilda is dead and buried but according to tradition
nothing is buried and dies forever, Matilda comes back as seen in the appearance of her
apparition to Agala’s bed, a slow soft murmur of drums sounds as Matilda pulls in a half
naked boy. The soft murmur of drums symbolizes a cultural conflict between Agala and
Denis over Yona’s circumcision.
The bananas symbolise the traditional African values that could be important in modern
African countries. The playwright seems to be crusading for the liberation of traditional
African culture. Denis’s refusal to identify with his traditional culture leads to the stress
that finally claims his father’s life. By taking his father’s body home, Denis must lead in
performing all rituals expected. He cannot, therefore, escape the cultural practices of his
people.
Learning Activity
? 

What does Agala’s death symbolizes?
Identify and explain other aspects of symbolism in the
play.
Imagery
The author uses imagery, which is an imaginative language and produces pictures in
minds of people who are reading or listening. There are two of these images: similes and
metaphors. A metaphor is an imaginative use of word or phrase to describe something or
somebody as another object in order to show that they have the same qualities and to
make the description more forceful. A simile is a comparison of one thing with another.
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On page 29, a metaphor is used in the conversation between Hilda and Henrics. Hilda
tells Henrics that “then you will be no longer a man but a beast …” She calls him a beast
referring to the action of him taking advantage of Hilda and having a child with her and
he wants to tell Denis about it, yet he is aware that Denis would disown her. Henrics is
also a beast because he makes Hilda pregnant and takes off. And when Hilda is in love
with Denis, Henrics is envious about it and starts looking for ways to make them part.
This shows that there is betrayal by the whites, as Henrics wants to take advantage of the
poor African; Hilda.
Babu comments that women are chameleons. Since Elima wanted to change her dress,,
which was a rag, and dress up well to welcome her son, Denis. Babu wants her to remain
the way she is so that Denis would see the nakedness of the needy.
Agala tells Denis that he has a heart of stone. This is because at the time of Yona’s
initiation ceremony, Denis does not attend that initiation and therefore he does not want
to mind about the life of his son. He betrays his son and tradition for refusing to attend
the initiation ritual. On entering the house and finding Hilda dancing the Scottish country
music, which is a cultural dance for the Scottish, Denis asks her:
…what about you? What are you trying to prove? And the dance is
spreading like wildfire in our institutions of learning … (19)
The playwright uses this simile to show that the culture is fading away due to imitations
from other cultures.
Flashback
Flashback is another stylistic feature used in the play to help bring out the themes clearly.
This is when the dramatist takes us back to what happened in the past in the play. The
poem written by Denis Agala “Our gourd of wisdom,” is a flashback;” … Let her go she
was unmarried.” (17) is a statement that tells us that Denis was not a good man at all as
he had not married Matilda according to the poem. It also reveals that Denis was
opportunistic as he used Matilda sexually for his own good yet he had not married her.
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Agala’s dream takes us back to the death of Matilda. Matilda tied herself on the mango
tree. Denis in this sense was not involved directly but the quarrel between the two brings
out the domestic violence that may have led to the death.
The conversation between Hilda and Henrics takes us back to the past events. Hilda
reminds Henrics o what he had done in the past before she fell in love with Denis.
Henrics had taken off on realizing that Hilda was pregnant.
Folklore
The dramatist also uses folklore – that means the traditions, stories and customs of a
community of culture. This is shown well by the use of poems and proverbs. The poem
below exposes cultural erosion that leads cultural conflict between Denis and his father
Agala. The stillborn represents the education who, though educated, cannot please their
parents. Denis’s parents sleep in a cracked wall house whereas Denis had a good house
in the city. The poem also brings out the theme of exploitation:
Fires die they are unfed

New children unmoved
Mother unknown
Let her go she belonged to the gone (7)
This shows that Denis had lived with many women to the point that he was married but
no one becomes a permanent wife for him. He is a womanizer.
Incorporated in tradition is wisdom. The society must be composed of people who

portray wise skills, talks and activities. Without this virtue, a society is bound to break
and land is absolute trouble. Majority of Babu’s and Agala’s meetings are beautifully
compounded by the words of wisdom:
Our ancestors were right when they said, do not talk ill of your neighbour,
he may be under your seat. (12)
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This served as a warning to those that are fond of talking ill concerning friends without
observing any precaution. “This is nose that sits above a dry throat does not let a smell
pass.” Such sayings enrich the African culture and majority portrays men in the society
to be people of wise words who cannot be betrayed or dispensed away with. Story-telling
in the form of narration is a good method of conversing, which brings about amusement
and displays the diverseness of the traditional culture.
The people are depicted as members who do understand their ways. Babu adopts
narration: “these bible stories! I like the one about the sheep now …” p13) Moreover,
Bandi’s oral narration gives a better insight of the traditional African culture, which is
interesting to associate with: “We watched with our eyes, as our gourd of wisdom was
buried. Never again to be carried.” These show the mastery of skills that the people in
the African society have which reinforce the culture.
Learning Activities
? 

Identify and explain other incidences of narration in the play.
Identify and explain other proverbs or wise sayings used in
the play. Compare them with similar ones in your
community.
Superstition cannot be separated from any African culture and it is what keeps the people
moving: “when I saw two flies play father and mother, I knew that this day would be
fruitful.” Individuals like Denis who claims to be a professor of culture have ridiculed
the traditional African culture but he does not uphold it. He preaches water and drinks
wine. The tradition is at a conflict with the new things that have been embedded to it by
Westernization where formal education is present. Agala, who is the bearer of tradition
cannot compromise seeing the ways of his ancestors being distorted. No wonder he is in
motion fighting the battle for retraining the old ways.
As for Elima, she is in a lukewarm state; she neither denies the ways of her husband nor
despises the new practices. Backed up by Babu, the two represent those who are caught
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up in a conflict and cannot take sides. “… The son of God is not here to make me a
disciple like Petro, Yohana, Ananias … Anania was one of them, was he not?” Due to
their inconsistency, they have poor mastery of skills and all they allude to is mere
mockery.
Although culture is dynamic, Francis Imbuga seems to say that we should not dispense
away with our native culture. Actually the title Burning of Rags, can also be interpreted
as the destroying of the new ways, which have been rejected. All they tend to do is to
confuse people. Denis abandons his role as father to Yona and as caretaker to his family.
The members of the family are subjected to abject poverty through neglect by Denis. This
should not be the case since he is an educated person: “… or do you think this boy will
enter that sooty of yours?” (35).
In conclusion, Imbuga simply highlights the richness, aesthetic behind the traditional
African culture. Though it is wise to dispense away with some issues, we should be
alienated by Western culture such that we remain confused. We should appreciate our
native culture but avoid embracing new things whose concept we do not understand.
Therefore we ought to carry on with our traditional culture and champion for activities
which treat every member equally. Culture is a driving force behind any successful
community.
Summary
 In this lesson we have examined how Francis Imbuga uses symbolism, imagery,
flashback and folklore to bring out artistic expression in the play Burning of
Rags
 We have also seen how aspects of style help to develop thematic concerns in a
text
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Learning Activities
? 

Discuss irony and allusion in the text.
Discuss the effectiveness of selected aspects of style in the
text.
LESSON 3
CHARACTERISATION IN BURNING OF RAGS
Introduction
As we have seen characterisation is one of the most important tools used by a writer to
communicate his or her ideas to the audience.
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will have learnt:
 How characters influence one another
 Ways in which conflict is embedded in characterisation
 How characterisation helps in bringing out thematic concerns
Matilda makes the first speech in the play: “Not a single evil eye among you today, eeh?
That is good for a change …” She comes out as assertive woman addressing the audience
as well as Agala and his wife, Elima – who are on stage. She seems to have been
wronged and she forcefully expresses her discontent. There is danger where she comes
from, with people carrying knives until they are convinced that there is peace.
Matilda says that it is better a national catastrophe than “… that dark corner of her life.”
This episode reveals Matilda’s search for meaning of that “dark corner.” It takes us to
that past – it seems as if she wants to justify or exonerate herself from blame. She asserts
that she knows that she “deserves better,” whether that is true or not it is for us to judge.
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The next speech is the Boy’s voice that calls out “Mama!” Straight away we are able to
establish the relationship between the voice and Matilda. Matilda explains that “was” is
the best way to explain her existence, yet she talks of people who are ‘here” – she knows
she was married to a son of the home where she is. This discussion revolves around the
spirit world and there are implications that Matilda is already a spirit that has visited the
Agala’s.
As Matilda stands by Agala’s bed, Agala still tosses and turns. She has already tied the
rope round the bed and the boy’s neck making it difficult for the latter to move. She
begins to sing and Agala is hypnotised as he wakes up and “… gropes about blindly,” (2).
This means that old Agala was probably in a dream.
Agala seems not to recognize Matilda’s apparition: “Friend? Who are you?” (2) She
identified herself as the mother of his grandchild. She explains to Agala that her mission
is to advise him to protect himself from his “son’s failures.”
Matilda accuses Agala of bringing Denis to pay dowry and beg for the son to marry her.
Agala had said that he had “a son strong in limb and mind.” According to Matilda, this
was an overstatement. Agala disowns Denis saying he had gone to join “sons of other
people.” (p3) Matilda is portrayed as intelligent and observant, as it’s true that Denis is
alienated from his people and culture.
Matilda comes out as responsible and steadfast to her culture when she tells old Agala
that Yona is “… craving for initiation” and that she had to take responsibility because
Yona is “fatherless”.
In the dream, Matilda has circumcised Yona. She had a hidden knife, which she exposes.
This action, by a woman, is taboo and Agala says, “I am done. I am finished.”
Yona is obedient to his mother. He obeys Matilda’s call, unties the rope from the bed and
follows her. He sleeps, stirs and wakes Elima. Elima wears a crucifix – a Christian
symbol – to ward off spirits?
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From this point on, Agala and Elima are at cross-purpose; Elima blames Agala’s mental
disturbance and sleeplessness on himself: “You opened a window on your mind,”
However, Agala blames Denis for “soiling” his name.
We learn from Elima that Agala has a blood disease and he is not supposed to be stressed.
We also learn that it is almost circumcision time. Agala blames his woes on women: “…
listening and not listening when you want them to …” He, therefore, concludes that this
world would be better without women.
Bandi, Denis’s brother recites a poem on death and cultural beliefs. He is more attracted
to his brother and his poetry than he is to Agala and his ideas. He comes out as dynamic
and appreciative.
Agala says that Denis has ignored them (him and Bandi) because he (Denis) had a degree
and they have none. Thing brings in another dimension to the interpretation. He blames
the white man’s education for the brainwashing of his son making the don disobedient.
Yet Agala wants Bandi to read him a letter. We also see another side of Agala when he
argues that Denis would have proved he has a degree by building a permanent house in
the rural home instead of buying one at “the city in the sun.” This is a contradiction of
the very ideals of traditionalism, which Agala upholds. This also introduces the idea of
the disparity between rural and urban areas. The other disparity is between men and
women, young and old.
Stop and think
!  What aspects of Denis’s character make him clash with his

traditional culture?
 What role does Matilda play in the text?
Agala is a male chauvinist. He suggests by implication that a woman’s place is in the

kitchen (9) thus introducing the politics of space into the text. He also implies that only
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men own children: “my son,” he tells Elima. “You had no son when I brought you
here,” and blames her for spoiling his children: “You spoilt Denis and now you want to
do the same to Bandi.” How? Denis addresses letters to his mother – even though he has
a father “alive and strong.”
We learn that Agala is a Mr. Barnabas Agala of Wendo village. In the letter Denis
confirms that he “cannot find time to come home.” (10). He says his students are doing
exams and he had to give them maximum coaching, concluding that he would not be
available “to perform the traditional rites which are expected of me” (10). He also says,
in the letter, that when he feels the son needs to be circumcised, he would take him to the
hospital. This introduced the controversy of whether the traditional or the hospital
circumcision would be better or even more appropriate. The circumcision ritual and its
significance is highlighted on p.10: it is for identity and continuity.
Summary
In this lesson we have learnt how characterisation influences thematic development.
For example in the play we learn that Denis is living with a woman he calls “cook”. This
woman is not traditionally married to him and he has not wedded her in accordance with
Christian ethics and practises. This leads us to the questions that form our learning
activities as outlined below.
Learning Activities
? 

What is a marriage?
What role do women play in Agala’s family?
 Compare and contrast Agala and Babu.
 Discuss the different obligations of a father in Burning of
Rags. Are they justified? Why?
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LECTURE 2
A MAN OF THE PEOPLE – Chinua Achebe
Introduction to lecture two

“A Man of the People” is a political satire that revolved around the events and lives of
people in Nigeria in the sixties. In it, the author explores the excesses committed by the
ruling class in the name of protecting the country’s had won independence. Most of
those in position of power, such as Chief Nanga, are out to use their positions to acquire
wealth at the expense of developing their nation. They engage in a multiplicity of social
evils such as corruption, misuse and wastefulness of public resources eg, hiring goons to
immobilize their opponents and so on. They have however managed to stay in power by
making the citizens believe that their actions are meant to benefit and defend the entire
community.
The common people seem to be passive participants in the evils perpetrated by the ruling
elite. They look at the behaviour and activities of the leaders as having nothing to do
with them. It takes long before they realize that their so-called teachers have been up to
no good. The intellectuals have not made things better by not getting involved in active
politics. It takes them too long to realize this and see that the threat they pose to the
establishment indirectly triggers the events that finally bring down the civilian
government, ushering in a military regime.
The reader of the text will no doubt find it quite interesting and thought provoking as he
compares the fictitious events in it to the events in his immediate environment. The
sacking of the Finance Minister for what the Prime Minister sees as a plot to bring down
his government, the printing of paper money to meet political ends, the hiring of gangs
for political purposes and later dumping them after they have outlived their usefulness,
the snatching of opponents’ nomination papers before elections, the wanton corruption
and nauseating mismanagement and wastefulness of public resources and so on, though
21
satirically written, will definitely make a lot of sense to any student who is keen in
following the current affairs in his own backyard. Such a student will definitely find ‘A
Man of the People’ a very interesting, relevant and thought provoking text.
22
LESSON 4
THEMATIC CONCERNS IN CHINUA ACHEBE’S NOVEL
A MAN OF THE PEOPLE
Introduction
Arguably, postcolonial Africa refers to that period of Africa’s first contact with the
colonialists, through colonialism and after independence. During the colonial period, the
African suffered both physical and psychological trauma due to brutality, forced labour,
oppression and colonial imperialism. The Africans consequently united to fight the
common enemy with hope of total liberation from the colonial yoke. It however, turned
out that after independence, the situation in Africa continued to deteriorate. The leaders
who took over at independence became greedy and selfish – such that independence
meant merely a change of guard with colonial oppressive institutions of governance
remaining intact.
Objective
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to show ways in which the novel A Man
of the People is an apt reflection of the explosive situation in post-colonial Africa.
He will be able to show how the text explores certain problems \that bedevil the
independent African states.
 Corruption
 Extravagance
 Neo-colonialism
Thematic concerns  Immorality
 Insecurity
 Poverty
 Betrayal
Theme of Corruption
Corruption is one of the major problems in post-colonial Africa. In the novel, it was a
common saying in Odili’s country that after independence it didn’t matter what you know
23
but who you knew. Odili says that he was not any “big man’s” bootlicking type, the
reason why he took the teaching job in the bush private school instead of a smart civil
service job in the city with a car, free housing etc. Boniface, Odili’s bodyguard tells him
that, “We give three pounds ten to the policemen so that they go spoil the paper for our
case.” (114)
Chief Nanga brings Odili a scholarship and on top of that 250 pounds so that he can step
down for him during the elections. Nanga says:
I’m giving you this money because I feel that after all my years
of service to my people, I deserve to be elected unopposed so that
my detractors in Bori will know that I have my people solidly
behind me. (118)
We learn that Chief Koko has also given Maxwell Kulamo 1000 pounds so that the latter
can step down for the former during the election. When Maxwell is giving a speech in
Urua, Odili’s village, there is one man who proves particularly troublesome. He had been
a police corporal who had served two years in jail for corruptly receiving ten thousand
shillings from a lorry driver.
This man when he became a local councillor and politician, he

was at the moment very much involved in supplying stones for
our village pipe borne water scheme and was widely accused (in
whispers) of selling one heap of stones in the morning, carrying it
away at night and selling it again the next day; and repeating the
cycle as long as he liked. He was of course in league with the
local council Treasurer, 123
Chief Nanga gives five pounds to the journalist of the Daily Matchet because he fears that
if he does not do so, the journalist will write something bad about him. “If I don’t give
him something now, tomorrow he will go and write rubbish about me. They say it is the
freedom of the press. (66). On the other hand, Odili says:
Nanga is a minister bloated by flatulence of ill-gotten

wealth, living in a big mansion built with public money,
24
riding in a Cadillac and watched over by a one-eyed hired
thug. (75)
The P.O.P and P.A.P. Parties are using mass bribing of the electors in their campaigns.
“We will leave mass bribing of the electors to the P.O.P and P.A.P.” Maxwell tells Odili.
Learning Activity
?  Identify and explain other incidences of corruption in

the text.
Theme of Extravagance
Extravagance is another illness in A Man of the People. In the Grammar School, most of
the hunters reserved their precious powder to greet the Minister’s arrival –“the price of
everything else having doubled again and again in the four years since this government
took control.” (2) The Minister stepped out wearing damask and gold chains and
acknowledging cheers with his ever present fan of animal skin. (7) The woman who
came with the Minister to Anata Grammar School was “wearing massive coral beads
worth a hundred of pounds according to the whisper circulating in the room while she
talked.” (7) Odili further observed, “… our minister’s” official residence is that each has
seven bedrooms, one for every day of the week…” (36)
Nanga had order the luxury buses to ply the route as soon as it was tarred; each would
cost him 6,000 pounds. Nanga had two good reasons for wanting the road tarred, “-next
elections and the arrival of his buses.” (43)
When Odili was listening to Chief Nanga’s speech, he saw a man who was wearing
expensive woolen material robes with advertisements.-“100% WOOL: MADE IN
ENGLAND”- This was at the book exhibition (64), Recycling on manufactured goods
at the expense of the locally made ones impacts negatively on the local economy. Yet
initially, he was talking of promoting locally made goods e.g. coffee.
25
Learning Activity
?  Identify and comment on other incidents of

extravagance in the text.
Theme of Neo-colonialism
The indirect existence or practice of European leadership or lifestyle despite the fact that
they left the country at independence is called neo-colonialism. Neo-colonialism is quite
evident in the text. Odili says:
Chief Nanga always spoke English or pidgin, his children whom I
discovered went to expensive private schools run by European
ladies spoke impeccable English, but Mrs. Nanga stuck to our
language-with odd English words thrown in now and again. (32)
Nanga tells T.C. Kobino, the Minister of Public Constructions that he prefers to deal with
Europeans and that he does not trust their young graduate boys in the tarring of the road.
(42) Odili further observes: “… then a handful of us – the smart and the lucky and hardly
ever the best – had scrambled for the one shelter our former rulers left, and had taken it
over and barricaded themselves in.” (37). This shows how much neo-colonialism had
penetrated the African governments. The Minister for Overseas Training (Chief Koko)
imports Nescafe for his breakfast drink. The ministers promote (OHMS) products which
themselves don’t use. (32)
The European who was with Maxwell was apparently from one of the Eastern Block
continues (77). The C.P.C. money for campaign is got by Maxwell from abroad (14).
All this is vindictive that neo-colonialism is a problem that is still persisting in the post-
colonial countries.
Learning Activities
?  Identify and explain other incidences of neo-

colonialism in the text.
 Compare these with similar vices in your own country.
26
Theme of Immorality
A deviation from the expected moral standards or values can be referred to as immorality.
This is one of the major thematic concerns of A Man of the People. Immorality is
practiced by leaders and even youth in institutions of learning. Odili meets a girl called
Elsie on the campus at a party and sleeps with her the same day. It is curious that this
party has been organized by a Christian movement. (24). Another boy student on campus
nicknamed Irre ( short for irresponsible) is a ruthless and unprincipled womanizer. He
takes a female undergraduate to his house and comes out holding a condom:
… Then one afternoon we saw her enter his rooms. Our

hall began to buzz with excitement as word went round,
and we stood in little groups all along the corridor, waiting.
Half an hour or so later Irre came out glistening with sweat,
and then held up a condom bloated with his disgusting
seed. (25)
Chief Nanga, a minister, sleeps with Elsie – Odili’s girl friend. “I heard from a distance
Elsie deliriously screaming my name,” Odili says. Clearly Nanga is an immoral and
irresponsible post colonial African leader who lacks respect for his status. Nanga tells
Odili that he is sorry for annoying him – sleeping with Elsie. “I am sorry if you are
offended. The mistake is mine – I tender unreserved apology. If you like I can bring you
six girls in the evening.” (72) This gives an impression that Nanga’s moral decadence is
inherent and perhaps beyond reform.
Learning Activities
?  Identify and comment of other incidences of immorality in

the text.
 To what extent do you think A Man of the People is an
appropriate set book for Kenyan students?
27
Theme of Poverty
When individuals are unable to meet their basic requirements for survival, we attribute it
to poverty. Poverty in A Man of the People as a post-colonial African novel is rampant.
Odili says that other families slaughtered a goat in two years while his father Samalu, a
district interpreter, slaughtered a goat every Saturday:
…My father used to slaughter a goat every Saturday, which was

more than most families did in two years, and this sign of wealth
naturally exposed us to their jealousy and malevolence. (29)
This compares well with what Odili says in response:

… I saw a beggar sleeping under the eaves of luxurious department store
and a lunatic sitting wide awake by the basket of garbage he called his
possession. (71)
These instances are powerful statements that reflect the level of poverty in the post
colonial African state. Peter, Odili’s houseboy who is fifteen years old could not
continue with his school beyond standard six due to poverty. Odili says that when he
lived in Gilgil town with his elder half sister there, was a week when the night – soil men
in the town decided to go on a strike over poor pay.
Summary:
This lesson has demonstrated that in terms of thematic concerns A Man of the People is a
post-colonial novel.
Learning Activities
? 

Identify and discuss other incidences of poverty in the text.
Identify and discuss the theme of corruption in the novel.
 Comment on the activities of political gangs in the novel.
28
LESSON 5
STYLE IN A MAN OF THE PEOPLE
Introduction
This lesson will address aspects of style that inform Achebe’s novel A MAN
OF THE PEOPLE
Objective
At the end of lesson five the learner will be able to analyse aspects of style
in relation to the development of the novel,
 Imagery
 Irony
Style
 Proverbs
Various images are expressed through similes and metaphors. The members of
parliament who led the crusade against the Finance Minister are described as “hounds
straining their leash to get their victims” (9) – the author’s way of showing how greedy,
callous and opportunistic they are. Chief Nanga is also described as “a hungry hyena.”
Edna’s father says that his wife’s treatment is costing him “water and firewood” (92)
meaning it is expensive as he has to make a lot of sacrifice. When Odili rejects Chief
Nanga’s offer of two hundred and fifty pounds, his father tells him, “You have lost the
sky and you have lost the ground,” (120). The folk in Odili’s village says “the whiteman
is a spirit” (122).
Similes
Several similes have been used too. Odili says giving things to his father “was like
pouring a little water in a dried up well,” (27). This shows that his father has an
29
insatiable greed for things. He also says that “the District Officer was like a supreme
Deity.” (28), showing the fear and awe with which he was held. When Odili inquires
from his father why his friend’s father had thrown him out of his home, he is reprimanded
for “wandering like a homeless tramp,” (30) Chief Koko says “nothing warms the belly
like hot coffee,” (33). His bodyguard is said to be “dressed like a cowboy,” (33). The
palm wine taper, when referring to Josiah’s act of stealing the blind man’s stick, says
“some people’s belly is like the earth,” (85) suggesting that his greed is insatiable.
When riding with Edna to the hospital, Odili says his “heart raged like bonfire,” (93).Mrs.
Nanga is said to have shouted at Odili “like a mad dog,” (103). Edna’s father says of
Chief Nanga ‘My in – law is like a bull.” Driving his new car, Odili says he was eating
hills like yam” (109). Boniface is said to have to have knocked the head of two of Chief
Nanga’s thugs “together like dumb-bell,” (113) and they are said to have fallen “like cut
banana trunks” (p113)
Learning Activity
?  Identify and explain other examples of imagery used in the text.
Irony
Some of the situations and statements certain characters utter are quite ironical. It is, for
example, ironical that although chief Nanga calls himself a servant of the electorate, he
lives in opulence as opposed to the poverty that stalks his supposed masters (p9). As a
means of resuscitating the economy, the government has come up with Our Home Made
Stuff (OHMS) slogan that encourages people to buy locally manufactured products.
Those in government such as Koko, however, use imported products such as Nescafe
(pp33-5). Chief Nanga also advices Mr. Jalio to put on his suits, a Western outfit, rather
than his own self – designed cloths. Through the Prime Minister derides those Africans
who have acquired overseas training, he hires Americans to advice his government on
how to improve its relations with America. It is also ironical that while John is busy
30
telling Odili how upright America are, his wife is busy flirting with Chief Nanga (p44-
46). She later has sexual intercourse with Odili.
When a scandal on the importation of textile goods erupts Chief Nanga says instead of
the whole government resigning, the Minister for Foreign Trade alone should carry his
own cross. It soon emerges that Chief Nanga himself was involved in such a scandal
before. (p99). It is also ironical for Odili’s father to allow the C.P.C., an opposition
party, to hold a rally in his home yet he is chairman of the P.O.P.., the C.P.C.’ s arch –
enemy. It is also ironical that though Chief Nanga tells Odili that he is not scared of
facing him in an election. He persuades him to take some money and step down in his
favour.
Humour
Certain anecdotes in the novel are quite humorous. Odili says that though the portrait on
the wall of Mr. Nanga in school was meant to be his, there was actually no resemblance
between the two. Chief Nanga’s behaviour when calling for the punishment o f the
Finance Minister and his friends is also humorous. He is said to have shouted to the point
of perspiring. The senior tutor is said to have “had traces of snuff as usual in his nostrils”
(8).
When a certain young man becomes bored with Nwege’s speech when Chief Nanga
comes to Anata, he threatens to push him ‘down and take three pence” in reference to
Nwege’s previous encounter with a lorry when riding a bicycle. Odili says Nwege is
annoyed after Chief Nanga’s visit partly because the Senior Tutor ‘had sallied out of the
lodge with one bottle of beer in each armpit” (20). The description of the events at Chief
Koko’s house when he panics on suspicion that he had been poisoned is comical. After
being attracted by the exchange between Odili and Chief Nanga over the Elsie affair, the
“one – eyed stalwart’ is said to have “come out of the Boys’ Quarters in his sleeping loin
– cloth” (73)
31
Learning Activity
?  Identify and comment on other incidences of humour in the

text.
Contrast
Certain events, situations and characters have been sharply contrasted. Chief Nanga’s
opulence is contrasted with the poverty that stalks the common man. He comes to Anata
‘wearing a damask and golden chains” (7). He also lives in a seven – bed roomed house
all of which are self – contained, and he also has an expensive government vehicle (36).
This contrast with the poverty witnessed in the slums where people have to use pails as
latrines (40) and overcrowded living conditions as in Odili’s sister’s house at Gilgil.
Learning Activity
?  Identify and comment on other incidences in the novel.

How does this relate to your own country?
Proverbs and sayings

Quite often proverbs and sayings have a very important message, which they help
summarize. Some of them are:
- When a slave sees another cast into a shallow grave, he should know that when
the time comes he will go the same way. (35)
- If you respect today’s king others will respect you when your turn comes. (63)
- (God) holds a knife and he holds the yam. (90)
- If you fail to take away a strong man’s sword when he is on the ground, will you
do so when he gets up? (91)
- When a madman walks naked it is his kinsmen who feel shame not himself. (118)
32
- If Alligator comes out of water one morning and tells you that crocodile is sick,
can you doubt his story? (121)
- The hawk should perch and the eagle perch, whichever says to the other don’t,
may its own wing break. (122)
- A goat does not eat into a hen’s stomach no matter how friendly the two may be.
(123)
Learning Activities
?  Explain the above proverbs as they are used in their

different ways.
 How does each one of the above proverbs relate to the
proverbs of your community?
Conclusion:
This lesson has analysed various literary strategies and illustrated how Achebe employs
them in the novel.
? 
Learning activity
Discuss flashback, sarcasm and the use of pidgin in the novel
33
LESSON 6
CHARACTERISATION IN THE NOVEL
Introduction
Characterisation is an important aspect of study in that it is one of the vehicles that drive
the form and content of a work of art.
Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to analyse the following characters and
show their contribution to the text:
Characters
 Odili
 Nanga
 Max
Odili
He is the one reeling off the unfolding events that we witness in the novel. He comes out
as an observant individual who explains all that happens including the description of
Chief Nanga as a teacher. Nanga’s political activities both in parliament and out, and so
on. On meeting Mrs. Nanga after a long time, he is able to tell that her appearance has
somewhat changed. He says, “She was bigger now of course – almost matronly.” This is
despite the fact that the events he talks about took place sometimes back. Odili himself
admits, “My memory is naturally good. That day it was perfect … but I can recall every
word the minister said on that occasion. I can repeat the entire speech he made later.” (6)
34
Not only is Odili observant but also sensitive and critical. He is aware of the fact that the
present government is the one that is responsible for the current economic mire that the
country now finds itself in, and castigates the hunters’ guild for wasting their gunpowder
saluting Chief Nanga. He says,
I felt intense bitterness welling up in my mouth. Here were

silly, ignorant villages dancing themselves lame and
waiting to blow off their gunpowder in honour of one of
those who had started the country down the slopes of
inflation (2)
He is also so incensed by the events in parliament when the Finance Minister is ousted
and that becomes to Odili his first and last visit there. He also notes that the likes of Peter
cannot get employed because the economy has been messed up.
At Chief Koko’s place, while Chief Nanga is unable to do anything due to panic, Odili
jolts him into calling a doctor. He is also able to tell that the likes of Chief Nanga who
have “… risen overnight from poverty and insignificance to his present opulence” cannot
easily be persuaded to leave their favoured positions. Being in the opposition, Odili feels
it is not proper for a junior minister who has supposedly joined them to remain in the
government. He possibly feels the minister could be a mole in their midst.
Odili also feels it’s immoral for max to take Chief Koko’s money when he knows very
well that he is not stepping down in his favour. He is also able to note that Jean’s
intention of driving him through the slums is to spite him for the state of their poverty.
He even tells her, “Because this is not France but Africa …” (54). Odili is so critical of
Chief Nanga that he does not see in him a person worth occupying an office, but rather a
street charmer.
Odili says that one of the staunch supporters of P.O.P., Nwege had expected a prize-
appointment to some public corporation or other and when it doesn’t come, hope he will
be appointed to a “proposed new corporation that would take over the disposal of all
government unserviceable property.” Odili’s statement “I hope he gets appointed” (7)
35
brings him out as being sarcastic. When telling chief Nanga why he didn’t inform him
that he had left the university, he says “I know how busy a minister …” (9)
After graduating from the university, Odili opts to teach in “a bush private school instead
of a smart civil service job in the city” (17) for the sake of retaining his autonomy. This
portrays him as being proud and principled. He does not want to owe his position to
anybody. Though he longs to go to Britain for further studies, he is not willing “to sell
his soul to anyone to help” him. Having understood that the new party is meant to
engage in clean politics, he declines to engage in dirty activities such as hiring thugs to
burn Chief Nanga’s car. He also refused to take Chief Nanga’s money so as to step down
in his favour. Though tradition demands that “other bits and pieces” given to Edna’s
father by chief Nanga should not be returned, he is not willing to marry her and then “go
through life thinking that” he owed Chief Nanga money spent on her.
Odili is, however, immoral and obscene. Within the same day of meeting Elsie, he takes
her to bed and boasts about it later. When Jean and John visit Chief Nanga, the only
thing that Odili reports about Chief Nanga’s wife is that she “withdrew, her frock caught
in the parting of her buttock,” (p44). After the party at Jean ‘s place, Odili remains
behind and has sex with her before she drives him home, despite the fact that the two
have not been close friends.
Odili is also resolute and idealistic. He knows that C.P.C. was formed with the aim of
conducting clean campaigns, and no amount of inducement is going to change his mind.
When Max tells him to accept Chief Nanga’s money next time, he flatly tells him
“Never.” He tells Max that it was morally wrong for him to take chief Koko’s money,
knowing fully well that he wasn’t going to step down in his favour.
Learning Activity
?  Identify and discuss other character traits of Odili.
36
Chief Nanga
He is a politician also a major character in the novel. He appears from the beginning to
the end. It is through him that we see the excesses of the politician and the rest of the
ruling class. He strikes us as being opportunistic. When the prime Minister sacks the
finance Minister and a third of his cabinet, Chief Nanga sees a chance for his elevation
and that’s why he keeps shouting “they deserve to be hanged” (5) so as to catch the Prime
Minister’s eye in the next cabinet appointment. We are told:“… Chief the Honourable
M.A. Nanga who, seeing the empty ministerial seats, had yapped and snarled so
shamelessly for the meaty prize.” (6-7)
Sensing that elections are around the corner, he coerces the Minister of Public
Construction to tar a road in his constituency so as to use it as a vote-winning tool.
Further, the road would benefit him economically when his buses begin plying it. He
also takes advantage of his power and wealth, and the fact that Odili and Elsie are already
in his house and he snatches her from him. His engagement to Edna is also made
possible because of his immense power and wealth.
Nanga is also hypocritical and dishonest. When he meets Odili at Anata Grammar
School, he hugs him as if he was a long lost brother. He also makes it known to the
teacher is not as a happy as minister as he was when he was a teacher. He even tells
them. “…those in the cabinet who were once teachers are in full sympathy with the
teachers’ situation.” At Anata, he whips up tribal emotions when he tells Odili “We
shouldn’t leave everything to the highland tribes” (12) yet shortly after, plays the
nationalist card by saying. “They are citizens of our great country whether they come
from the highland or the lowlands.” (14)
He is also hypocritical when he tries to make Odili to look at a ministerial office as some
kind of a monster by telling him: “If anybody comes and wants to make you a minister,
run away,” (36) simply because he is afraid of possible competition.
37
Chief Nanga, though married is unfaithful as he often flirts with other women. He clearly
comes out as immoral. Odili establishes that the young lady Nanga was with at Anata is
in fact his girlfriend. The other women with whom Nanga has illicit relationships include
Jean (44-46) and Mrs. Akilo. Nanga even has guts of snatching away Elsie from Odili
and sleeping with her in his wife’s bedroom in Odili’s presence.
Together with the ruling class, Chief Nanga is corrupt. He coerces the Minister of Public
Construction to skip the laid down procedure and approve the tarring of a road in his
constituency (42). He is also said to have acquired a lot of property including houses and
buses through corrupt deals. When the press exposes some of the corrupt deals, he is
reported to be “guilty of the same practice and had built out of his gains three blocks of
seven – story luxury flats at three thousand pounds each … (16). When Odili intrudes on
his campaign rally, he is summoned to the dais from where he is set upon by Chief Nanga
and his supporters, leaving him for dead. When Edna intervenes, she is shoved aside,
making her fall on her buttocks. This brings him out as being cruel and unfeeling.
Chief Nanga is patronized and snobbish. When he comes to the book exhibition, he
derides the chairman, Mr. Jalio, for having failed to inform him that other dignitaries
would be in attendance. He also criticizes his matter of dressing, and even suggests that
he should either wear a suit or a national costume. (62-3).
In spite of Chief Nanga’s many unpleasant qualities, he manages to come out as being
responsible as a family man. Wherever possible, he finds time to relax with his family at
home (32). He even affords to come back home for lunch with them (42). As a real man
of the people, he has developed the habit of taking his children back to the village
whenever they are on vacation so as not to uproot them from the village. (38)
Maxwell
He is Odili’s former classmate at the Grammar School, and now a practicing lawyer.
When the C.P.C. is launched, he emerges as its undisputed leader. He is charismatic and
this is why he is chosen the party leader. His address to the people at Odili’s home is
38
quite convincing and captivating. When questions such as the membership of a junior
minister to the party and source of funds arise, he tackles them to everybody’s
satisfaction.
Although Odili believes that the junior minister should be sacked from the government if
he feels dissatisfied with it before joining the C.P.C., Max tells him that it is not
necessary because African leaders just don’t do that. Besides, he considers him a very
important link between the C.P.C. and the goings-on in the government. He thus portrays
himself as being realistic. He also tells Odili that it is not possible to play a dirty game
without soiling your hands a little.
On launching the C.P.C., Max makes the rest believe that theirs will be a clean campaign.
But when approached by Chief Koko to take one thousand pounds so as to step down in
his favour, he takes it but refuses to step down. Odili is more scandalized when Max
advises him to take chief Nanga’s money should the offer come once again. He tells
Odili “Now you tell me how you propose to fight such a dirty war without soiling your
hands a little.” (126)
Elsie is quite immoral. She is said to have slept with Odili on the first hour of their
meeting. (24) Though she hardly knows Chief Nanga, she abandons Odili and sleeps
with Nanga in Odili’s presence. (69) The fact that she sleeps with Chief Nanga without
caring about Odili’s feelings brings her out as being immoral.
Conclusion
In this lesson we have discussed the major characters in the novel and shown how each
contributes to the issues in the novel.
Learning Activities
? 

Discuss the character – role of either Odili or Chief Nanga.
“Odili’s sense of humour sometimes goes overboard and
becomes offensive.” Discuss.
39
 Discuss the pl ace of female characters in the novel.
40
LECTURE 3
A WALK IN THE NIGHT – Alex la Guma
Introduction to lecture three

Alex La Guma’s early life afforded him the opportunity to work as a newspaper
columnist and to participate in the affairs of the communist party. These two aspects
become important when we look at La Guma the author to be, when we examine his work
as a literary artist.
A Walk in the Night was his first collection of short stories to be published, followed by
And a Three-fold Cord. He then followed that up with his very captivating novel about
prison life in South Africa entitled, The Stone Country. It is important to note here that
there is quite a lot of resemblance between this novel and one of the stories in A Walk in
the Night. “Tattoo Marks and Nails” could actually be seen as the condensed version of
the Stone country. From that, we can reasonable conclude that the short story did not
give the author ample space to really explore and portray all the hardships of prison life.
That is why he decided to render a longer version of the story in a novel.
La Guma’s most acclaimed full-length novel, however is In the Fog of the Season’s End.
This is a novel, which examines the lives of various characters in South Africa, and their
relation to apartheid and the non-white struggle to uproot it. We are shown various facets
of South African society, aspects of brutality, human emotional relationships and the
desire for freedom in one long flashback. This is done through the eyes of two major
characters: Beukes and Elias Tekwane. If you should have the opportunity to read In the
Fog of the Season’s End, do think about what point in time A Walk in the Night ends and
the longer novel takes over. You should also think about the use of “Night” and
“Season” in the two titles.
41
La Guma’s publication Time of the Butcherbird, (1979) is a fearsome novel in which he
optimistically visualizes the eradication of human oppression and the triumph of
humanity.
Why is he considered a successful writer? Because he very aptly chooses to talk about a
situation which is relevant to the sensibilities of most readers. He very interestingly
identifies what the contradictions (points of disagreement) are, using simple and
appropriate languages, he tells us about them. But La Guma does not just stop there.
His commitment to the freedom of mankind is always expressed in his works. He does
not offer ready-made solutions to South African’s predicament: only suggests what the
possible solutions could be. Since he writes about society and maintains his beliefs from
one book to another, he is consistent in his works. In other words, La Guma’s works
exhibit real social concern. We could call it social realism.
42
LESSON 7
THEMATIC CONCERNS IN A WALK IN THE NIGHT
Introduction
In a way it is easier to remember what a theme is if one simply asks oneself: what
message is the author putting across? A message of this nature could be part of an
author’s belief, or his vision of how things should be. This central message then becomes
what is referred to in literature as a theme.
Objective
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to identify salient themes and relate
theme to the development of the short stories.
Sometimes a theme stands our prominently in a story, but at other times it only features
glimmeringly or as subsidiary to another major theme. Thus it is quite possible to find
“major” ones in the same novel or narrative. Similarly it is quite possible that what one
reader of a story considers a “minor” theme may, to another reader of the same story, be
of such great significance That he considers it a major theme. The main thing is
identifying themes in a story or novel is how well they are presented as theme.
It is quite possible that themes identified in A Walk in the night may sound too broad or
narrow, or that what impresses you a major theme might only receive minor treatment.
Should that be the case, it is hoped that you will not fail to point out your own
interpretation, as long as you do so objectively.
 Violence
 Fear
Theme  Unemployment
43
 Apartheid
Violence
This is an outstanding theme in the novel, which is presented to us at two levels. At the
first level, we have violence committed upon the non-whites (who are the oppressed) by
the whites (who are the oppressors). This type of violence emanates from one class
towards another. We know that the class at which it is directed is made up of the people
who inhabit district Six. Since its place of origin is outside their immediate habitat, we
shall call this ‘external violence’.
Then there is violence committed within District Six, but by one character of the
oppressed class upon another of the same class. This type of violence we shall call
‘internalised violence’. This is because the non-whites who are brutalized by the whites
are unable to react against the violence committed against them openly and immediately,
and they therefore harbour what they suffer at their oppressor’s hands until they are
sufficiently provoked by those own kind; then they unleash what has been burning in
their souls (what has been internalized) upon their colleagues.
At both levels however, this theme is important because it brings to light the police nature
of the South African state. This is because we see how apartheid or racism has a police
structure that uses violence to intimidate and subdue the non-whites. But this nature of
the police also rubs onto the no-whites and they in turn become brutal. But since this
brutality cannot be committed upon the aggressors, it is let loose upon the Africans
themselves. We can go ahead and argue that the non-whites become sort of dehumanized
by behaving to their own kind like inhuman white policemen. An incident from the short
story which illustrates this point best is when Michael Adonis, without justification, kills
the poor harmless whiteman, Daughter, and escapes. Constable Raalt believes wrongly
that it is Willieboy who has committed the murder. When he is hunting for Willieboy, it
is obvious he aims to kill him. He does not pause for a moment to reason about it. He
therefore acts not like a human being should; he is dehumanized.
44
On the other hand Michael Adonis loses his job at the factory, he is bitter about it. We
read that he was “… nursing a little growth of anger the way one caresses the beginnings
of toothache with the tip of his tongue.” (1) Some violence has been committed against
Michael, and by a white man. When he unbottles himself, it is Doughty who becomes the
victim. Michael is there just as inhuman as the white man who sacked him or Constable
Raalt who was “… watching. He was a hunter now, stalking”. (82). When Raalt finally
corners Willieboy and shoots him down in cold blood, it illustrates La Guma’s message
that apartheid is a cold-blooded and violent policy which breeds more violence. Raalt is
in fact a representative of the South African regime and its ruthlessness towards non-
whites. In “The Lemon Orchard” one o the whites arresting the black school teacher hears
a dog barking and very appreciatively thinks of its as “… a good watchdog”, whom he
“… would like to have … and take great care of …” (135). This he thinks of a dog while
he is subjecting the school teacher to untold violence.
La Guma portrays the school teacher as a man of immense courage who suffers at the
hands of the whites but keeps quiet. His silence he (the teacher) has found the strength
not to succumb to his persecutors. The silence makes him stand out as stronger than the
brutal whites, proud and defiant. On the other hand, it enables the teacher to have a clear
view of the whites and their inhuman nature. We are told:
He is not dumb. He is a slim hotnot; one of those educated

Bushmen. Listen hotnot … when a bass speaks to you, you
answer him. Do you hear? … Do you hear hotnot? Answer me
or I will shoot a hole through your spine (133)
To this white man, and similarly to Raalt, the non-white is just a “hotnot” or a “blerry
skollie” and it does not matter if a bullet were shot into his spine.
La Guma is saying that this violence is the only way the whites relate to the non-whites
they rule. We read that, “they wavered for a while and then surged forward, then rolled
back, muttering before and the cold muzzle of the pistol” (87). La Guma is arguing that
the whites, knowing that they are the minority (just two policemen against a crown of
non-whites) who are unconstitutionally and therefore illegally ruling the oppressed
majority have to rely on force (violence) to hold the majority back.
45
Thus, while on one hand we are shown the Willieboys of South Africa who will be
destroyed (even innocently) by this kind of violence, there is the other side where the
author sees their destruction as emanating from a wider violence. Willieboy came from a
poor family where his parents fought every night because of poverty, and beat him up at
the slightest excuse.
In the short story, “Tatoo Marks and nails,” La Guma gives us a glimpse of prison life in
South Africa. Here we see people who have been brutally assaulted by the regime that
they need a dose of violence to remain “normal”. A gang of petty criminals, murderers
and thieves spend their time terrorizing the other inmates whom they do not like or whom
they want to force a favour out of. Their minds have been destroyed by the regime: they
have been subjected to so much violence that it has become like an addictive drug to
them. La Guma is almost suggesting that where a regime turns human beings into such
animals, it is the regime’s hope that they (the dehumanized beings) will concentrate on
destroying one another and therefore not think about their problems in a wider context.
In the same vein, the author seems to be warning the oppressed South Africans not to
allow themselves to be like The Creature, because then, they will not be able to spot out
the intentions of the regime. That they will forever lack positive awareness, because
prison not only destroys them physically, it also wipes out their reasoning ability.
In conclusion, violence is a central theme in the novel as it appears in households

(Willieboy’s murder), in the District (Doughty’s murder) and in prisons (the creature’s
brutality).
Fear
This theme is to some extent related to the theme of violence in that, wherever there is
violence, there is fear. Once again, fear as central theme in then novel reveals itself at
two levels.
First, the South African regime uses violence to instil fear into the oppressed non-whites
so they do not oppose the regime. Fear cows them into submission. The oppressor is
quite aware that the guns at his disposal, the dogs and horses that the police forces use,
46
and the brutal interrogation methods are all designed to create fear in the oppressed. Fear
therefore divides the oppressed by obliterating any sparks of courage, fear is responsible
for irrational actions (like Willieboy surfacing prematurely out of hiding while knowing
quite well that Raalt is also up on the roof waiting for him to resurface), and fear leads to
betrayal as in the case of John Abrahams who untruthfully reckons that it is Willieboy
who murdered Doughty.
It is fear which makes the olive-skinned proprietor of the Jolly boys Social club cringe
before Raalt as the latter slaps him and robs him off his cigarettes, makes him persevere a
beating without raising a finder and crying out; ja baas, ja baas! At this level, it is fear
which makes it impossible for John Abrahams of South Africa to stand up against
oppression and exploitation.
But on the other hand, the oppressor himself lives in constant fear because of his own
evil-doing. He justified his fear by arguing that the non-whites in South Africa are
“naturally backward,” “primitive,” “savagery” and incorrigibly jealous.” Being jealous
of the white man, the non-white must be kept within a “governable” area and the area
must be effectively named, for the safety of the white man. Ear, therefore, makes the
white regime create homelands and Bantustans, introduce me Kipande system to curb
movement and instruct its police force to shoot on sight. The whites in South Africa do
not stop for one moment to review the brutality they mete out to the non-whites. La
Guma says:
The people on the landing and in the corridor said nothing,

looking away, and constable Raalt thought; These bastards don’t
like us; they never did like us and we are only tolerated here; I
bet there are some here who would like to stick a knife into me
right now (66))
Constable Raalt is therefore afraid of the people he rules and although he argues that the
non-whites have never liked them, we know that there is virtually no way you can like a
person to whom you only relates through violence, intimidation or fear.
47
Among the oppressed are the characters like John Abrahams who betray their fellow non-
whites through fear and also because they would like to be called “good boys” or “good
kaffirs”. Such people are treacherous and enemies of the oppressed people, but they can
genuinely never be called friends of the white man. La Guma seems to say that this is a
negative fear when compared to that of the proprietor of Jolly boys social Club because it
is destructive and precisely what the oppressors hopes to instil among the oppressed. It is
also negative fear when one thinks about Michael Adonis fleeing after killing Doughty.
He is not afraid because he has committed murder, but rather because he has killed a
white man: “The law don’t like white people being finished off” (29). La Guma would
like to see Michael’s interpretations as wrong because Doughty is not really a “white
man” except for his skin colour. He is a victim of the white regime just as much as
Michael Adonis. They live in the same tenement, sometimes share cheap drinks, and
definitely have to undergo the general unpleasantries of District Six together. The author
therefore suggests that Doughty is just as human as anybody else and Michael should not
have killed him.
Whereas John Abrahams in A Walk in the Night is seen as a coward, the school teacher
in “The Lemon Orchard” is not being cowardly when he finally speaks to his tormentors.
In his silence can be seen immense strength to counter crude animalistic violence, but
clever people do not want martyrs raising the daisies. People should not let themselves
die stupidly because they are against the brutal South African regime. While they remain
afraid of the oppressor, they should always be aware of the need for self-preservation in
order to perpetuate the struggle for liberation.
La Guma is aware of this desire for liberation among the oppressed peoples, for he
writes: “the muttering remained the threatening sound of a storm-tossed ocean breaking
against a rocky show line” (p87). It should be quite clear to us that La Guma is a staunch
believer in Freedom for human beings. He therefore sees freedom for the oppressed as
South Africa in spite of the “rocky shoreline” nature (strength and rigidity) of the regime.
Unemployment
48
The main character in A Walk in the Night, Michael Adonis is unemployed when we
meet him at the beginning of the story. He has been sacked from his job at the factory
because to told his white supervisor to “to go hell” (4) after the white man had called him
“lazy” because he left his working place for a few minutes to go “to piss-house”. (4)
While it is true that most of the characters presented here are unemployed, the truth is that
it is not because they are lazy or do not want to work. On the contrary, they have not
been given the opportunity to work. In “The Lemon Orchard,” the coloured school
teacher has been arrested because he had “… taken the principle, the mister of the church
before the magistrate and demanded payment for the hiding they gave him for being
cheeky to them” (p135). This is a good illustration that in South Africa the relationship
between an employee and his employer is basically one of a servant and his master. The
employee is not a worker; he does not have any rights to form a union, leave alone
question his employer.
In “At the Portage’s,” Hilda’s father, we are told is only given a silver tray with his name
inscribed on it, after forty years of service. We immediately wonder of what value such
along-service gift is to a man who has a family to feed and who would benefit from
monetary gift instead. The non-whites regret how poor they are. The man in a navy-blue
suit, described as “tired looking,” begs for six pence from Banjo, to buy himself some
fish. Banjo does not give him the money: instead he asks him, “who you bumming
from?” Immediately this poor hungry fellow has left the restaurant, “Banjo got up again
and went over to the big juke-box and shoved a six pence into the slot.” He would rather
listen to Bing, who “sings real awake, than help feed a starving man. To him that is how
a white man should behave.
In A Walk in the Night, Lorenzo, Grace’s husband, obviously cannot make ends meet.
We can guess that he is employed some place, but what he makes is insufficient to feed
his family. Their home is small crowded single-room where he lives with four children,
and his wife Grace who is expecting another child. Though Lorenzo, we learn what
social and economic inequality is all about.
49
Frankly Lorenzo thought, they say, mos, it’s us poor people’s
riches. You got no food in your guts, and you got no food for
your children, but you rich with them. The rich people got
money, but got one, two kids. They got enough to feed ten,
twenty children and they only make one or two. We haven’t got
even enough for one kid and we make eight, nine – one a year.
(36).
Just before frankly tells us this, we have seen his fifth child seated on the mother’s lap
and drinking sugared water instead of milk. This degree of poverty is a result of lack of
employment and very little pay. In fact, some of the people in District six detest the
manual labour they are forced to do, and especially to because of the little money it pays
and the constant abuse (even floggings) they have to withstand from the whites. As
Willieboy tells Michael Adonis:
Working for whites. Happens all the time, man. Me, I

never work for no white John. Not even brown one. To
hell with work. Work, work, work, where does it get you?
He would later remain unemployed. As a result the District Sixers mostly the youths
have only two alternatives in life. Either they beg as Joe does (full time) and Willieboy
(sometimes) or they steal.. In the words of Joe, such youths do not seem to have any
future at all and their life is chaotic. Of Foxy and is thieving gang Joe says:“They have
done bad things … to girls … use knives. They are a bunch of gangsters …. They break
into places and steal ….” (74)
This poverty is symbolic of the exploitative nature of apartheid and its economic policies
through ironically; South Africa is a wealthy country full of natural resources. We
regrettably learn that it is also full of crime, immorality and many evils.
Apartheid and Capitalism
50
Alex La Guma tells us at the beginning that the restaurant Michael Adonis enters after he
has been sacked is owned by a Portuguese. The shop keepers are “Jewish, Indian and
Greek; while their wares are either Korean, Chinese and even Celluloid dolls all the way
from Japan.” (7) Even the music sold in District Six comes from across the Atlantic: But
the most vivid single advertisement which assaults the reader is the coca-cola sign.
Most of us are aware that coca-cola is an American soft drink. That it sells almost
everywhere in the world, and the proceeds from these sales find their way somehow back
to the United States of America. America trades with South Africa just like the other
countries that La Guma mentions. This trade benefits America. For example an
American lady who wants a diamond brooch which Franky Lorenzo has loaded on a ship
for her, does not really care what sweat went into its mining or if the mine collapsed onto
whichever ‘Kafir’ was mining it). Would the Americans want to abandon their supply of
diamonds, or for that matter their coca-cola market? No, they would not and neither
would the whites of South African want to spoil their friendship with America since
America supplies them with Army helicopters with which they “keep Kafirs in their
place.”
Similarly, if the Dutch of Holland benefit from trade with South because, for example
they sell their cheese very expensively to the rich whites in Johannesburg and in t\return
get nickel to their industrial products, it is mostly unlikely that the Dutch of Holland will
worry about Frankly Lorenzo’s fifth child drinking sugared water in place of milk. As
the taxi-driver tells Michael after the latter insists that American whites are better than
South African whites, “they are all the same over.”
La Guma seems to be telling us that apartheid is not colour of skin pagination, but a
version of a system, which believes in maximum material profits, no matter what the
consequences are. He is saying that once someone believes in this creed, it does not
matter which part of the world it is that he hails from or lives.
Through this taxi-driver we hear that, “It’s the capitalist’ systems … colour bar [is]
because of the system.” (17) Racial segregation is just a form through which capitalism
51
express itself in South Africa. So the capitalist system which links South Africa with
other nations like America, the whites grown richer while the non-whites remain poor
and oppressed. They are depressed and disillusioned because they (or at least some of
them) are aware that this system is against them, the poor people: “Us poor bastards
always get kicked around. If it’s not the law it’s ‘something’ else. Always, there is
somebody to kick you around” (84-85). The ‘something’ Willieboy is talking about is
none other than capitalism, something that is always there to suck the on-whites to death.
To discount the myth of white-skin-superior-man, La Guma in “The Gladiators,” portrays

to us a light-skinned boxer who believes that because his skin is nearer to white skin man
his opponent’s, h is automatically superior boxer. Kenny says, “I’ll muck that bastard.
“… That boy ain’t our kind.” (115) At the end of the fight, however, the Black Panther
has whipped the day lights out of Kenny.
Apart from side themes like the human lust for blood and the nature of people to always
side with the winner. La Guma has clearly shown that the black man is just as good (or
better?) as the white man. That in South Africa capitalism promotes skin aesthetics and
encourages slight skin differences to sound valuable to a people who could otherwise
unite and oppose apartheid. In order words, La Guma is disgusted with Kenny just as
much as he was earlier disgusted with john Abrahams in A Walk in the Night. For,
unless all the oppressed become are aware of the real cause of their miseries (capitalism)
and appreciate the international help South Africa gets from other nations all over the
world, there is no likelihood for them forging unity.
Lesson activity
Discuss the relevance of the poems in this anthology to the East African
settings.
Conclusion
We have discussed the themes of the short stories in the anthology and demonstrated the
evils of the apartheid system. I would like to stress the fact that these short stories have
many more side themes, which should identify and discuss amongst ourselves. Always
52
remember that all the ideas we learn from the stories must be backed by evidence from
the text itself.
53
LESSON 8
CHARACTERS AND STYLE IN A WALK IN THE NIGHT
Introduction
Alex La Guma is a writer who was actively involved in the struggle for the liberation of
South Africa. He uses his works of art to highlight the evils of the apartheid regime. In
order to understand the oppression that the S. African blacks were experiencing, Alex la
Guma has vividly reflected events dealing with injustice and inequalities in the society. In
this novel the writer has superbly used language and style to show the non-whites in their
true horrifying dimensions and the whites in their exploitative, racist, cruel some
dimensions.
Objective
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to identify and discuss the strikingly
effective communication skills that are used by La Guma to give his readers a proper
insight into the wider problems of apartheid.
 Symbolism
Style  Language
 Description
 Imagery
Symbols in form of characters are extensively used in the novel and in the short stories
inside. The choice of the slum symbol in this story is an indication of the author’s own
feelings about District six, and the people who live there. We witness drunken brawls,
petty thuggery and even prostitution in this district. The area is also dingy, for example,
54
the dark alleys and dirty rooms. The poverty among the slum dwellers stands out
throughout the story and the writer insists upon reminding us of it. This is because it is
the reality facing the Blackman. The author uses this slum symbol to establish a basis
upon which he can mount his attack upon the oppressive regime, and at the same time
give the reader a clear picture of the existing situation
However, the most outstanding element of symbolism is la Guma’s portrayal of constable

Raalt, in his capacity as the guardian of the apartheid law, to the regime. Raalt’s vicious
animalistic nature is symbolic of the white government in South Africa. This is evident in
the way he treats Willie boy who is mistakenly accused of murdering uncle doughty. The
writer says: “Raalt was now a hunter stalking.” The manner in which he conducts the
search for Willie boy leaves us in no doubt that he aims to shoot and kill the boy in cold
blood. This is exactly what he does despite pleas from his police colleague not to shoot
the boy.
Before his hand reached the pocket and before he could

discover that the knife was not there constable Raalt fired
again. The bullet slapped into the boy, jerking him upright
and he spun, his arms flung wide, turning on his toes like a
ballet dancer. (86)
The crowd in district six accuses Raalt of cold blood murder, but this is all they can do.
The overbearing Raalt, the law with the gun, has had his taste of blood and does not care.
Indeed he loads the wounded boy into the back of the van, and continues with his patrol.
Though the driver is anxious to get the boy to hospital, Raalt does not bother:
Pull up at the Portuguese, will you? I want to get some

smoke…..Ach, there’s lots of time, man. That bastard isn’t
going to die yet. These hotnots are tough. Sop at the damn
café, man. (91)
Clearly this is being callous and cruel on the part of Constable Raalt.
Interestingly we learn that the young policeman is scared of Raalt and his obsession with
torturing “hotnots.” This obsession comes out when he orders the driver to halt. He steps
out and enters Jolly Boys Social Club. Without any reason he tortures the proprietor of
55
the club until he offers raalt a sheaf of pounds. The proprietor doesn’t even raise a finger;
he just cries out “ja baas ja baas.” Raalt is the law.
The author uses the dehumanized symbol, Constable Raalt, to put a message across: that
apartheid was a cold blooded and violent policy which bred more violence.
Michael Adonis a major black character is used to symbolize the majority of black South
Africans who were determined to work in order to earn an honest living. His
determination, however, bears no fruit as he gets sacked from his job out of no good
reason:
That white bastard was lucky I didn’t pull him up good. He

had been asking for it for a long time. Every time a man
goes to the piss house he starts moaning. Jesus Christ, the
way he went on you’d think a man had to wet his pants
rather than take a minute off. Well, he picked on me for
going for a leak and I told him to go to hell. (4)
From the foregoing we note that the employer and the employee relationship was that of
master and slave or servant. Michael Adonis gets frustrated and resorts to drinking and
we finally see him join Foxy’s gang. Here, a message is put across that the blacks who
indulged in crime did not actually do it for pleasure or because of laziness. They are
simply victims of the oppressive regime.
Michael Adonis’ inhuman killing of Uncle Doughty speaks volumes. The writer wants to
see Michael’s interpretation as wrong because Doughty is not really a ‘white man’ except
for his skin colour. He is a victim of the regime as Adonis. They live in the same
tenement and sometimes share cheap drinks. Again an important message has been put
across that the blacks equated colour with the system. This was a wrong interpretation.
The skin colour was not the problem. The problem was actually capitalism which the
whites used to exploit the blacks and their country. Skin colour was a mere camouflage to
hide behind while exploiting. In the short story, “Tattoo Marks and Nails,” for example
the character called The Creature who is sadistic and vile, persecutes the other inmates
and is looking for a man with a tattooed chest. The writer wants to communicate through
56
The Creature’s actions, that the miserable black South Africans are concentrating on
terrorizing one another instead of thinking about their problems in a wider context:
At the other end of the casern. The Creature, so named after

some fantastic and impossible monster of the films, and his
gang were persecuting some poor wretch who had arrived
that morning. The man, not as smart as others, not able to
catch the wire, nor the ropes, had been locked up with not
even an undershirt on his body. He cringed, stark naked,
before The Creature and his henchmen. (98-9)
The author seems to warn the oppressed South Africans not to allow themselves to
become like The Creature. At the Portage’s we encounter the young men, Banjo and his
friend. These represent the lucky few non-whites who have jobs and who can afford
certain social amenities like dating girls and playing the jukebox. But the writer uses
them to decry their lack of concern about the problems of the unlucky majority. This is
evident in the way the two treat the man in a navy-blue suit. He is poor and hungry and
wants to have only six pence to buy food. They refuse to give it to him and instead slot
the six pence into the jukebox:
Banjo got up again and went over the big jukebox and shoved a
six pence into the slot. The record dropped and the arm swung
onto it, and we were listening to Bing. (12)
Other symbols include the “life of the sea things,” (p96), which Joe sees. Unlike District
Six, he finds himself living and surrounded with beauty among rocks. The sea therefore
symbolizes freedom for Joe and we visualize the “creaming waves” of freedom pounding
against the “granite citadels” of apartheid. Frankly Lorenzo sleeps gazing towards the
heavens, grace the embodiment of future life and restlessly awaits the dawn of a new era.
We view the unborn child as symbolizing this new era. The writer envisages light in the
baby that Grace is carrying and thus underlines this belief in the indescribability of life.
This is in no doubt a superb use of symbolism as a style of communication.
57
Learning Activity
?  Identify and comment on other objects or ideas of symbolism in

the text.
Language. Alex La Guma’s language in the text is simple and easy to grasp, except
perhaps for a few words which sound foreign because they are typically South African or
Afrikaner or foreign. The choice of these words, however, is very deliberate. They
transport us into South Africa and enable us to listen to those typical sounds. The taxi-
driver (17) says “Capitalis” instead of capitalism. We immediately know that he has only
heard this word but does not understand it. “Juba” as (cully is described could mean
“guy” while “reshun” (101) is simply a corruption of ration.
Some of these words reveal themselves to us, for example, “upsay” (117) means loud
talk, but others like “volk” (135) are foreign and we may have to ask about their meaning.
Other examples include a word like “goose” which the writer uses to refer to one’s
girlfriend or simply young girls. “pal” refers to a friend and particularly an age mate;
“dagga” is bhang. All these words including “hotnots, skollies, ja baas,” have been used
to give the writer’s message flavour, originality and authenticity. This is the kind of
language that gives the reader a real touch of the situation.
Learning Activity
?  Identify and explain other non-English words and expressions

used in the text.
Another aspect of style that La Guma uses is Description. He has an uncanny ability to
vividly describe things, for example.
There was a general atmosphere of shabbiness about the

café, but not unmixed with a sort of homeliness for the
58
unending flow of derelicts, bums, domestic workers of
duty, in-town-from-the-country folk who had no place to
eat except there, and working people who stopped by on
their way home. There were taxi-drivers too, and the rest of
the mould that accumulated on the fringes of the
underworld beyond Castle Bridge; loiterers, prostitutes,
fab-fee numbers runners, petty gangsters, drab and frayed-
looking thugs
No other choice of words would capture as vividly the bottom stratum of society which
eats at the Portuguese restaurant.
There are many other descriptions of characters and events. For example Michael Adonis
has been vividly described in the first pages of the novel as wearing a faded jean trouser,
with grease stains. The jeans have brass buttons and legs are too long so that they have to
be turned six inches at the bottom. He also wore a khaki shirt, an old one. Over it rubbed
and scuffed and worn leather coat with slanting pockets and woollen wrists. Old dark
brown moccasin shoes, young man of medium height, kinky hair, complexion the colour
of worn leather, dark brown eyes and his hands were muscular with ridges of vein, the
nails of broad and thick like little shells, and rimmed with black from handling machine
and oil. This description serves to make the reader visualize and get the real situation of
poverty at its heir extreme.
There is the use of imagery and an intensive use of similes and metaphors, which the
author uses to bring out his message with more impact to the reader. Doughty’s room is
said to have been as hot and airless as a newly opened tomb. This depicts the misery that
Doughty and other residents of District Six were living in. They lived in abject poverty
and in extremely hazardous conditions. Ahmed the Turk in “Tattoo Marks and Nails”
tells us about a “human salad” of the bottom stratum who end up in prison, “…sucking at
the disintegrating bitter cigarette – end of life: the is metaphorical language of the
cigarette-end is indicative of the cancerous nature of the regime, which imprisons these
people.
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When Raalt enters Jolly boys social club the players in the room are said to have turned
their eyes toward the doors, “alert as foxes catching the scent of a hunter.” This shows
that the blacks were always in a state of fear. Again, silence in the same place is said to
have hung like armor's place. These images serve to show the state of fear that existed in
the society whenever the white man and especially the cruel policemen were around. The
novel teems with similes and metaphors almost on every page.
Other examples of imagery include phrases meant to convey very important messages,
for example, “ work like hell” is used to show us how Franky Lorenzo used to work in
the docks- which must have been very tiring work and yet he could not feed himself. This
means that work or no work, life remained awfully the same. “Ghost of a man,” (p49) is
used to refer to a warder. The author uses the expression to show the warder’s neglected
nature yet he (warder) feels proud of it. The us of imagery in this novel is almost
inexhaustible and through them the reader is able to actually see and feel characters and
various situations in a very effective way.
Conclusion
We have examined how the writer uses language to create literary style in order to create
aesthetic effects. These strategies help the artist to communicate to his readers in a more
interesting manner.
Learning Activities
 Identify and explain other episodes of description in
the anthology
? 

Discuss irony as an aspect of style in A Walk in the
Night.
Identify and explain incidents of humour in the
anthology
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LESSON 9
THE OTHER SHORT STORIES INALEX LA GUMA’S
ANTHOLOGY A WALK IN THE NIGHT
Introduction
There are other stories beside A Walk in the Night. This short lesson glimpses through
these texts in order to give insights into their content.
Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to briefly capture the key elements that
constitute the rest of the short stories.
Tattoo Marks and Nails

Tattoo Marks and Nails is set inside a hot prison cells where the heat reminds Ahmed the
Turk about Libya. While the Turk is narrating his tale, we are introduced to a despicable
inmate aptly described as The Creature, who is so sadistic and vicious that we cannot
think of him as human. As he persecutes the other inmates, we learn that he is looking for
a man with a tattooed chest who chopped his brother.
Ahmed tells about life at Wadi Huseni; about gambling with their lifesaving small rations
of water stake, about a chap with a tattooed who conned other by using a marked cock of
cards, and how this cardsharp was finally caught and tattooed: “PRIVATE SO –AND-
SO: A CHEAT AND A COWARD.”
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When the Turk is asked about not removing his shirt yet it is so hot, he says it is not as
hot as it was in Wadi Huseni, but the creature is on him with his gang and through threats
he gets the Turk to unbutton his shirt.
At the Portuguese’s
At the Portuguese is rendition of a scene in a café in South Africa. We encounter two
young, men who meet two girls and decide to ‘date’ them. The main thing about these
two, Banjo and his friend, is that they represent the lucky few non-whites in South Africa
who have jobs and can afford certain social amenities like dating girls and playing the
juke-box.
But the story really revolves around the man in a navy-blue suit who is poor and hungry
and wants to have only six pence(one record’s worth from the juke-box) to buy food.
Banjo refuses to give it to him.
From the character of Banjo and his friend, we learn that the lucky non-whites do not
concern themselves with the problems of the unlucky majority.
“The Gladiators”
The Gladiators is a story about petty colour difference among the non-whites in South
Africa. Kenny, a coloured, is about to fight Black Panther. He is so sure he will win the
fight that when he is knocked-out. We see La Guma’s message coming out quite clearly:
that the Black people of South Africa are just as capable as the whites, given the chance.
There is also in the tone of their story an underlying warning that the pride and vanity are
negative human attributes. That it is within human nature to support the winner.
Blankets
Blankets is a story fashioned out of the motif of blanket. Here we see Chocker who has
been knifed comparing his feeling cold presently with the cold of life? We see a deep
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need for warmth and comfort in the world of bitter-cold life and frustrations as shockers
childhood events unfold in his mind just like Willie boy does in A Walk in the Night.
The Lemon Orchard

The Lemon Orchard is the last story in the collection and it is about a Black teacher who
is marched out of his house into the orchard, flogged and humiliated, all because he
threatened to sue the preacher. Here can be seen an ironical twist in religion. The theory
of religion does not encourage this; the practice does.
A Matter of Taste
A Matter of Taste is an important story in this collection. Here La Guma shows us Blacks
offering hospitality to a poor white man and helping him finally to steal a ride on the
train. La Guma, while talking about “a matter of taste” (128) sarcastically mentions
through Chinaboy that “a matter of taste” in fact “a matter of money” Taste denotes
choice. The whites therefore can afford taste; can make the choice because they have
money.
Conclusion
We hope the insights we have given in this lesson will stimulate you to read other works
by Alex La Guma.
Activity
Write a critical essay entitled Alex La Guma theMan and his Works
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LECTURE 4
SO LONG A LETTER – Mariama Ba
Introduction to lecture four

In the next three lessons, we shall discuss Mariama Ba’s novel as a representation of the
Franco-phone and feminists text. The book also addresses the issues of religion and
culture where the Islamic customs are set together with the Christian ones. This
background enriches the work by one of the reading feminists writers in the Islamic
Africa. The inclusion of the texts is justified by the fact that it covers the landscapes of
both the Muslim world and the feminist perspective.
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LESSON 10
THE CHARACTER OF RAMATOULAYE
Introduction
Ramatoulaye is the main character. She is an active shaper of her own destiny. She
reflects on the social, religious and legal constraints against women in her society, and
then acts to achieve her fullest growth. In striving to define herself, her needs, plight,
plans and hopes, she can be considered a feminist heroine.
Objective
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to identify and analyse qualities
that make Ramatoulaye a powerful character in the novel.
Ramatoulaye combines in her person the state of various dispossessed groups. She is a
woman in a society, where female rights are severely curtailed, where she herself is a
discarded middle-aged wife. She is a black woman whose country in her youth was
subjected to racist colonial rule. She is devoted adherent of Islam, a religion noted,
particularly in its fundamentalist form, for its crude misogyny. All the cards are stacked
against Ramatoulaye. In So Long a Letter she explores, from a feminist viewpoint, what
it means to be a black Muslim in contemporary Senegalese society. The past and the
present impinge on her life in various ways as the future beckons her, inviting her to
create her own possibilities, a challenge which she accepts.
Firstly, Ramatoulaye is honest. It is a quality characteristic of her attitude to herself and
to others. In chapter 14 we find a scene symbolic of her candidates. After Modou
abandons her for a younger woman, Ramatoulaye appraises herself:
I looked at myself in the mirrors. My eyes took in the mirror’s

eloquence. I had lost my slim figure, as well as ease and
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quickness of movement. My stomach protruded … sucking had
robbed my breasts of their round firmness. I could not delude
myself: youth was deserting my body.
Here Ramatoulaye scrutinizes her physical self. But more often she is concerned with her
inner emotional life. She admits, in a singular gesture of honesty for a feminist, that she
in unable to function at her best outside the framework of marriage:
I am one of those who can realize themselves fully

and bloom when they form part of a couple. Even
though I respect the choice of liberated women, I
have never conceived of happiness outside marriage.
(55-56).
In a similar display of integrity, Ramatoulaye does not resort to easy revenge or to other
simplistic solutions when Modou effects and later when she is widowed. She turns down
the suggestions of friends that she use traditional charms to win back Modou just as she
later rejects Dieng’s proposal of marriage; instead she “looked reality in the face” (49).
She refuses to follow the advice of Daba and Farmata who urge her to divorce Modou;
she will not contemplate the temptation to get even with Modou by having an affair.
Ramatoulaye is loving. She is frank about her continuing love for her husband even after
he has betrayed her trust in him. “The truth is that, despite everything, I remain faithful
to the love of my youth. Aissatou, I cry for Modou, and I can do nothing about it” (56).
Love is also manifested in Ramatoullaye’s experience of motherhood. She tenderly
assesses and appreciates her own children’s varying personalities. She suffers anxiety
and anguish on their behalf but they have much to offer in return; after Modou leaves her,
Ramatoulaye confesses that it is her “love for her children that sustained her. They were
a pillar.” (53).
Ramatoulaye is fair. The mask of an honourable and secure person is how well she can
present the opposition’s point of view. She is generous in her assessment of even those
whom she disapproves of; she gives them their due. She criticizes the superficiality of
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women who sacrifice substance and opportunity in reaching out for the immediate
gratification:
“How many dreams did we nourish hopelessly that could

have been fulfilled as lasting happiness and that we
abandoned to embrace others, like soap bubbles, leaving us
empty-handed? (15)
Ramatoulaye admits that it is not always the man who is to blame for the failure of a
marriage; women too can be frivolous and fickle.
Not just Ramatoulaye and Aissatou get the short end of the stick in their marital
relationships, their co-wives do too. Binetou, Modou’s second wife, is a young woman
who submits to the joint demands of an avaricious mother and a ridiculous middle-aged
man trying to recapture his youth. Even in her victim’s assessment, she is “a lamb
slaughtered on the altar of affluence” (39) while her own aspirations are sold for thirty
pieces of silver.
And then, having withdrawn Binetou from school, (Modou) paid her a monthly
allowance of fifty thousand francs, just like a salary due to her. (10).
The results are predictably disastrous: she is mortified by the lost of her self-esteem; she
suffers shame as the wife of a man old enough to be her father; she betrays the hope of
her young life by accepting the readymade empty existence Modou offers her in return
for marriage; she squanders her potential, traipsing from night-club to night-club in a vain
effort to convince herself she is alive:
“Worn out, Binetou would watch with disillusioned eye the

progress of her friends. The image of her life, which she
had murdered, broke her heart.” (50)
Ramatoulaye’s portrayal of men in the novel does not follow an ideological party line.
True she has little time for someone as obnoxious as Tamsir; but she reminds Aissatou,
“no matter how unhappy the outcome of our unions, our husbands were great men.” (73)
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Angry though she is with Mawdo Ba for hurting Aissatou, yet she is warm in his praise
for rendering her family help when it is needed. She rejects Dieng but depicts him as the
honourable man he is.
Ramatoulaye, for good reason, dislike aunt Nabou but she comments her courage and
maternal care:
And life had not been kind to Mawdo’s mother. Very early, she lost her dear husband;
bravely, she brought up her eldest son Mawdo and two other daughters …. She devoted
herself with the affection of a tigress to her “one and only man,” Mawdo Ba. (26)
Another characteristic of Ramatoulaye is her openness to life. Here is a middle-aged

woman, burdened with the worries of coping as a single parent; yet, while retaining her
own values, she is flexible, receptive to new ideas and circumstances. She is initially
shocked and distressed to learn of young Aissatou’s pregnancy; but, after she had had
time to think family crisis through, Ramatoulaye is tenderly supportive of her daughter,
gentle towards her boy-friend. Despite her misgivings she “accepted the addition of
trousers” to her daughters’ wardrobe because they “wanted to be with it”. (pp) In her
wisdom she allows them a measure of freedom she herself never knew in her youth:
… I let my daughters go out from time to time. They went

to the cinema without me. They received male and female
friends. There were certain arguments to justify my
behaviour. Unquestionably, at a certain age, a boy or girl
opens up to love. I wanted my daughters to discover it in a
healthy way, without feeling of guilt, secretiveness or
degradation. (77)
This openness is linked to Ramatoulaye’s growing self-awareness. Significantly, it is

precisely those situations which hurt her that are also the avenue through which she
achieves self-liberation.
One of Ramatoulaye’s most remarkable qualities is what the poet Keats termed “negative
sensibility”, which is the ability to be comfortable even when holding contradictory
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feelings and thoughts. Ramatoulaye has the capability to accept ambivalence and paradox
without any strain. Her patience and courage help her to move on with life without self
pity. She tries to change what she can. She endures with good grace what she cannot
change.
Ramatoulaye is a deeply religious woman who seeks refuge in God and prayer when
troubled; yet she quite emphatically shows how institutional religion shackles women.
Ramatoulaye regards modern education as a mixed blessing – she is critical about it. She
is enthusiastic about what it can affect in the lives of women and society generally: she
describes the “intoxicating” nature of her own education (15); it helps Aissatou achieve
an independent life after her divorce (32); teachers are “the new priesthood” (23). But
Ramatoulaye is also alert to its negative consequences: the traditional crafts are neglected
(18); destructive new values creep in where her young daughters smoke, possibly drink
(76-77); education is used as a means to materialistic ends, education for social climbing
(73). Ramatoulaye questions the harmful aspects of this “flaw of progress” (77) while
appreciating its benefits. She talks of the past with affection (28, 47), but the past is also
Aunt Nabou with her rigid ideas of caste and “woman’s place.”
What finally makes So Long a Letter such a heartening novel is its protagonist’s
philosophical view of life:
To overcome distress when it sits upon you demands strong

will. When one thinks that with each passing second one’s
life is shortened, one must profit intensely from this
second; it is the sum of all the lost or harvested seconds that
makes for a wasted or a successful life. Brace oneself to
check despair and get it into proportion! (41).
Ramatoulaye lives by this philosophy. She does not deny the negative in her own life,
neither does she let it destroy her. She recognizes the conflict and tension inherent in
human existence; her mature wisdom teaches her when to cut her losses and more on with
the benefit of experience, when to compromise and when to fight back. Throughout the
novel key words and phrases reflecting Ramatoulaye’s optimism are reiterated: hope,
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endurance, survival, new beginnings, reassuring habits gain ascendancy. The novel
closes on a restatement of the insight and hope gained through trials:
… I have not given up wanting to refashion my life.

Despite everything – disappointments and humiliation –
hope still lives on within me. It is from the dirty and
nauseating humus that the green plant sprouts into life, and
I can feel new buds springing up in me. The word
‘happiness’ does indeed have meaning, doesn’t it? I shall
go out in search of it. (89)
Conclusion
It is clear that Ramatoulaye is optimistic about the future. She has gone through hard
times and little success has come her way. There is need to assess her experiences in
terms of what happens to other African women in general.
Activity
“Ramatoulaye represents the feelings of all African women.” Do you agree?
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LESSON 11
THEMATIC CONCERNS IN SO LONG A LETTER
Introduction
What is depicted in the novel, So Long a Letter is what exactly happens in society. The
author tries to bring out the fact that women, like men, can also perform and should be
given opportunities equal to those of men. But this can only be possible if there are no
restrictions from the society. Through the characters that the author has created we get to
see what kind of suffering women face in the male dominated society.
Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to identify the major themes in the novel
and show their relevance to the contemporary thought.
 Feminism
Themes
 Religion
FEMINISM
A feminist is a believer in the principle that women should have the same rights and
opportunities (legal, political, economic etc.) as men.
On issues concerning home and family life, the author depicts Jacqueline, a minor
character in the text, as being neglected by her husband (a Muslim). This is a bitter
experience since Jacqueline had defied her parents to marry Samba, this man does not
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seem to appreciate her contribution to the union. The author therefore portrays men such
as Samba as egocentric and egoistic who think that they are the centre of the universe and
do not care about other human feelings. They do not appreciate women’s contributions to
the settlement of their lives. The text depicts men as selfish seekers out to derive some
selfish gratification and abuse of women sexually. The allusion is that women exist as
beauty and sex objects:
Her husband, making up for lost time, spent his time

chasing slender Senegalese women, as he would say with
appreciation, and did not bother to hide his adventures,
respecting neither his wife nor his children. His lack of
precautions brought to Jacqueline’s knowledge the
irrefutable proof of his misconduct: love notes, check stubs
bearing the names of the payees, bills from restaurants and
for hotel rooms. Jacqueline cried; Samba Diack “lived it
up”. Jacqueline lost weight: Samba Diack was still living
fast. (42).
Even after Modou married a second wife, Ramatoulaye decides to remain with him for as
long as it is possible. She is annoyed that “for the sake of ‘variety’, men are unfaithful to
their wives.” (34). Even then she remains loyal to Modou after he has deserted her. Her
social problems multiply after his death when she assumes responsibility for the children.
She struggles very hard not to abandon her marital home and shows a grim determination
not to succumb to the wishes of those who want her to quit.
There is a saying that discord here may be luck elsewhere.

Why are you afraid to make the break? A woman is like a
ball; once a ball is thrown, no one can predict where it will
bounce. You have no control where it rolls, and even less
over who gets it. Often it is grabbed by an unexpected
hand … (40)
It is a great tribute to Ramatoulaye’s sterling qualities that she is able to cope with the
problems posed by the upbringing of her children in a society faced with a state of
transition where borrowed and inherited ideas battle for supremacy.
Domination of women by men is seen to be contingent upon the indoctrination at both the
individual and societal levels. Although we argue that women have a right to
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independent decision, the psychological situations in which they find themselves, it a
kind of social injustice.
RELIGION
Religion is used as an indoctrinating agency. There are times when elders seem to
justify the oppression of women through Islam. For instance, in So Long a Letter,
indoctrination is demonstrated through such characters like Farmata and old Nabou.
Farmata sees a woman as a ball which could be passed from one player to another; she
therefore supports the practice of wife inheritance. That is why she finds it difficult to
understand why Ramatoulaye cannot accept Daouda Dieng’s hand in marriage after she is
widowed. She sees women as commodity of trade to be auctioned to the highest bidder.
That is why fermata encourages Ramatoulaye to get married to Daouda Dieng simply
because he is the best in terms of social standing. She also believes that Dieng will
sustain Ramatoulaye in terms of financial obligations. At no time does Farmata realize
that a woman’s worth is beyond that of lifeless commodity. She does not also realize the
impact of the web in which Ramatoulaye is caught by the tradition. The old custom of
wife-inheritance is not only oppressive but also prescriptive. A woman is “thingfied” by
the custom and she can be passed over along other things. Her usefulness is embedded to
her husband. She is therefore part of a man’s property and should provide the required
pleasure to her husband. Such ideas are held dearly by old Nabou who sees women as
being there for the purpose of procreation. Outside procreation and provision of pleasure,
they are useless. This is the reason why old Nabou encourages young Nabou to take up
mid-wifely as a profession since it would help her advance a woman’s role to the
procreation.
It is the Muslim religion that allows for polygamy and wife inheritance. The two cases
used as examples – the marriage between Modou and Ramatoulaye and that between
Mawdo and Aissatou end in disaster mainly because the man takes a second wife;
Benetou in the case of Modou, Nabou in the case of Mawdo. Ramatoulaye and Aissatou
consider themselves unable to accept the indignity of living with a second wife. At the
height of her own crises, Aissatou writes to Mawdo to terminate the relationship between
them:
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I cannot accept what you are offering me today in place of the
happiness we once had. You want to draw a line between
heartfelt love and physical love. I say that there can be no union
of bodies without the heart’s acceptance, however, little that may
be …
I am stripping myself of your love, your name, clothed in my
dignity, the only garment, I go my way. (31-32)
But why is Ramatoulaye so resolutely oppose to polygamous life? She is a fervent

Muslim who accepts the teaching of Islam. She makes loud protestations of her faith at
several stages in the novel.” My heart concurs with the demands of religion. Reared
since childhood on their strict precepts, I expect not to fail. (8) Later on She affirms;“No,
I would not give in to pressure. My mind and my faith rejected supernatural power. (49)
So her rejection to her husband marrying Benetou can only be on social grounds since
Islam accepts polygamy as a way of life. She is concerned with the rights of women and
the need for each woman to retain her individuality and establish an acceptable personal
code of conduct. She sets the example in her own life. She successfully wards off all
kinds of social pressures put on her by groups and individuals after the death of Modou.
For example, she rejects Daouda Dieng as a suitor and tells off Tamir who wants to
inherit her.
You forget that I have a heart, a mind ... that I am not an

object to be passed from hand to hand. You don’t know
what marriage means to me: it is an act of faith and of love,
the total surrender of oneself to the person one has chosen
and who has chosen you. (58)
She is concerned with the dignity of man, the need to keep the human mind and body
inviolate and to conceive of love more as a metaphysical being than a physical activity.
Only in such a situation can the right of woman in marriage be preserved.
Ramatoulaye is an embodiment of all that is noble and dignified in a woman. As an

activist she is endowed with a lot of physical and mental energy, which she puts to good
use. She finds herself taking on different kinds of responsibility and she performs
admirably.
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On her own she solves all the problems that confront her, even though these weigh her
down occasionally. That she remains so mentally alert and accomplishes so much in the
unhappy situation in which she finds herself is no mean achievement. She is meant to be
an attractive example of how brilliantly a woman can perform when the use of her talent
and ability is not obstructed by restrictions and taboos. It is by such constructive
achievements, rather than by empty sloganeering, that women can prove their mettle and
establish a place of honour for themselves in a male – dominated world.
Politics should not be the exclusive preserve of men. Women should be encouraged to
participate in the art of government and decision-making. They help in laying a firm
foundation for society in the home and are, therefore, eminently qualified to get involved
in national affairs.
Women should no longer be decorative accessories, objects to be

moved about companions to be flattered or calmed with
promises. Women are the nation’s primary, fundamental root,
from which all else grows and blossoms. Women must be
encouraged to take a keener interest in the destiny of a country.
(61-62)
So it becomes obvious that Ramatoulaye uses her long letter to Aissatou only as a
medium of putting forward her radical views on several issues, many of them related to
elevation of the status of women in society. Even so she succeeds, through her style of
direct narration, in retaining the intimacy, which a private letter from one friend to
another demands. She frequently emphasizes the bond between her and her friend.
Conclusion
We have now discussed the main themes in the novel. Try and understand the connection
between the thematic concerns and the real life faced by many Africans today.
Activity
Discuss the gender disparities in an Islamic environment basing your answer on what
happens in So Long a Letter.
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LESSON 12
STYLE IN SO LONG A LETTER
Introduction
The framework Mariama Ba chooses for her novel is significant. So Long a Letter is
presented within the structural form of the diary – cum – letter, as the opening lines
addressed to Ramatoulaye’s confidant, Aissatou, indicates:
I have received your letter. By way o reply, I am beginning

this diary, my prop in my distress. Our long association has
taught me that confiding in others allays pain. (1)
The dairy, journal and letter have historically been peculiarly feminine vehicles of
communication, suited to women’s excluded presence in society as well as to their
temperament. They constitute an intimate method women have used for varying
purposes: scrutinized themselves and their aspirations and thwarted ambitions; to give
voice to their anger, humour, irony, frustration and achievement.
Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to spell out aspects of style employed by
the writer to make the text interesting reading.
In a diary one confides one’s innermost thoughts as one does to a trusted friend in a tete a
tete or in a letter. So Long a Letter in both diary and letter; at the same time as
Ramatoulaye analyses her own predicament and her responses to it, she also shares these
with her friend Aissatou. These acts – self-analysis, naming her private fear and pain,
sharing her thoughts with a friend – have their therapeutic effect, as Ramatoulaye herself
notes; her diary in her “prop in her distress”, confiding in a friend “allays pain”. The act
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of giving one’s suffering a handle, a name, is simultaneously give it a definite shape, and
so to assume control over it. Ramatoulaye’s action of consigning to paper the immediate
trials of daily life, psychologically distance her from them which is where the novel
moves into the realm of art. In So Long a Letter, Ramatoulaye shapes selects and orders
the flux of chaotic everyday experience, thoughts, feelings and events that crowd in on
her. In so doing her story assumes both a moral and an aesthetic purpose.
The form has the added advantage of making the content of So Long a Letter accessible
to the reader in any intensely immediate way. In addressing Aissatou, Ramatoulaye is
also addressing the reader directly, inviting her into Ramatoulaye’s own world as
sympathetic listener and assessor. The diary’s tome turns witty, probing, indignant,
typical, thoughtful, tender, questioning and reminiscing – is as varied as is intimate
conversation; it conveys the feel, the emotion of the events that have shaped
Ramatoulaye’s life.
The novel’s central focus is Ramatoulaye herself. Here she records her inner journey into
raised consciousness. It is precisely out of the disruption in her life and affections (as
abandoned wife, as widow) that her self-awareness merges: “I have never observed so
much, because I have never been so concerned” (9) Out of her own experiences and
those of a string of other characters (Aissatou, lady Mother-in-law, Benetou, old and
young Nabou, Farmata, Jacqueline Diack), Ramatoulaye constructs the female lot
common to her society. Her primary target is the male-female relationship in marriage,
her own marriage to Modou the trade union organizer, and Aissatou’s to Mawdo Ba the
doctor.
Ramatoulaye’s dissection reveals marriage to the largely one-sided affair in which the
male benefits most and has greater space in which to manoeuvre. Ramatoulaye the
devout muslim denounces polygamy, sanctioned by both traditional African society and
Islam. We would expect that Ramatoulaye, born and bred to the reality of the muslim
male being allowed four wives, would have come to terms with this eventuality in her
own life. She however, points to the discrepancy between polygamic theory and practice.
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I had prepared myself for equal sharing, according to the
precepts of Islam concerning polygamic life. I was left
with empty hands. (46)
This was not the case .She discovered that hers is still a male dominated world.
Conclusion
We have analysed the two main strategic devices employed by Mariama Ba to
communicate to her readers. There are many other aspects of style evident in the text.
Identify and analyse them.
Activity
In what ways can the novel So Long A Letter be said to be autobiographical?
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LECTURE 5
WHEN BULLETS BEGIN TO FLOWER
BY MARGARET DICKINSON
Introduction to lecture five

This is a collection of poems by some of the great African writers who are, however, not
much known in English speaking world. In the introduction we are informed that their
work is not available in English language. The anthology castigates the Portuguese rule
on the basis of its rule negatively affecting the social and economic structures of
colonized people drawn mainly from Angola, Mozambique and Guinea. Resistance to the
Portuguese role has been documented back to the 15 th Century when the colonizers set
foot in Africa. Angola served as the initial catchment area for supply of slaves to work in
plantations in Brazil. The tentacles of colonialism were tightened and felt in Africa when
Portugal was experiencing economic and political decline in Europe. As a result,
Portugal intensified conquest and exploitation in Africa. The Portuguese then introduced
tax payment beyond the amount that an average cultivator would hope to get. This
requirement ensured that the productive part of the populace sought manual employment
in companies ensured that blacks honoured the agreement lest they faced contempt of
court with ultimately resulted in correctional labour.
The poems in the anthology revolve around the negative effects that colonialism has
impacted on the social lives of the colonized people. These works of art are strategically
categorized into two indelible points of time; before the struggle and during the struggle.
The turning point of the struggle is the struggle for independence in Angola from where
the poems are mostly collected. On February 1961 the African ended their passive
reaction to the colonizers by attacking a Luanda prison in a bid to free the imprisoned
colleagues. This marked the turning point in the struggle for liberation. The spirit of the
time is captured in the poem FEBRUARY.
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Poetry grew to become an indispensable means of struggle and encouragement to the
masses because the Portuguese did not trouble themselves to censor it due to an
overwhelming fraction of the black populace that was illiterate and therefore could not
possibly appreciate what it meant. The illiteracy level stood in excess of ninety percent.
Poetry also flourished owing to its precision which allowed poems to be read and
disseminated more easily then prose. Traditional African culture has been given
prominence by some of these works as evident in the traditional names. Rhythms are
also created to depict African music flavour.
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LESSON 13
THEMES
Introduction
The themes in this anthology revolve around the problems faced by colonised people
namely:
 Poverty
 Exploitation
 Brutality
 Family disintegration
Objective
At the end of the lesson the learner will be able to analyse the themes running through the
poetry in the anthology.
There is rampant poverty afflicting families across the whole land under the Portuguese
colonialism. The living places are in pathetic conditions. They are structures crammed
together in an unhygienic way. The poem “Western civilization” by Agostinho Neto
captures the setting: “some rags complete. The intimate landscape”.
The rags have been stuffed in cracks to at least conceal the gaping holes, and cracks
between sheets to make the wall of the structure. Women and children exhibit the highest
degree of malnutrition. The poem “A Different Poem” by One’ Simo Silveira talks to
harrowing hunger, and the scarcity of food as opposed meaningful and gainful
employment. It agitates for an overhaul of the colonial structures and systems to
facilitate better remuneration of the African labour in order to satisfy their basic needs
and become respected people with decent income from their labour output.
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The people are overworked in two aspects; Working long hours, and doing manual –
tedious work with no corresponding pay for their labour. Life in mines is particularly
demanding. Family suffered back home due to their absence. This is the direct result to
poor remuneration. Shifting and breaking rocks being repeated several times shows the
monotony and the nature of work, which drains the cell saps of the workers. The workers
cannot have time to attend to their roles and obligations in the family. Their spouses are
left lonely and insecure. The workers are also subjected to many hardships, which
predispose them to death or premature aging. Their predicament is presented ironically
where a waiter dies of hunger despite the hard work he undertakes. The state is presented
in a paradox that alludes that it were better for the worker to die as he does “gratefully”.
The people were overworked and underpaid. There is no alternative for them as they are
caught in a colonial web. Therefore, death is seen as redeeming force. ?that is why they
are grateful to death.
The people are in constant fear of being arrested and incarcerated when they talk about
the issues affecting them. /they are closely monitored by the secret police who ensure
that the people who speak ill of the establishment do not get away with it.
As we have already pointed out, February 4 th 1961 marked a turning point when the open
revolt campaign against the Portuguese kicked off with a veracious attack on Luanda
prison. The Portuguese reacted brutally. The bodies of the Angola fighters mostly
members of the people’s movement of the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) were thrown to
Atlantic sea to be eaten by maritime carnivores. The poem “February” by Agostinho
Neto (89) recounts the intensity of Portuguese brutality while repressing the uprising.
The carcasses of the slain heroes were swept ashore by waves to be devoured by jackets
and craws. The sea water was blood stained – an indication of the magnitude of the
massacre. Costa Andrade’s poem, “fourth poem” estimates at fifty thousand smothered
and unmourned freedom fighters. They were not accorded decent and respective burial
befitting patriots.
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Africans were not accorded an opportunity to access education which could provide a
chance for gainful employment and help them attain literacy level which could provide a
basis for political awakening. This made it difficult for them to achieve intellectual level
to organize for opposition against the Portuguese rule. “Letter from a Contract Worker”
by Antonio Jacinto (PSI) highlights the predicament of two lovers separated by the
disputed lifestyle where young men are employed and forced to be away from their loved
ones. The two lovers could not communicate to each other because they were both
illiterate. The Portuguese employed the young people at a tender age so that they could
provide labour for a long time. This ensured constant and sufficient supply of workers to
colonial farms and industries. The workers are not favoured by the contract of worker.
The binding agreement favours the colonizers.
In “Song of Agony” by Gueveia de Lemos, the pronoun, “which” is used instead of

“who” in reference to the workers. This is an artistic expression of the dehumanizing
effect of colonialism. The Africans are robbed of their humanity. They no longer live
the fullness of their experience but only exist mechanically. These Africans are attached
to their ancestral land to which they have a sense of belonging. The land is the main link
between the ancestral past and the current society. The poet in “Song of Agony”
portends death by citing a traditional song about death. The chorus creates a tragic mood
even before one reads the poem that follows. The Africans are alienated from their
ancestral land and the warmth of homes, which signified security. Working far away,
beyond the mountain into the bush and the travel to unknown places means detachment
from their land. There is doubt whether the worker would be back to see the land and
other belongings like the oxen and women.
The End of the Road reflects the air of hopelessness and uncertainty in which no one
knows where to go or what to do next. There is depression when the poet uses the
metaphor of a river running dry. The rivers normally support continuity. When a river
dries up no life can be supported. The reference to death could be physical or even
emotional. The employer does not give chance to the workers an opportunity to control
and express their emotional feelings. The workers ask if they would be back to see their
women. Therefore, uncertainty dominates the colonized workers. They have a bleak
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vision of their future. Families were separated mainly due to the nature of the work that
the men did. Men had to go and work outside their homes. The family units were
destroyed and the women left to fend for themselves.
In the poem “Mamparra, M’gaiza,” the poet compares men with cattle. Mechanicality is
expressed in the systematic selection and marking before the cattle get on the train.
Selection means only those who are able to carry out the duties assigned by the
colonialists are picked and counted ensures that none gets lost or escapes on the way.
They are marked for identification. This routine selection, counting and marking is a
mechanical process that dehumanizes the Africans. It reduced them to commodities that
are branded (marked), and counted. The selection alludes to assessment of value just as
humans assess animals to determine their values. The people are given the attributes of
meek cattle who have no ability to resist or even know that they have been oppressed.
They are depicted as docile as they cannot do anything about their plight. The women
folk are referred to as being in a pen. The use of metaphors such as cow for the worker
reflects their subjugation to the extent of being put in pens, which depicts their
helplessness. They are treated like animals – humans live in houses not in pens! They
are denied their sexual rights for the benefit of the oppressor. They are vessels of
production of new labourers to ensure continuity of supply of labour.
The allusion that the people have lost their heads carries various connotations. Since the
family is the basic unit of society then the society has lost direction. They are also
alienated t\from their property. The men are away from home for four and twenty moons
without seeing oxen – representative of general property. This long duration destroys the
very foundation of the African society that is paternalistic and communal.
The contract also enforces a specified code of dressing as per the employer’s wishes and
whims – a clean shirt? Are one of the requirements of etiquette in the Portuguese
perspective. A clean shirt (Song of Agony) in the background of biting poverty, over-
taxation, family obligation and poor living conditions is an ironic prerequisite. This
reflects misplaced priorities of the colonialists which are quite unfavourable to the
Africans who are required to sacrifice a lot. Failure to honour the lop-sided contracts
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results in convictions to the Africans who will be sentenced to correctional labour which
brings no financial reward to the labourer and brings the contract’s unfavourable
conditions to a new dimension of employer’s mistreatment.
The colonized people try to embrace modernity in form of Western values and lifestyles.
The poet in the poem “Western civilization” uses satire to ridicule the apemanship. The
structure made from iron-sheets is used to illustrate the pride associated with a house
made of iron sheets. It portrays the African’s desire to embrace Western values at the
expense of his own. This is the effect of the brainwashing that has been instigated by the
oppressor. The poem “Western civilization” chides those who adopt the western values
with a misconception that they are superior. It drives home the fact that all glittering
values in the Western perspective can be totally disastrous in the African context just like
the tins nailed to the posts. There is no coherence in the structure or the ‘landscape’.
This symbolizes the disorder entrenched in apemanship . The colonized people are
physically tortured by the Portuguese in the course of the perpetration of their rule. They
colonizer inflicted physical torture – the poem “Your pain Painful” recollects that
experience:
Your scar
Yet more scar
Will be remembering your whip
It is clear that the violence the Africans were subjected to left scars as indelible marks of
their persecution. The normalcy of life was disrupted further when the armed struggle
got underway. The Africans went underground and hid in the forests in their fear of the
Portuguese reprisals by the Portuguese security machinery.
Conclusion
These poems demonstrate the fact that the colonised people were living in fear of
violence and death in the hands of the Portuguese. They use poetry as a weapon to create
awareness, mobilise the masses, and liberate themselves.
Activity
85
Write a poem giving hope and encouragement to the oppressed people.
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LESSON 14
STYLE IN WHEN BULLETS BEGIN TO FLOWER
INTRODUCTION
We have discussed a number of poems and demonstrated how the colonized people
expressed their pain, anger, hopelessness and disappointments against the Portuguese
who were their oppressors. We proceed to sample out some poems for specific analysis.
OBJECTIVE
At the end of this lesson, the learners will be able to analyse the poetry of the period
before the struggles.
Therefore, by studying the sample and poetry, we intend to demonstrate intensively the
art of analysis.
We start with the poem “Attention which appears on page 62 of the anthology”.
Attention – Mindelense
The lights of the city glide within me
But do not pierce through me with their glitter
Deep in me thee still persists the black depths of the black history I hear singing.
I have heard of blood that ran in torrents.

And of the whip that cracked a thousand times.
Of the white man ho stood guard on the slaves.
Sparks in his eyes and thunder in his voice.
We here are the children of dense night

Which is shattered in places by strange cries
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Ranges suppressed for many hundred years
Today are globules of our own red blood.
Oh wonderful things, oh cities of light

Your lights do not keep company with me
Within me there still remains the black base
Of the black history I hear singing.
Synopsis: This poem highlights are problems of the black man. He has been whipped
until the “Whip … cracked a thousand times”. He has been intimidated by a “white man
who stood guard on the slaves” and his raging anger has been “suppressed for many
hundred years”. All these aspects indicate that the black man of Africa has been
suffering under the white man’s rule. The Africans had felt and understood their
predicament but before the struggle they suffered from inertias. They could not be
“heard”. There is a strong suggestion that they could not also been seen since they lived
in the dark. This metaphor of night and darkness implies that they were not sure of what
to do. They did not understand the oppressive system well enough to stage some
resistance. Therefore they raged inside their hearts as they became subjected to physical
and psychological suffering.
Theme: As we have demonstrated these of suffering of the blacks. Closely related to

this is the theme of colonialism. The two are embedded in the theme of oppression.
Activity:
Discuss the theme of suffering, colonialism and oppression showing clearly how they
are related.
However, if you study the poem closely, you will see some underlying dignity in the
Africans who refuse to despair. The Africans identify themselves with their “own red
blood”. The hidden script is that behind the skin whether you are black or white you
have “red blood”. The logical conclusion here is that we are all human beings and no one
should oppress another. This hints at the theme of HUMANISM.
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Another theme that is alluded to that HOPE. In the Last Stanza – the last two lines to be
specific, the poet affirms, “within me there still remains the black base of black history of
their singing”. The poet is proud to be the black and African. He is happy to e identified
with his history. He refuses to be silenced by intimidation and oppression. He has hope
or the future and he can hear the black history singing. This means that he can envision
of a time when he will be able to sing or celebrate his history without censorship. This in
its self gives him a sense of hope for a brighter future.
STYLE: The poems in the anthology were composed under difficult conditions. This
was a time of resistance.
“There still persists the black depth of history. I here signing” The African artists refused
to be silenced by serious violation of their human rights. They were subjected to physical
and psychological torture and they were enslaved by the colonialists.
This important message is conveyed through symbolism, contrast and repetition.
 What do you thing is meant by the following phrases?

 Sparks in his eyes
 Thunder in his voice
Activity
What do the words tell you about the behaviour of the Portuguese against the Africans?
What you think are the effects of repetition as style in the poem.
The image of light has been employed to show the contrasts between the lives of the
blacks and that of whites. The metaphor of “blood that ran in torrents” paints of grisly
picture of the suffering of the black man. Even the word children in the live.
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We are the children of a dense night – tells the story of the devastating conditions that the
Africans are going through. The paradox of living in the city creates a complex picture of
suffering a deceit. The Africans live in the city with lights – but they cannot see since
their eyes have been “shattered in places by strange cries”. The insinuation here is that
they continue to suffer and cry in pain for help.
Let us now turn to another poem to discuss and analyse more aspects of style.
BLACK BLOOD – Noemia de Sousa

Oh my Africa strange and wild
My virgin raped
My mother
How long have I gone exiled from you

Alienated, distant, self-absorbed
Through these city streets, pregnant with a foreign race
Forgive me! Mother!
As if I could live forever
Ignorant of the warm caresses
Of your moonlight … My beginning and
My end
As if beyond the cinemas and cafes

No longing for your strange horizons
Stirred
As if in your dew-drenched forests
The splendorous birds,
Their names mysterious and still closed to me,
If they, in muted voices, did not sing their
Freedom!
As if your sons –
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Unrivalled royal statues
Tall and bronze wrought
Hardened by the fire
Of your infernal sun,
Ferocious
As if your sons
Incorruptible and suffering
Struggling
Bound to the land
In work, in live, in song.
As slaves,
As if these were not by brothers.
- Oh my mother Africa
Great pagan, sensual slave
Mystic, charmed
To your transgressing daughter
Give forgiveness!
The strength of your sap sweeps all before it

And no more was needed by the magic command
From your war drums, drumming for battle
Dum-dum-dum-tam-tam-tam
Dum-dum-dum-tam-tam-tam
For this I should have trembled
For this I should have shouted
For this I should have felt – deep in my blood
Your voice – Mother!
And, vanquished, I should have recognized our
Error
And returned to my ancient source.
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Mother! My mother Africa
Of slave songs in the moonlight
I cannot, CANNOT deny
The black, thesavage blood
You game me
Because deep in me
It is off all
In my soul, in my veins
Live, I laugh, I endure
Through it
MOTHER!
This poem is very interesting in terms of style. Graphological features provide a contrast
between long lines and short ones. This is indicative of the variation of feelings. They
capture the intensity of feelings and the conviction the poet holds about himself and his
people.
There are long stanzas, which develop some argument or a kind of narrative poet. All
these features help us to understand the poem
The title “Black Blood is significant. We know that there is no blood, which is black in
colour. However, further reflection on the meaning bring out the truth expressed in the
title. The poet is referring to the blood of the blacks. In addition, the fact that he makes
this the Title: “blood blood” of the poem makes us understand him better. He is a black
person who is proud of his colour in the sense of the negritude movement; black is
beautiful. Again, the colour black provides a contrast with white which is the colour of
the oppressor. The implication is that the poet in particular and all black people in
general are proud to e opposite of white. This perspective shows pride in the black man
inherent identity.
The drum is associated with African music. It is also a musical instrument that is used to
communicate various messages in the African setting.
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“Your war drums drumming for battle”
In the context above, there is a powerful suggestion that the persona is ready for battle.
He is ready to confront the white man. For a long time the African has suffered
passively. The persona now realizes what he should have done.“I should have shouted”
This means that Africans should not suffer in silence. They should agitate for their
freedom.
The most important theme in this poem is that of patriotism which is elevated to the level
of Pan-Africanism . Africa is personified in the lexicon “Mother”. The word mother
carries with it all the attributes of origin, love nurturing and endurance. The fact that the
white man has described Africa as “savage” and “wild” should not be taken to mean that
Africa is bad. The persona tells us that Africa is a virgin that has been raped. This
comparison is apt since the white man has violated the human right of Africans. They
have brutalized and dehumanized the Africans through slavery. The whites have
alienated the Africans from their motherland. That is why the persona looks at Africa in
a romanticized matter as he refers to “son in the moonlight” and makes the final
commitment to “mother” implying that he has resolved to remain loyal to Africa.
Another theme that emerges from the poem is Alienation. The persona says he has been
“exiled” from Africa. He directly admits that he has been “alienated, distant, self-
absorbed”. He gives a glimpse of where and how he is living in “city streets, pregnant
with foreign vase”. It is clear that he has realized that he has not been true to Mother
Africa. That is why he asks for forgiveness.
Using contrast as a style, the persona creates a nostalgic mood of “the warm caresses of
your moonlight” which he has been ignorant of until now. He affirms that Africa is his
“beginning and end”. This contrast is tied to the idea of freedom. The persona has been
removed from his natural habitat comprising forests and birds.
Activity:
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What other examples of contrast between Africa and the West do you find in the poem?
Write down the contrasting aspects.
There is a hint that the persona is a woman or girl. She refers to herself as “your
transgressing daughter”. Since the poet is a woman, we can say that she is identified with
the persona. We can also say that she uses a female voice to communicate her messages.
There are other aspects of gender sensitivity that emerges from the poem. The word
“sap” reminds us about the milk of human kindness that mothers have. The reference to
“virgin” and rape have the attack of not just white but male whites who violate Africa.
We an comfortable argue that the persona launches an attack on whites but compares
their behaviour with that of man who violates a woman’s body.
There is a slight reference to religion.

“Oh Mother Africa, Great pagan, sensual slaves,” By putting the idea of being pagan and
sensual together, the poet affirms the fact that the white man sees Africans as pagans.
We know that, as Mbiti says Africans are “notorious” Yet the white people describe them
as pagan if they are not Christians. This betrays the white man’s selfishness – only
Christianity is religious of the world are nonexistent in his mind according to this poem.
Activity:
Consider the following poems:
(a) All suffering
(b) Hope
(c) war
(d) Love
In which way does the poet highlight each one of them?
Now let us consider the last poem before the struggles.
A Different poem – Onesimo Silveira

The people of the islands want a different poem
For the people of the islands;
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A poem without exiles complaining
In the calm of their existence;
A poem without children nourished
On the black milk of aborted time
A poem without mothers gazing
At the vision of their sons, motherless.
For the people of the islands:
A poem without arms in need of work
Nor months in need of bread

A poem without boats ballasted with people
On the road to the South
A poem without words choked
By the harrows of silence.
Or the people of the islands:
A poem wish sap rising in the heart of the
BEGINNING
A poem with Batuque and tchabeta1 and the
Badias2 of St. Catherine,
A poem with shaking nips and laughing ivory.
The people of the island want a different poem
For the people of the islands:
A poem without men who lose the seas’ grace
And the fantasy of the main compass point
This is a straight forward poem. Statements are expository. In fact this poem is suitable
for chanting.
1
A dance
2
A team for the women from SAntiago
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The poem shows us that the people of the island have become conscious of their
suffering. There is a whole list of their unfair experiences.
 Exile complaining
 Children nourished
 Aborted time
 Sons, motherless
 Arms in need of work
 Mouths in need of bread
Boats blasted with people
- on the road to the south
Words choke
They have realized that they have been suffering and they want change. The envisim
Better life which is depicted in:
With Batuque and tchabeta* and the badias* of St. Catherine
- shaking lips and laughing ivory
Therefore, this poem brings out the fact that the Africans have conducted an incisive
analysis of the sort of life they have been living. They have decided that they need a
change. This poem is therefore a peoples’ self assessment and critique or their social
reality. They have formed a firm opinion of what needs to be done to redress the
situation. In this poem the persona creates the voice of the people (who are expected to
charm the poem) and shows their aspirations. The possibilities are explored and
expressed. Therefore, this poem goes beyond just creating awareness. It calls for people
re-direct their energies and not be “men who lose the seas grace and fantasy o the main
compass points”
The word people refers to the masses who should be the driving force behind the much
needed change.
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However, like all the poems before the struggle, this poem is not explicit about armed
struggle against the oppressive forces. There is, however, solidarity among the people
and we know that it is almost time for action.
Conclusion
In this lesson, we have provided methods/ways of analysis of poetry. It is expected that
you will practice conducing your own analysis of poems. You must also note that you do
not have to agree with what we have said. What is important is for you to have a
scholarly and logical mental framework that enables you to reflect and write about
poetry.
Activity:
Read the poem loudly in a chant. Write down the feelings and other effects this poem
might have had on the oppressed people.
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LESSON 15
DURING THE STRUGGLE
Introduction
In Angola, Guinea Mozambique and the islands discontent intensified and took different
forms. The Portuguese realized that the Africans had started expressing dissatisfaction
with the colonial rule. Therefore, the Portuguese caught the Africans unawares and in the
words of Margaret Dickinson:
This made the violet reprisals possible and these in their

turn discredited the leaders and frightened much of the
population away, or reduced them to despairing apathy.
Later however, various movements such as M.P.L.A. and FRELIMO were formed to
counter attach the Portuguese through political movements which paved the way for
eventual Liberation of the Africans people.
Poetry became a very significant and appropriate tool during the struggle. Poems were
user friendly; they could be easily hidden or passed on. In addition, they were rhythmic
and pleasant to the ear and were popular even the illiterate Africans where the poem was
often read. Therefore, poetry played a major role in creating awareness, inspiring people
motorizing them when they felt and almost despaired. Therefore, for the purpose of our
study, we have carefully selected three poems for close study – so that you can
understand the impact on the struggling people.
Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to analyse selected poems that relate to
the period.
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FEBRUARY – Agostinho Neto
The poem is important because it revisits the beginning of the struggle in Angola and
documents the suffering and the loss of the Africans. It affirms the peoples pride in their
Island i.e. Sao Tome. Read the poem carefully then write an analysis of the same under
the following sub-headings:
(a) The setting
(b) The theme of suffering
(c) The theme of war
(d) The politics of burial
It was them the Atlantic

In the course of time
Gave back the carcasses of men
Swathed in white flowers of foam
And in the victims’ boundless hate,
Brought on waves of death’s congealed blood
And the beaches were smothered by crows and

Jackals with a bestial hunger for the battered flesh
On the sands
Of the lands, scorched by the terror of centuries
Enslaved and chained,
Of the land called green
Which children even now call green for hope.
It was then that the bodies in the sea

Swelled up with shame and salt
In the course of time
In blood-stained waters
Of desire and weakness.
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It was then that in our eyes, fired
Now with blood, now with life, now with death,
We buried our dead victoriously
And on the graves made recognition
Of the reason men were sacrificed
For love
For peace,
Even while facing death, in the course of time,
In blood-stained waters
And within us
The green land of San Tome
Will be also the island of love
Love poem
Introduction
This poem has been chosen for its romantic and visionary perspective. Before the
struggle, we saw that these people were separated from their country and families. We
also remember how the contract workers were torn from their loved ones. All this
happened through the harsh conditions and the humiliation that the Africans were
subjected to.
Closely read this poem and interpret it in view of what you already know.
Write short notes on each for the following quotes taken from the poem.
1. “When I return to see the sun’s light they deny me”

How is the persona’s dream revealed in the next ten lines?
2. “and we love
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Those countless graves of countless men”
How do these words relate to war and death?
3. “When I return
- the bar undone –
And embraced together we’ll make
Life, undeniable, continue …’
How do these words relate to the theme of love life and freedom? You can use
other parts of the poem to support your answer?
4. “A fringe of new colour will dress the earth”

In which way can we say that these words echo hope? Identify and discuss other
words that depict the hope the Africans had. Do you think the Africans were
realistic in their hope?
POEM – Jorge Rebeto
Come, brother and tell me your life

Come, show me the marks well of revolt
Which the enemy left on your body
Come, say to me “here

My hands have been crushed
Because they defended
The land which they own
“Here my body was tortured

Because it refused to bend
To invaders
“Here my mouth was wounded

Because it dated to sing
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My people’s freedom:”
Come brother and tell me your life.

Come relate me the dreams of revolt
Which you and your fathers and forefathers
Demand
In silence
Through shadowless nights made for love
Come tell me these dreams become

War,
The birth of heroes,
Land reconquered,
Mothers who, fearless,
Send their sons to fight.
Come, tell me all this, my brother.
And later will forge simple words

Which even the children can understand
Words which will enter every house
Like wind
And fall like red hot embers
Our people’s souls
In our land
Bullets are beginning to flower.
This is the last poem in the Anthology. We have selected it because it provides a synopsis
of what the Africans have gone through. It ends with the idea of creation of hope through
poetry.
Under the heading “In our land, Bullets are Beginning to Flower”
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Provide a critique of the African people’s struggle against the Portuguese rule. Use this
poem as your point of departure but you can use other poems in the anthology to illustrate
your points.
CONCLUSION
The anthology ends with a spirit of hope. The poet uses a metaphor, bullet are beginning
to flower, which also forms the title of the anthology. It means that there is an aura of
triumph. The oppressed people have used bullets to counteract the oppressors. They
have succeeded and their victory is forthcoming. Congratulatory messages are sent to
mothers who sent their sons to fight, the victors of the war and the whole African society
that contributed to the defeat of the Portuguese colonialists. The celebrations and the
happy mood are unstoppable just like the metaphor that is used – the wind is blowing and
it will enter every household. This means that the change for the better will affect every
homestead. The collective will and effort of the people is in the process of fruitation; the
flowering.
Activity
Read at least two poems in the anthology loudly and try to feel the mood of the poem.
Describe the mood.
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LECTURE 6
ORAL LITERATURE
INTRODUCTION
In order to embark on a serious study oral literature, we should establish a working
definition of our subjects. Oral literature may be defined as those utterances, whether
spoken, recited or sung, whose composition and performance exhibit to an appreciable
degree the artistic characteristics of accurate observation, vivid imagination and
ingenious expression.
We refer to our traditional narratives, proverbs, recitations, songs and other forms as oral
because in their natural state they are composed and performed through the spoken
words, or simply, by word of mouth, which is what oral means. We call these
performances literature because, like all literature, they use language as their medium of
communication and they are artistic in that they are intended to move us by appealing to
both our understanding and our feeling. Literature does this, as we have mentioned by
presenting us with well-observed characters and situations, by imaginatively showing us
the significance of what has been observed and by effectively using language to
communicate to us.
African Scholars have defined oral literature in different ways. Some have even argued
that it is not right to speak of oral literature, since “oral” means what is spoken while
“literature” means what is written. But if we accept Okot p’Bitek’s definition of
literature as “oral the creative works of man expressed in words .. whether … sung,
spoken or written down/” then the term literature should raise no problems for our
purposes. However, some alternative names have been suggested and are used by some
scholars of oral literature. You will, for example, encounter terms like verbal arts, oral
performance or orature, all used to refer to orally transmitted creative activity. What all
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these terms emphasize about oral literature is that it is performed live, and that it is
creative.
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LESSON 16
A GENERIC OVERVIEW OF ORAL LITERATURE
Introduction
Our last lesson addressed the subject of the definition nature and function of oral
literature in society. This lesson which is a long one has the following specific objectives.
The lesson has been divided into sections for easier analysis. We must be quick to remind
you that oral literature is a broad subject and what appears in this section should only
serve to stimulate your interest in the subject. You will therefore be expected to visit the
library and go to the field and conduct research in the various aspects of oral literature
which have not been covered here. We should remember that Okok P. Bitek in Africa’s
Cultural Revolution defines oral literature as – all creative works of man expressed in
words. There is a lot of controversy surrounding the question
whether oral literature is literature. This module has no space to engage on a discussion
of that controversy. However, our position is that both speaking and writing are different
modes of expression of literature. We should, however, remember that literature like any
other discipline is knowledge. Oral literature is knowledge “how” i.e. mode of existence
and expression. Written literature also uses words but is mute. Literature captured
people’s emotions. Essentially, oral literature is performed art. There must be an oral
artist who is a narrator, a singer, a dancer or a general speaker who is talented in verbal
art. Whatever is narrated must be directed to an audience in most cases present but the
audience can also be imagined. Like drama oral performance elicits immediate response
from the audience. This makes it a very special kind of art. As we said in the last lesson,
Oral literature can realised in poetry or prose among other forms. Within the context of
performance, both the artist and the audience come from the same social and physical
setting. They are always in dialogue and at times change sides so that the artist becomes
the audience and vice versa. The social reality that informs the performance impacts on
the artist to create an activated reality, which becomes the intellectual source of the
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creativity of the artist. Now, let us work on the following genres of oral literature in order
to gain insight on what we have alluded to above.
Objectives
(a) To introduce the learner to the characteristics of the major genres of oral
literature.
(b) To enable the learner to identify the distinctive features of the various genres.
Section 1: Narratives
Unlike poems, narratives are usually longer. They are dominated by prosaic expression
instead of verse. However, just as there are long poems, there are also very short
narratives. Narratives are basically told for entertainment and education of the
community. They require concentration and are therefore told at night. There is belief in
most communities that if stories are told while young people are at work, for example, the
cows and goats would run away and get lost. There is usually the beginning formula.
Narrator: I will tell you a story

Audience: Tell us.
Narrator: Once upon a time…
And there is also an ending formula.

Narrator: my story ends there.
: And they lived happily ever after.
Most narratives start by creating a stable setting which is later destabilized. A conflict is
built. This rises to a crises which must be resolved through a virtue e.g. courage never
fails.
Narratives have a theme, which is developed and resolved, at the end of the story. The
following are some of the sub-genres of narratives:
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MYTHS:
These are expository narratives which are often believed to be true. However, the term
myth is a problematic one. This will become clear to you as you make progress towards
your fourth year. Most myths revolve around people’s origin, religion and heroic deeds of
the community. Myths were traditionally told by the elderly members of the community.
Some of the myths belong to what we might call sacred narratives.
LEGENDS:
These are narratives revolving around the extra-ordinary deeds of human beings who are
members of a community. They capture the historic achievements, challenges and events
and trace the lives of those who made history within the community.
The two subgenres help the community to capture their identity and pride. They
demonstrate the fact that life is continuous and in spite of our failure or successes, life
goes on. The myths and legends helped to integrate a community and reconstruct their
fears, hopes, inspirations, dreams and achievements.
FABLES:
These are usually short narratives, which are usually fictions but have a lesson which is
usually expressed as a saying of wise or proverb at the end of the tale. Their main
functions were to the society morality and shape their behaviour.
STOP AND THINK

There are other kinds of narratives e.g. trickster narratives. Find out which ones they
are and say what their function is in your community
Study the following narratives then undertake the task given after each. The first is the
story of Wagaciairi told in two versions. Both are extracted from Wanjiku Mukabi
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Kabira’s well known text. The Oral artist (39-44) Read the text for more insights on the
subject.
WAGACIAIRI
Performer: Kabebe
Place: kanunga sub-location, kiambu district Kenya
Time: 8 p.m
Date: October 1977
Performance: there are three men, one woman and four children
Some time ago there was a man who had his wife. And when he had his own wife, it
happened that she got pregnant. And when the pregnancy was at its late stage, you know
the way a man sits and thinks about a lot of things when he is at home, he decided to join
other men to go and make some tools. So they went to make some tools, spears and
swords. They went where there were iganda.** it was very far from their homes. Now,
when the man was away, his wife gave birth. Now, the first person to knock at the door of
their home, the way people go to a home where a woman has given birth, was an ogre.
When the ogre entered, it asked the woman: “Wagaciairi, have you given birth?”
“Yes,” answered Wagaciairi.
“I shall look after you,” said the ogre.
The woman said to him: “Because you are here, you can look after me.”
The ogre took everything. It started to cook some of the things in the house, the way you
can do if you go to somebody’s home. Long ago, there were many granaries, one for
black beans, one for millet, and everything. We shall not count everything. Everything
was there. And the owner of the house was a man who had land, and everything to give
his people.
Now, the irimu did this whenever it prepared some food: it would pretend that it wanted
to give it to Wagaciairi, but if she tried to take the food, it would snatch it back and say:
“Wagaciairi, take this little food. If you refuse, I shall eat it.” It would eat it.
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The woman became very, very thin. She lost all her strength. She looked like a sick
person. She got very worried and wondered where this thing came from, this thing of
having an ogre in her home.
Now, this woman used to do this: because this irimu had to go out sometimes, she would
lick the dishes or she would eat any little food that was left. When she ate these remains,
the irimu would come and harass her angrily and say to her: “Wagaciairi. Who ate the
food that was here?” it would scold her a lot.
The woman used to be in great danger when she went to sleep, because this irimu had
given her a lot of trouble. It had taken over her home completely. There was nothing she
could do. At last she felt that the irimu would end up by eating her.
Now this woman’s strength and her ability to think came to an end. Sorrow entered and
settled in her heart. She had castor beans which were spread to dry outside. A dove came
to eat them. She chased it away and said: “Go away you hopeless thing, why do you eat
my castor beans? If I sent you to somebody, would you go, you hopeless thing?”
Even as she spoke, she did not expect the dove to speak because doves don’t speak. It is
as if God had given it this power.
The dove talked to her and said “What do you want?”

She said: “I am in deep trouble.”
It asked her: “What trouble?”
She said to the dove: “Now, I gave birth and into this house of mine came an Irimu.
Now I don’t eat. And when my liver hurts, I lick the calabashes or take the little bits of
food that remain. And I can only eat when the ogre is away, and even now we can talk
only because it is not here. This ogre has given me a lot of trouble.
The dove said to her: “What do you want me to do?”
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She replied: “I want you to do this: I shall send you because you have wings, you go all
over the flat land and fly over it. I do not know whether where you go, you will find my
husband or other blacksmiths; so wherever you go you sing:
Blacksmith who smiths
Smith quickly
Your wife has given birth
Was helped by an Irimu
“Wagaciairi take this bit of food
If you don’t want I shall eat it”
The dove went as it had agree with Wagaciairi. Now it went. It went to every
blacksmith’s place: you know, where they used to make swords and spears and all kinds
of things. Now, it went and found a place where the blacksmiths were working. The
women handn’t told the dove the name of the husband. It just found people working. It
landed on a tree the way doves do. The blacksmiths went on working because they were
not interested in the dove. Now the done sang:

Smith quickly
If you don’t want it I shall eat it”
The blacksmiths asked each other why this little dove had brought this nonsense here.
“Let it be chased away with stones,” they said
The dove was chased away with stones and it flew away. Big stones were thrown at it.
Big iron pieces were thrown at it. They don’t think much about it. The dove went,
because if to person who is angry, and you are only giving him some news, you can move
away, to return later.
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The smiths were just interested in making their tools. The dove saw that. They had
returned to smith. Haya, they did not understand what the dove was telling them.
The dove returned to the same place and sang:
Smith quickly
If you don’t want it I shall eat it”
Now the men heard. The men thought very hard. They thought, “Now this is a dove and
it is singing.” They talked like that. “And now it has spoken twice, it will not speak any
more. Let’s ask ourselves why, we are adults. We shall not stone this dove. We shall
ask ourselves, we who are here, who of us left his wife pregnant?”
When the man who had left his wife pregnant heard the song, he was very shocked. He
had not told anybody. When you have been having a problem on your mind you become
alert when somebody refers to it. He told them: “I left my wife pregnant and after all
those days, she must by now have a baby.” He was told by the other men: “:It is you who
is being called. Get up and go. We shall not go with you because we do not know what
is happening. Get up and go.”
The man took his matchet and his spear, because long ago people used to carry their
weapons. He flew. He went very very quickly. He was in great sorrow. He left the
place in great worry.
He went to his home and found his wife. That man cried when he saw how thin his wife
had become. She had only the strength of a hen left. Have you heard that he was in very
great sorrow? By chance, this man did not find the ogre at home. It had gone to collect
firewood.
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He was told everything by his wife. He understood. You heard earlier what it had done
to her. She told her husband all that had happened since he left his home. The man felt
very bad in his heart and he thought very bad things.
Now, he said to his wife. “All the food that is left here, take it and eat it. Eat it all and do
not leave anything. Take whatever is in the pot, then put water in it, pour out the
contents. Leave nothing. Eat, and when the ogre comes, it will find me.”
Now, because the woman had been with the ogre and knew him well, she advised her
husband on what to do. She said to him: I want you to do this. Take this matter wisely, I
am the one who sent the dove. I spoke with the dove. I do not know whether it is a
miracle or what. You shall do this. You go to the itara 3 and wait there until it comes.
When it comes you shall hear what it will tell me. Then you will get the matter straight.”
The man did not argue with the wife. He climbed onto the itara an stayed there. The
ogre came just then, carrying a load of firewood. It said: “Wagaciairi who is in this
house. May you die with same thunderous sound.” If you let a load of firewood the size
offloads w\women carry fall, it makes the sound ku! Wagaciairi said to the ogre, “May
you die with the same thunderous sound.” It said to her, “wagaciairi, why areyou
behaving as if those who smith have come?”
It looked for porridge. “I am the one who drank it.” The woman said. Hi! They faced
each other. They faced each other aggressively. The ogre became very furious. It asked
her, “Wagaciairi, how can you eat the food I have cooked for myself?”
“Yes, I ate it,” the woman said.
Haya. Wagaciairi is not telling the ogre that the man has come, but is asking her,
“Wagaciairi, how come you are behaving as if those who smith have come?”
“They have not come but I have done what I have done,” she keeps replying.
The man’s courage was burning him. You know when men are angry they feel very, very
bad. He felt that the ogre and himself had to kill each other. Nobody could separate
3
Itara – platform built high over a fire place in a hut, used for keeping firewood.
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them. Even you, if anybody did what the ogre had done in your home, you would be very
angry.
Haya
The man speared the ogre. He speared it completely, until the spear went through the
body and into the ground. He came down and took his machete. He cut the ogre into
pieces, in great anger. It was cut into pieces, piece by piece.
It is over.
1b Wsgaciairi
See The Oral Artist

Performer: Veronica Wanjiru
Place: Kangoya Sub-location, Kiambaa division, Kiambu District, Kenya
Time: About 9.00 p.m.
Date: October 1977
Performance: There were two men, five women and six children
Now a blacksmith went to smith. When he went to smith, the woman stayed and stayed.
Shegave birth. After she gave birth, she was found by the ogre. When the ogre found
her, it said to her: “Wagaciairi who is in this house! May you fall with the same
thunderous around as the one made by this load.”
The next day, the same thing happened: “Wagaciairi who is in this house! May you fall
with the same thunderous noise as the one made by this load.”
“The same with you,” said Wagaciairi.
“Wagaciairi, take this little food,” the ogre said. [The narrator mimics the handing of
food and then taking it back.] “If you refuse, I eat.”
“Wagaciairi, take this little food,” the ogre said. “If you refuse, I eat.”
[Audience asks: Is it the ogre that is preparing the food for her”]
[Narrator: Yes it is the ogre that is preparing the food for her.]
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“Wagaciairi, eat this little food. If you refuse, I shall eat it.” The Irimu would then eat
the food. The woman became very thin. When the ogre was away, the dove came. It
started eating castor beans, would you go if I sent you?”
“Yes, we would go”
[Audience asks: Is it the dove?]
She said to it: “You do this, eat the castor beans, carry some for eating on the way: when
you go and find people at the blacksmith’s place, say to them that the man who left his
wife pregnant, the wife has given birth and the ogre was the midwife. And when it is
preparing food for her, the ogre has been saying to her: “Wagaciairi take this little food.
If you don’t want it I eat it.”
The dove went/ It found the blacksmith’s place. It sang:
Cangarara-ica
Work quickly
Cangarara-ica
Cangarara-ica
With the ogre as the mid-wife
Cangarara-ica
“Wagaciairi take this little food”
Cangarara-ica
“If you don’t want it I shall eat it”
Cangarara-ica
The dove was chased away. The next day, it came and sang:
Cangarara-ica
Work quickly
Cangarara-ica
Cangarara-ica
With the ogre as the mide-wife
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Cangarara-ica
“Wagaciairi take this little food”
Cangarara-ica
“If you don’t want it I shall eat it”
Cangarara-ica
[Audience joins it.]

When it went away, those people asked each other: who was the man who left his wife
pregnant?”
[Audience: Those little animals have been sent?]
[Narrator: They were …]
One man said: “I left my wife pregnant. Now I must do what?”
[Audience: … go and see.]
When the man came, he found the wife who told him, “I gave birth and I was helped by
the ogre. “Wagaciairi take this little food. If you don’t want it, I shall eat it.”
He said, “Let it come.” He sat there. It came. Now the woman was there and her
husband had come. The ogre dropped the bundle of firewood and said: “I hu” [Narrator
imitates the sound that echoes exhaustion.]
It said: “Wagaciairi who is in this house, may you fall with the same thunderous sound
as this bundle makes when it falls.”
She said to it. “ May you fall in the same manner. ”
“Wagaciairi, why are you behaving as if those who smiths have come?”
“Don’t jeer and laugh at me. They will come.”
The man grabbed the spear. He speared the ogre. As it was dying the ogre was saying:
“I said those who were at the forge have come”
Now it is over.
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Learning Activities
? Now that you have read the two versions of Wagaciairi (the pregnant
woman} discuss the following questions;
1. What, do you think, is the difference between the narration by the two
artists Kabebe and Wanjiru?
2. Discuss what you consider to be the themes of the narrative.
3. Discuss the artists’ characterization showing what impressions you
form of each character.
4. In which way would this narrative be made more interesting if it were
performed to a live audience?
Read the following narrative: Nyamgondho some of Ombare which is extracted from
Ogutu & Rosecoe Keep my Words then answer the following questions. Again
remember that the text has other interesting narratives that can help you have better
understanding of oral literature.
Nyamgondho Son of Ombare

At Gwasi in Luo land there lived a poor bachelor called Nyamgondho, son of Ombare.
He was a fisherman. But because he inherited nothing from his father, he was a
fisherman of no repute. Each evening, unable to see any part of his catch, he ate it all
himself. In this way staving off hunger until the next day when once more he would go
down to the lake and set his traps.
One afternoon, he went down to the lake and found all his traps empty. They had not
caught a single fish. Nyamgondho was sad: empty traps meant empty stomach. He
reflected on his poverty, despair creeping slowly into his heart. Then he prayed to God
“Chief of creation, chief of water,” he cried. “You know I ‘m a poor man. Help me catch
some fish. God, you never spun your children. Look at me with kindness. I set my traps
last night but caught nothing. Please help me!” Standing on the shore he prayed
earnestly, his eyes fixed on the sun.
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When he came to inspect his traps next day, he was disgusted to find, not a rich harvest of
fish but a shrivelled old hag. The very sight of her revolted him and he turned to run.
But a woman stopped him, saying in a quiet voice, “Please don’t leave me. I’m human ,
just like yourself.” These gentle words moved Nyamgondho and set him wondering. He
decided at last to free the hag and take her home. There he build a hut for her, and this
ugly guest from the lake soon became his wife.
On the morning after his marriage, Nyamgondho awoke to an astonishing sight. The
poor fisherman found his house astir with vast numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, ducks and
barn door-fowl. This was the woman’s wealth, mysteriously treasured up in the unknown
depths of the lake. Nyamgondho was now a rich man whose house crowds flocked to
each and okebe or rare succulence; a man whose cows one person could not milk in a
whole day. So great was his wealth that as time went by he married many more wives.
Now in those days the elders and the rich used to meet for beer parties. Since
Nyamgondho, as the Luo says, had swollen his poverty and burst forth a rich man, he was
eligible now to sit and drink with the elders. He was invited one day to a feast where
hwachura the new harvest beer would be drunk. This being a festive occasion for the
people, elders drank so heavily that it seemed they would never go home – as old people
are required to do after an important feast. But since a man should not dry himself where
he has bathed, they eventually left and went staggering off into the night.
When Nyamgondho arrived home tired and tipsy, he found his gate securely locked. He
called loudly, but no one replied. The woman of the late and his younger wives were fast
asleep. He called them in turn; but none heard his voice. Nyamgondho called and his
home kept silent. His cattle moved silently about swinging their tails and huffing and
puffing in the dark. “People of my home open this gate!” he roared. But no one heard.
He shouted again, calling and calling till his throat was dry and his voice hoarse. Only
the chirring beetles seemed to listen. It was a cold night. A thousand stars and fire-flies
lit the sky. The world was still. And now, his patience exhausted, Nyamgondho grew
angry. He began heaping abuse on his elderly wife. “/since when have slaves refused to
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obey their masters? Even hag I pulled from the lake won’t hear me!” he cried. “Me, the
son of Ombare, a kind fellow.”
Alas, the woman of the lake now awoke and heard his insults clearly. She came to the
gate in an anger mood, saying bitterly “Rail at your younger wives, not at me. I am your
mother. I am the eyes you see with.” These were harrowing words for Nyamgondho.
“What? You my mother! A slave! A helpless slave!” His taunts pierced the old lady’s
heart like thorns. “Nyamgondho son of Ombare,” she said, “I see you are proud and
ungrateful”. Our marriage is now at an end. Today I am leaving you. Again you will be
poor, rolling about the world like a stone. You will cry after me, but in vain. “How can
my wealth disappear?” Nyamgondho asked. “What did you bring, you picked-up-
nothing that I bred in my home?” And he stormed off his duol.
At dawn, the old woman arose. She prepared to return to the depths of the late where
once she had dwelt in wealth and glory. When she left, all the domestic animals left too.
Those tied to pegs broke ropes and followed her; The goats, the hens, the cocks and
pullets, the short ducks and the silly sheep – they all thronged after her. She led the way
and her wealth followed behind.Soon, waking from his drunken sleep, Nyamgondho also
followed. But it was too late. With her animals faithfully following, the old woman
walked down the shore into the depths of the lake. Even the granaries and their contents
rolled after her and soon the smooth waters of the late had covered them all. There was
nothing left.
On the shore Nyamgondho gazed on the lake, speechless, his chin resting on his walking
staff. So profound was his grief that he died there alone by the shore.
Even to this day you can see the tell-tale footprints of the cattle and birds this man once
owned. What is more, when Nyamgondho died he grew into a tree, which can still be
seen on the shore at Gwasi.
Songs are the beat way of expressing our happiness or sorrow, or success or failure. He
is one to remind you of the son of Ombare.
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Chon nene nitie ngat moro
Nyamgondho wuod Ombare
Jalni nadak but nam, Gwasi!
Nohero dhi lupo
Hero dhi lupo
Lupo nam Gwasi
Chieng’ moro nodhi limo huira
Noyudo huira nono
Ayebang’e nachako yuak niya:
“yaa Nyasaye Nyasaye
Dak ikonya Ikonya
Ayud rech”
Kinyne kane odhi limo huira
Noyudo dhako moti
Dhakono ne okone niya:
“Nyamgondo wuod Ombare
Dak ikawa mondo itera pacho …?
(Long long ago there was a man

Nyamgondho son of Ombare,
He lived by the late at Gwasi
He loved to go fishing
He loved to go fishing
Fishing in the lake at Gwasi
One day he went a trap to check
But found the trap was empty
Later the following prayer he moaned;
“Yaa! O God why don’t you help me
Help me get some fish?”
When next he sent to check his trap
He found an old woman who begged him
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Thus:
Nyamgondho son of Ombare
Why don’t you take me home …?”
1. What aspects of social economic life are depicted in this
? narrative?
2. Demonstrate your understanding of the moral in this narrative
showing clearly how it is related to the contemporary society.
There are other short forms, which we will study in other units. These are, proverbs,
riddles, tong-twisters and wise sayings. Using Okumba Miruka’s Dictionary of oral
Literature, try to define each of the above terms.
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LESSON 17
ORAL POETRY
Introduction
Oral poems are recited, sang or chanted. Like all poetry, oral poems express deep
feelings which are reflective of nobility and beauty. The interesting and aesthetics of
poetry makes it a very useful tool for social change. The oral poet usually has burning
desire to communicate something. Poetry uses economy of language which is artistically
manipulated to create style and have aesthetic effects on the audience.
Objective
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to conduct detailed analysis of oral
poetry and demonstrates his appreciation of the style of this important genre.
Oral poetry covers the whole spectrum of life from birth to death. Ruth Finnegan in her
book Oral Literature in Africa gives various classifications or oral literature. For
example she has identified.
Death and Funeral songs
Ritual and Religious songs
War poetry
Work songs
Love songs
Epic poetry
Children’s poems
Activity
Read Ruth Finnegan’s Oral Literature in Africa book and write short notes on each of
the above categories of poetry.
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The Role of Poetry in Society
Many people don’t stop to think about the significance of poetry in a community. It is
important to note that the first social function of social function of oral poetry is
entertainment. When an artist is sings dirges or funeral songs, he is entertains,
encourages and comforts the audience. This is highly therapeutic particularly for those
afflicted. Artists praise good behaviour and condemn evil in society. In this way they
help oral literature fulfil its function as tool for social transformation.
Closely tied to this, is the fact that oral literature is used for the teaching and instillation
of moral tonics for society. When poetry is translated, it too loses some flavour. The
primary language should be mother tongue. If poetry is written, it uses its sound and
paralinguistic strategies which usually enrich performance. The following are examples
of oral poetry. Read them carefully and discuss the questions following each one of
them.
The following poems are excerpts from Oral Literature of the Kalenjin by Ciaruji
Chesaina who is a prominent scholar and researcher in oral literature.
1. Love your daughter

Oleyo oo, oleyo oo,
Love your daughter Jemunge eh ah
Love your daughter as she arrives

Sound happiness eh ah

I come from the neighbouring house eh ah
Love your daughter very much eh ah
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She set herself for this home eh ah
Jemunge has come ee eh ah
Love your daughter eh ah
Sound happiness ee eh ah
It thunders until dawn ee eh ah
Love your daughter very mucy eh ah
From Mosoptoi ee eh ah
With her baby ee eh ah
Happiness which thunders ee eh ah

Hear as it thunders ee eh ah
So she will visit you in future, eh ah
We will be welcoming her in this house eh ah
Love your daughter
Happiness thunders ee eh ha
Aaaya aaya ee ah
Explanation
This is a praise song sung to welcome a daughter who pays a visit known as rotu to her
parents some time after her marriage. The clan people of the woman sing song as they
drink beer which she has brought. They appreciate the fact that she has settled down very
124
well in her new home and also that she has not forgotten them. They remind each other
about the importance of female children.
Learning Activity
Discuss the social economic setting of the above song.
2. Yeiye Komen: When you Drink Beer

Chorwenyon yeiye kiborie
Maporsoti abah komaiye
Yeye komen king’alan chechang’
Mang’olole abach kimaiye?
Yeiye komen kiboi kekwong’
Mabole abach komaiye?
Yeiye komen kibokit chorwenyon
Bokiit koyoiny chebiiwo werikai
When you Drink Beer

My friend, you fight when you drink beer
Why didn’t you fight before you drunk?
You talk a lot when you drink beer
Why didn’t you talk too much before you drank?
When you drink you quarrel a lot
Why didn’t you quarrel a lot
Why didn’t you quarrel in the morning before you drank?
My friend you become so drunk because of beer
Drunkenness maddens people
Explanation
Ironically one of occasions when this song is sung is during beer drinking. It castigates
anybody who uses beer as a camouflage for engaging in activities, which disturb public
peace.
125
Discuss the use of irony in this poem showing its relevance.
3. Sisa Bomur: Don’t Cry Sister in Law

Sisa bomur
Kichobin kong’ chepyose
Sasa bomur
Mirire ringoi ee
Sasa bomur
Sisa bomur
Sisa bomur
Sisa bomur
Merire Ringoi ee
Sisa Bomur
Sisa bomur
Don’t Cry Sister-in-Law
Don’t cry, sister-in-law

Mother-in-law has looked in the eye
Keep quiet sister-in-law
Don’t cry, Ringoi ee
Don’t cry sister-in-law
Don’t cry sister-in-law
126
Don’t cry, Ringoi ee
Don’t cry, sister-in-law
Explanation
In the book Ciarunji Chesaina explains that the song satirizes a woman who has been
caught red-handed in the act of being unfaithful to her husband. The satire is conveyed
through irony and sarcasm. The culprit is told not to cry, it is the mother-in-law’s fault
for not keeping her distance. The deeper implication is that the offender should feel
ashamed of herself for going as far as exposing her promiscuity to her mother-in-law.
Do you think the song can serve the same function in your community?
In terms of effectiveness do you think this song can be useful to your peers? Explain.
4. Who will give me the Bellbottomed Trousers

Nerekan ee chebo tiang’ole
Konong’o belli4 aringanen?
Konong’o belii aringanen?

Konong’o sit arienganen?
Konong’o sit arienganen?

Konong’o bilatbom5 arienganen?
Konong’o bilatbom arienganen?
I am a girl ee, daughter of Tiang’ole
4
“Bellbottomed” trousers which were in fashion in the 1970’s.
5
“Platform” shoes which were fashion during the same period.
127
Who will give me a pair of bell-bottomed trousers
So that I can show off in them?
Who will give me a pair of bell-bottomed trousers
So that I can show off in them?

Who will give me a watch
So that I can show off with it?
Who will give me a watch
So that I can show off with it?

Who will give me platform shoes
So that I can show off with them?
Who will give me platform shoes
So that I can show off with them?
Explanation
This song castigates women who adopt the western mode of dressing only with the
intention of boastfulness and end up looking down on other members of the community.
It is sung by young men and young women. In the performance, the participants clap and
jump to the rhythm.
Summary
In this lesson, we have;
(a) Examined the various features of narratives through specific illustration.
(b) Demonstrated the role of oral in the moral transformation society?
Activity
Discuss the postulation that art is dynamic basing your argument on this poem.
128
LESSON 18
ORAL LITERATURE AND SOCIETY
Introduction
This is our third lesson in the study of Oral Literature. We still continue to examine the
meaning of Oral Literature and the role it plays in the society.
Objective
The objective of this lesson is to enlighten the learner on the relationship between society
and oral literature.
But just before we discuss the dialectical relationship between oral literature and society,
let us remind you about why we study oral literature.
We study oral literature:
(i) For entertainment and enjoyment.
(ii) To learn skills and other strategies employed in the production and consumption
of oral literature.
(iii) To gain some insight or understanding of the individuals and their communities.
(iv) For socialization.
(v) For the development of the intellectual element in us.
The family is a basic unit of society. Man is a social being. Therefore, man is always
interacting with other members of the society to which he belongs. The society holds
certain views dearly. It is the resource from which, the individuals draw their culture.
The philosophy of a community is entrenched in the society. There is always a sense of
belonging in every member of a community.
129
Oral literature is a communicative discipline. Communication means establishing
commonness between two or among many people. The sender of a message encodes it
while the recipient of the message has to decode it. An oral artist uses language and
paralinguistic as the media of communication. Language is a communal means of
communication and is arbitrary conventional. It is usually an agreed signified mode of
communication. People who speak the same language fall under the same speech
community.
This is well captured in

Relationship between the artist and the society.
An oral artist is a member of the community in which he lives. He composes his art
creatively within the setting of his community.
The performer draws his oral material from his community. Although the sources are the
communal property of the society the artist chooses, reorganized and injects his artistic
skills into the material. The result is something new that has the imprint of the artist.
Artists from a certain community have certain aspects that characterize their creativity.
These form the oral tradition of the people.
The oral artist performs to the members of his community. He raises issues affecting the
community. His art and artistry are consumed by the members of his community. He is
the producer of the art that is derived from his community and equally informs the same
community. Therefore we can conclude that there is a dialectical relationship between
the artist and his society.
We agree with Wanjiku Mukabi Kabira when she observes.

The oral artist in the
You cannot separate the artist from his society

Neither can you isolate art from the society.
130
STOP AND THINK
What arises from the observations above?

What is the relevance of oral literature to society?
Relationship Between Oral Literature and Society

One pertinent question that comes to mind of a scholar in oral literature is how orature is
perceived, composed and how it is applied to the society.
To understand this question we need to know what we mean by SOCIAL REALITY
We have already said that oral literature is a social product and activity. This means that
literature has its origin in the social context. It operates with the confines of the society
and informs the same society. It has great influence on the members of the community.
The artist who composes it observes the social reality that comprises people in the
community the physical, psychological, political and economic realities and the people’s
experiences in time and space. All these constitute the culture of the people and their
communal values and property which form the basis of their survival, growth and
development.
Oral literature has direct relationship to social reality in that is derived from the society.
It is about the accumulated experiences of the community that are communicated within
society. Oral literature applied to the members of the society, its conception delivery and
reception is conducted within the social reality. This means that the literary artists creates
literature within the social reality but social reality alone is not itself literature. We can
say it is the raw material for literature but not literature itself.
Once the oral artist observes the social reality, he is inspired by his imagination, to
activate that reality and express it creatively to his audience. Therefore, there is a
symbiotic relationship between social reality and activated reality. The artist uses
131
language to give his work artistic expression. Therefore, we can argue that language is
the vehicle that provides the communication between social reality and activated reality.
What we wish to stress here is, that oral literature can best be understood if one is aware
of the social reality that informs it. Imagery, symbolism, idiom, allusions and other
stylistic devices can be best understood if you first become aware of the context that
defines them.
Activity 1:
Ukitaka kula nguruwe chagua aliyenona.
What is the social context in terms of religion?
What aspects of morality are embedded here?
Can you think of other saying of the wise, proverbs or riddles which have contextualised
implications in your community?
Activity 2
Using the examples you have given above illustrate the fact that literature has its
application to society.
We can safely draw the conclusion that the performer shares his knowledge, gained
through observation of social reality with his audience, which comprises members of his
society.
The concept of commitment in oral literature

Commitment means having some devotion and feeling duty bound to do certain things.
As we have said, the oral artist performs to the members of his community. He is
conscious of their weaknesses and strengths. He, therefore, highlights these aspects in
132
order to celebrate the strengths and correct the weaknesses. Therefore, the artist is
committed to shaping the society for the better.
In the same vein the audiences refunds the art in the way that encourages the artist’s
positive points and discourages the negative aspects. That way they help the artist to
improve his content and style – in fact the totality of his art and artistry. It is therefore
right to conclude that art can be used as a fool for social transmission.
In conclusion, we can say that there is a commitment chain.
Artist
Art
Society
The oral artist is always committed to his art and to the society. The society is always
committed to its artist and its art. Finally the art bears the indelible imprint of the marker
i.e. artist and the birthmarks of the society from which it was formed. This is a
relationship that is forever in motion. The commitment creates a tradition that is
treasured by a community.
According to Okot P. Bitek, the artist is a ruler. He says this in his book African
Cultural Revolution. He reorganizes the fact that an artist is often the spokesman and
leader of his community. The bible itself tells the story of Little David who was an oral
artist and instrumentalist. David became the Shepherd King having gained recognition
through exposure of his art. A good artist easily communes with Kings. Even in Kenya
133
oral artists are always present when leaders call citizens to celebrate national days such as
Madaraka Day. They are able to pass their message not just as entertainment to the
leaders but also to the people in general. This interaction enables them to be closer to the
leaders. Therefore, P. Bitek was right when he said that the artist is a ruler. They learn
within proximity to leadership.
Chinua Achebe notes that the artist is a teacher. This is true because oral literature is a
powerful socializing agent.
In the oral art people’s culture is shared, created and recreated. Since literature gives
people their identity it is entrenched in the society. A community’s oral literature reflects
their social consciousness, their identity and their image which becomes their
representation. Young people are socialized to the community’s culture from which they
are supposed to draw their wisdom, livelihood and protection. They are supposed to
learn what the society expects of them and adjust in accordance with the expected norms.
For example circumcision songs are supposed to encourage virtues such as bravely and
maturity among certain communities. Wedding songs socialize the audience on the
significance of making a hoe and perpetuation of the community through procreation.
Political songs are supposed to create awareness, harness solidarity and mobilize the
people to make the right political decision. All these support Achebe’s postulation that
the artist is a teacher. It is through oral literature where people take pride in their struggle
and achievements. The pride becomes a springboard to higher dreams and achievements
which are also expressed in the oral literature of the people.
Activity 3:
In which way can oral literature be said to be the custodian of peoples’ wisdom?
Centrality of Performance
As we have observed, oral performance is a distinctive component of oral literature.
Performances captures the social reality of the people and bring it to bear in the present
time. Probably the recalling of the song “Yote yanawezekana” to use in various
opportunities where people wanted to voice their grievances is an example in point. As
134
people performed this song, they created new word , new lines and new rhythms in order
to have full impact.
Therefore, they used this oral art for their convenience and surprising the song called
attention to not only itself but also to people’s plight.
A performance crates a kind of theatre community with a unity of purpose. It uses

participatory strategies thus involving all the stakeholders in the art. Using paralinguistic
features enhance the message as well as its participation. New oral literature is created to
address emergent problems. We shall see how this is done in our third year oral literature
study.
In this lesson, we have seen how literature captures the social reality, activates it to
artistic expression and then use the product to transform society. It is expected that you
will collect your own oral literature through library and field research to see how oral
literature translates itself to a transformation too.
Activity 4:
Write three songs, which are, sang during a political meeting. Analyse the relevance and
purpose of the songs and assess whether they were effective in achieving the desired
goal.
135
REFERENCES
Achebe C (2002) A Man of The People: Nairobi, Kampala. Dar es Salaam; East Africa
Educational Publisher LTD
**Adagala
Akivanga, S.K. & Odaga, A.B. (2002) Oral Literature; A School certificate course;
Nairobi; East African Publishers.
***Alembi
***Ba mariama
Bukenya, A.S .Gachanja, M & Nandwa, J. (2001) Oral Literature. A senior course,
Nairobi; Longhorn Publishers (K) Ltd.
**Chesaina
***d. Margaret
***Hornby
***Imbuga
Kabira, M.W. (1997) The Oral Artist. Nairobi; East African Publisher Ltd.
****Kabira
****Kariuki
***Kipury
***La guma
C.K Mburu, Fighting corruption (14 September 2004) The People
Miruka, O. (2002) Encounter with Oral Literature. Nairobi; East African Education
Publishers.
***Nadwa
***Ngara
***oladele
***P’Bitek
***Wa thiogo
***Wanjala
136
C.M Kariuki, corruption in Kenya (22 October 2003) Daily Nation
Achebe C (2002) A Man of The People; Nairobi, Kampala. Dar es Salaam; East Africa
Education Publisher ltd
Horn by A.S (1948) Oxford; Advanced Learners Dictionary Oxford; oxford

University press
Alembi. E. (2000)Apprecciating Drama. Nairobi; acacia Santa Publishers
Imbuga. F. (1989) The Burning of Rags Nairobi; East African Educational Publishers
Oladele Taiwo (1984); Female Novelist of Modern Africa. Macmillan Publishers,

London and Basingstoke.
D. Margaret (1989ED) When bullets begin to flower Nairobi, E.A. E.d. Publishers.
C.M Kariuki, corruption in Kenya (22 October 2003) Daily Nation
C.K Mburu, Fighting corruption (14 September 2004) The People
Achebe C (2002) A man of the People; Nairobi, Kampala. Dar es Salaam; East Africa
Education Publisher ltd
Horn by A.S (1948) Oxford; Advanced Learners Dictionary Oxford; Oxford University
press
Alembi. E. (2000) Appreciating Drama. Nairobi; acacia Santa Publishers
Imbuga. F. (1989). Burning of Rags Nairobi; East African Educational Publishers

.
Oladele Taiwo (1984); Female Novelist of Modern Africa. Macmillan Publishers,
London and Basingstoke.
D. Margaret (1989 ED) When bullets begin to flower Nairobi, East Africa educational
Publishers.

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COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

INSTITUTE BASED PROGRAMMES

INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING

ALT 202 SURVEY OF AFRICAN

Wallace Mbugua [PhD]

LECTURE 2: A Man of the People by Chinua Achebe

LECTURE 3: A Walk in the Night by Alex la Guma

LECTURE 4: So Long a Letter by Mariama Ba

LECTURE 5: When Bullets Begin to Flower by Margaret Dickinson

LECTURE 6: Oral Literature: Introduction 98

ALT202: SURVEY OF AFRICAN LITERATURE

Welcome to this second year unit.

Wallace Kamau Mbugua (Ph.D)

Introduction to lecture one

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

?  How is this integration achieved at the end of the play?

Tradition in the play manifests itself in various ways:

 Belief in the living dead

Aspects of  Institution of marriage

Agala represents preservation of culture. He is tied to it and cannot comprehend and

Not a single evil eye among you today, eeh? That is

Was is not you who brought dowry to my people and begged on

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

Fires die they are unfed

Incorporated in tradition is wisdom. The society must be composed of people who

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

Stop and think

!  What aspects of Denis’s character make him clash with his

Agala is a male chauvinist. He suggests by implication that a woman’s place is in the

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

A MAN OF THE PEOPLE – Chinua Achebe

Introduction to lecture two

This man when he became a local councillor and politician, he

Nanga is a minister bloated by flatulence of ill-gotten

?  Identify and explain other incidences of corruption in

?  Identify and comment on other incidents of

?  Identify and explain other incidences of neo-

… Then one afternoon we saw her enter his rooms. Our

?  Identify and comment of other incidences of immorality in

…My father used to slaughter a goat every Saturday, which was

This compares well with what Odili says in response:

?  Identify and comment on other incidences of humour in the

?  Identify and comment on other incidences in the novel.

Proverbs and sayings

?  Explain the above proverbs as they are used in their

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

I felt intense bitterness welling up in my mouth. Here were

?  Identify and discuss other character traits of Odili.

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

Introduction to lecture three

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

He is not dumb. He is a slim hotnot; one of those educated

In conclusion, violence is a central theme in the novel as it appears in households

The people on the landing and in the corridor said nothing,

Working for whites. Happens all the time, man. Me, I

Apartheid and Capitalism

To discount the myth of white-skin-superior-man, La Guma in “The Gladiators,” portrays

COURTESY OF AYUB BRIAN 0796363336

CHARACTERS AND STYLE IN A WALK IN THE NIGHT

However, the most outstanding element of symbolism is la Guma’s portrayal of constable

Before his hand reached the pocket and before he could

Pull up at the Portuguese, will you? I want to get some