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THE FAITHS OF ASIA

Religion
Decoded
Delving into the prominent world religions –
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism,
Sikhism and Zoroastrianism – this issue follows
the birth and spread of these faiths, and their
diverse beliefs and customs that have withstood
the test of time. As you traverse the rich history
of these religions, journey to every corner of Asia
where sacred sites, from mosques to mountains,
await the footsteps of curious adventurers.

From the powerful symbolism of snakes to the

practice of worshipping young girls as incarnations
of divine female energy, explore intriguing
aspects of the region’s different belief systems,
and discover why religious faith remains a living,
breathing force in Asia.

CONTENTS
• The Roots and Branches of Buddhism (Page 4)
• Crosses Across Asia (Page 24)
• One Religion, Many Gods (Page 40)
• A Tumultuous History (Page 54)
• The World’s Largest Community Kitchen (Pag 66)
• A Persian Religion (Page 74)
• The Worshipped Child (Page 86)
• Power in Venom (Page 96)
• Faith for Earth (Page 106)

PASSPORT
• Sacred Sites in the Philippines (Page 115)
ASIA FESTIVAL GUIDE (2022–23) (Page 124)

▶
Religious adherents from all
corners of Asia express their
devotion through prayer
Images: Shutterstock
NO SMALL TREE
The Roots
and Branches
of Buddhism
Text Sienna Lakin

Buddhism, one of the longest-standing

and widest-spread religions, has – since its
origins in northeast India – moved across
Asia and the entire world, branching out and
taking on divergent forms along the way.
Shutterstock

A monk meditating
in front of a statue
of the Buddha

5
 feature | The Roots and Branches of Buddhism

Buddhism emerged in northeastern India between the

6th century and the early 4th century BCE – a time that
witnessed a myriad of religions rising, clashing, and spreading.

Shutterstock
▴ ▾
Mural paintings The Triratna represents the “three
tell the story jewels” of Buddhism: Buddha, the
Buddhism developed from the teachings of the about Buddha dharma, and the sangha
Buddha (“The Awakened One” in Sanskrit), a
teacher who lived in northern India. Like many
of the sects that developed in northeastern India
at the time, Buddhism was constituted by the
teachings of the Triratna, the “Three Jewels” of
Buddhism – Buddha (the teacher), dharma (the
teaching), and sangha (the community). The
dates of his birth and death are disputed. Whilst
many scholars believe that the Buddha lived from
around 563 to 483 BCE, others argue it was nearly
100 years later, from around 448 to 368 BCE.
Northeastern India – which was less influenced
by Vedic tradition – became the new ground for
Buddhism and its sects. Buddhism then spread
from India to China, Korea, and Japan, as well as
to Southeast Asia via Sri Lanka. Buddhism played Buddhism played a central role in the
a central role in the spiritual, cultural, and social spiritual, cultural, and social spheres of
spheres of Asia, and began to spread to the West Asia, and began to spread to the West
from the 20th century onwards. from the 20th century onwards

6
 Two fundamental sects that arose at the time
of the Buddha were the Ajivikas and the Jains.
Diverging from other Buddhist denominations,
both the Ajivikas and the Jains believed in the
permanence of the elements that constitute the
universe and the existence of the soul.
Over time, two major branches of Buddhism
emerged, Mahayana (“Great Vehicle”) and
Theravada (“School of the Elders”), while a third,
Vajrayana (“Diamond Vehicle”), is considered by
scholars to be an aspect of Mahayana Buddhism
or an entirely separate branch.
The origins of these movements and others
are complex and poorly understood. In simple
terms, Theravada, which is considered the more
conservative tradition, established itself in Sri
Lanka around the 3rd century BCE. It teaches
a monastic lifestyle that emphasises meditation as
a means of achieving enlightment.
Mahayana Buddhism, the more liberal school,
developed in India from around the 1st century
BCE and is practised in East and South Asian
countries such as China, India, Japan, Korea,
Mongolia, and Tibet. The main teachings follow
the role models of bodhisattvas – beings who
7
have reached enlightenment but returned to the
human company to teach.
As Buddhism spread, it encountered new
reinterpretations of thought. In some Mahayana
communities, strict practices were mediated. For
example, the law of karma – a notion explaining
that virtuous actions resulted in pleasure and
non-virtuous actions led to punishment in the
future – adopted a gentler approach with a new
emphasis on ritual and devotional practices
to achieve the same effects. This bolstered
its spread and number of followers due to its
heightened obtainability.
The Vajrayana tradition, also known as
Tantric Buddhism, developed in India in the
latter half of the 1st millennium CE. Its practices
make use of mantras, chants, poses, mandalas,
and the visualisation of deities and Buddhas.
This movement was influenced by magical and
spiritual notions of the time, and gave those who
followed it an easier, simpler, and speedier means
to obtain the desired spiritual liberation, purity,
and enlightenment.
▾
Situated in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, Abhayagiri
Vihara was a major monastery site of Mahayana,
Theravada and Vajrayana Buddhism
Shutterstock
 feature | The Roots and Branches of Buddhism

◀
The Sukothai
Historical Park,
Thailand, a
UNESCO World
Heritage Site

▾
The 71-metre-tall
Leshan Giant Buddha,
in China’s Sichuan
Shutterstock

province, was carved

out of the mountain in
the 8th century CE
Shutterstock

8
the branches:
THE SPREAD OF BUDDHIST SECTS ACROSS ASIA

Arrives in Korea
around the
4th and 5th
centuries CE
North
Korea
Arrives in China South
in the 1st and 2nd Korea
centuries CE
Arrives in Tibet in
the 6th–7th century CE
but only gains foothold China
in the 11th century Japan
Tibet Arrives
Probably arrives in in Japan
Southeast Asia around around the
Bodh Gaya 6th century CE
the 3rd century BCE
India Taiwan
Begins around Myanmar
5th century Laos
BCE
Hong Kong
Thailand
Vietnam
Cambodia

Sri Lanka
Arrives in Sri Lanka
around the
3rd century BCE

Mahayana Buddhism arrives

in Cambodia in the 5th
century CE, but Theravada
Buddhism becomes dominant
by the 13th century

Mahayana
Theravada
The Spread of Buddhism

9
 feature | The Roots and Branches of Buddhism
BUDDHISM AND THE SILK ROUTES
The transmission of Buddhism to China
and Central Asia is attributed to monks who
travelled between India and China along the
silk trade and exchange routes. Cave paintings
and manuscripts depict this movement.
After a Buddhist community was established
in the Chinese capital of Loyang in the 2nd
century CE, Buddhist monasteries quickly
emerged nearby. Sanskrit manuscripts from
the 2nd to 6th centuries CE were found at
northern silk route Buddhist centres. While
these predominantly belonged to early Buddhist
schools, Mahayana manuscripts were
prevalent in southern silk route centres such
as Khotan.
From the 6th century, Buddhist literature was written
in Central Asian languages such as Khotanese Saka,
Tocharian, Sogdian, Uighur, Tibetan, and Mongolian
10
From the 6th century, Buddhist literature
was written in Central Asian languages such as
Khotanese Saka, Tocharian, Sogdian, Uighur,
Tibetan, and Mongolian. In the 1st millennium
CE, these Buddhist literary and artistic traditions
went on to flourish in Central Asia along
with Zoroastrian, Manichaean, and Nestorian
Christian traditions.
Despite the survival of Buddhism in Mongolia
and Tibet, most of its traditions disappeared
from the Silk Road regions of Central Asia in the
2nd millennium CE.
▾
Paintings in the Ajanta caves in
India depict the Jataka Tales;
featuring royalty, monks,
citizens, and foreign traders
Shutterstock
india DID
THE DEMISE OF YOU
KNOW?
BUDDHISM IN INDIA
Mahayana Buddhism flourished in northeastern
India during the Pala Empire from the mid-8th to
12th century. But when the Hindu Sena Empire
wrested control of the region, Buddhism in India
began a dramatic decline, only accelerated by the
sacking of the remaining monasteries by Muslim
invaders in the 12th and 13th centuries.
But conquest wasn’t the only factor that
contributed to the demise of Buddhism in its
homeland. Scholars believe Indian Buddhism,
having essentially become a monastic movement,
simply no longer connected with its supporters
from the laity. According to 2020 figures, the total Buddhism is the third
Buddhist population in India is just 10 million. largest religion in Asia

Shutterstock

▴
The ruins of Nalanda, a renowned Buddhist
monastic university in ancient Magadha
(modern-day Bihar). It was destroyed during
the Muslim conquests of eastern India
 festivities
BUDDHA’S BIRTHDAY
ACROSS ASIA
The birthday of the spiritual founder of
Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, is celebrated
differently in many cultures and traditions.
Colloquially referred to as Vesak Day, the
official date varies annually and from place
to place but is based on the Buddhist lunar
calendar and falls under a full moon between
April and May. The date is debated amongst
different Asian countries but it is agreed that
the birth is a celebration of the Buddha, and
the life and enlightenment brought by the
religious figure. Regardless of where it is
celebrated in Asia, Vesak Day is a colourful
and beautiful array of culture and festivity.

Buddha’s mother, Maya Devi, was married to

King Suddhodana, the ruler of the Sakya clan
of Kapilavastu, an ancient Indian civilisation.
As she neared the end of her pregnancy, she
travelled to the Lumbini grove (present-day
Terai, Nepal). She gave birth to Gautama Buddha
in Lumbini, under a sal tree. It is believed that
she gave birth standing upright and held on
to a branch of the sal tree. Buddha lived in
Kapilavastu for 29 before renouncing his family
to travel and meditate. In Bodh Gaya, India,
Buddha found enlightenment under the
Bodhi Tree.

Lumbini
NEP
Kapilavastu AL

Gaya
INDIA

12
bangladesh
For Bengali Buddhists, Vesak Day is known
as Buddha Purnima. The occasion is widely
celebrated in the city of Chittagong.
bhutan
In Bhutan, Lord Buddha’s Parinirvana
(nirvana after death) falls on the 15th day of
the fourth month of the Bhutanese calendar
(Saga Dawa); in May or June. During these
auspicious days, devotees visit the monastries
and make offerings. They believe it doubles
their merit (punya).
cambodia
In Cambodia, Buddha’s Birthday sees the
Buddhist flag, lotus flowers, candles, incense,
and lanterns raised above temples and
paraded in the streets by monks.
▾
Monks gather on
Buddha Purnima at
Mahabodhi Temple,
Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India
china
In China, the holiday focuses on the ceremony
of Yufojie, or the bathing of the Buddha, where
scented blessed water is poured over a statue of
the infant Buddha. The act of bathing the Buddha
symbolises self-purification and is believed to
purge the sins.
hong kong
Celebrated on the eighth day of the fourth month
of the Korean lunar calendar, Buddha’s birthday
sees countless lit lanterns, alters overflowing with
offerings, and snaking queues at the monasteries.
india
Known as Buddha Purnima or Buddha Jayanthi,
India’s celebration is a diverse affair that reflects
local traditions. The Theravada tradition, the
oldest school of Buddhism, sees Buddhists dress
in white, while others do not follow a dress code.
A vegetarian diet is observed featuring kheer, a
sweet rice pudding. This symbolises the offering
of free porridge given to a young fasting Buddha.
 feature | The Roots and Branches of Buddhism
indonesia
Waisak Day involves a large procession
between ancient Buddhist temples. The
procession begins in the Mendut Temple in
Java and ends at Borobudur, the world’s largest
Buddhist temple.
japan
The lotus flower is a symbolic element in Japan’s
celebration of Buddha’s birthday, or Kanbutsu-e
(Flower Festival). According to legend, a lotus
flower sprang from where the infant Buddha
walked. In temples, a Buddha symbol or statue
is bathed in ama-cha, a form of sweet tea made
with a variety of hydrangea leaves, and lotuses
are hung around his neck.
14
malaysia
Wesak Day celebrates the birth, enlightenment,
and death of Buddha. On this day, Buddhists engage
in mass religious gatherings, bountiful offerings,
meditating, and reciting Buddha’s teachings.
mongolia
The Buddhists of Mongolia celebrate Buddha
Purnima by releasing floating lanterns, reciting
Buddhist scriptures, and mass gathering en
masse at the monasteries.
▾
A Wesak Day float at
Petaling Street, Chinatown,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
laos
In Laos, Visakhabousa Day commemorates
Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and death. The
celebrations, held in May, include performances,
parades, dances, and many other devotional acts.

myanmar nepal
According to legend, Vesak Day, or Kasone The birthplace of the Buddha, Nepal
Full Moon Day, falls on the hottest day of the celebrates Vesak Day extravagantly, especially
year. Buddhists carry earthen pots filled with in Lumbini. The exact date of the festival
water and flowers to banyan trees as offerings. is during the full moon of baisakh, the first
month of the Nepali calendar.
▾
Devotees praying under
the Bodhi tree, where
Buddha achieved
enlightenment, in
Lumbini, Nepal

15
 feature | The Roots and Branches of Buddhism
korea
Buddha’s birthday is known as Chopail in Korea,
among various other names. Brightly-coloured
paper lanterns are hung in homes, temples, and
along the streets, and various celebratory events
are held. A major highlight is yokbul haengsa,
or Buddha bathing, where statues of the Buddha
are placed in a basin and devotees take turns
pouring water on it.
philippines
Introduced in the Philippines between the
7th and 13th centuries, Mahayana Buddhism
is practised today by just two percent of
the country’s 110 million population.
Devotees celebrate Vesak with the “Bathing
Buddha” to remind them to cleanse or purify
themselves through the Three Acts of Goodness:
Think good thoughts, say good words, do
good deeds.
16
singapore
Also called Vesak in Singapore, Buddha’s
birthday is celebrated by decorating temples
with Buddhist flags and lotus flowers and
making offerings. The once-common practice
of fangsheng, releasing animals to mark Vesak,
is no longer encouraged because of the
detrimental effect on the animals themselves
and potentially also the environment.
sri lanka
In Sri Lanka, Buddha’s birthday is held during
the first full moon of May. During this time,
shops do not sell alcohol and slaughterhouses
are closed to ensure no death takes place
during the celebrations. Temples and houses
are decorated, and the streets are filled
with candles and lanterns. Gestures such as
dansalas – free buffets for monks and the
underprivileged – are also offered.
◀ ▴
Floating lanterns Bright laterns light up
released around a Seoul, South Korea,
Buddhist temple during Yeon Deung Hoe
in Thailand (Lotus Lantern Festival),
celebrating Buddha’s
birthday

taiwan
In Taiwan, Buddhists commemorate the
birth of Buddha with a ceremonious act of
pouring fragrant water over Buddha statues
to symbolise a fresh start in life.

thailand
In Thailand, Buddha’s birthday, Visakha Puja,
is an important public holiday. Thai Buddhists
gather at temples to hear sutras by monks and
chant prayers. Donations of food, flowers and
candles that symbolise the finite nature of
material life are also made.
vietnam
In Vietnam, the holiday is called Le Phat
Dan. The day is celebrated with parades and
colourful lanterns hung on the streets. Temples
are decorated and Buddhists are encouraged to
attend to hear monks reciting sutras. Adherents
also exchange gifts with one another.

17
 feature | The Roots and The Branches of Buddhism

3 KEY BUDDHIST SITES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Mandalay

MYANMAR

Siem Reap
COMBODIA

BOROBUDUR
Central Java, Indonesia
Located on the Indonesian island of
Java, Borobudur is the largest and most
famous Buddhist temple in the world. INDONESIA
The temple is believed to have been
built over a period of 75 years in the
INDONESIA
9th centuries by the kingdom of
Sailendra. Nine platforms are stacked Central Java
on each other; six squares and three
circular. A dome sits on the top. The
temple is decorated with 2,672 relief ▾
Borobudur is the
panels and 504 Buddha statues. world’s largest
Buddhist temple

Shutterstock

18
 BAGAN
Mandalay Region, Myanmar
Situated on the banks of the
Ayeyarwady River, Bagan is
home to the largest collection
of Buddhist temples and
ruins in the world. The capital
of the Bagan Kingdom between
the 9th and 13th centuries,
the city comprised more than
10,000 Buddhist temples,
pagodas and monasteries in its
heyday. When the kingdom fell
to the Mongols, Bagan was no
longer a political centre, and
instead became a centre for
Buddhist scholarship. Today,
more than 2,000 temples and

Shutterstock
pagodas survive.
▶
An aerial view of
the temples in
Bagan, Myanmar

ANGKOR WAT
Siem Reap, Cambodia
Angkor Wat is an enormous
Buddhist temple complex located
in northern Cambodia. It was
originally built in the first half
of the 12th century as a Hindu
temple. Spread across more than
160 hectares, Angkor Wat is said
to be the largest religious
monument in the world. Its name,
which translates to “temple city” in
the Khmer language of the region,
references the fact it was built by
Khmer king Suryavarman II.
Shutterstock

▶
The sprawling Angkor Wat
complex from the air

19
 feature | The Roots and The Branches of Buddhism

Hinduism

DEMOGRAPHICS Islam

Buddhism
According to Pew Research,
the number of Buddhists
around the world is expected Taoism
to peak by 2030, rising to
about 511 million. However, the
global Buddhist population is Judaism
projected to decline thereafter,
falling to 486 million by 2050,
roughly where it was in 2010.
Christianity
Source: Pew Research (2020)

top 10 countries with the highest percentage of buddhists

100%

80%

60%

40%
CAMBODIA 96.8%

MONGOLIA 54.5%
SRI LANKA 68.6%
MYANMAR 79.8%
THAILAND 92.6%

BHUTAN 74.7 %

JAPAN 33.2%

SINGAPORE

20%
LAOS 64%

SOUTH
KOREA
21.9%
32.3%

0
20
 top 10 countries with the highest number of buddhists

CHINA
255 million
THAILAND
66 million
MYANMAR
41 million

JAPAN
41 million
CAMBODIA
16 million
VIETNAM
16 million

SRI LANKA INDIA

15 million SOUTH KOREA
11 million 10 million
MALAYSIA
5 million
 feature | The Roots and The Branches of Buddhism
THE SPREAD TO THE WEST
Despite its deep-rooted history and prevalence in
Asia, very few in Europe or the USA would have
understood what being a “Buddhist” meant unless
they were born in the last 50 or so years.
While Europeans travelled east for over a
century and returned with knowledge about
Buddhism, Buddhists moved to the West only
recently. Many of these Buddhists are refugees from
conflicts. Many Tibetans, for example, fled from
their country after the Chinese takeover in 1959.
Other Buddhists, from Thailand, for example, have
established businesses in the larger Western cities.
In the 20th century, Buddhism was mainly
restricted as a study for scholars. When literature
proved insufficient, scholars and followers travelled
to Eastern countries where Buddhism originated
22
to experience Buddhist practices and the monastic
lifestyles themselves. These were brought back to the
West. The Buddhist Society of London, established
in 1924, is the oldest and one of the largest Buddhist
organisations in Europe.
zen
In the West, Zen has been picked up as a branch of
Buddhism. The essential element of Zen Buddhism
is found in its name meaning “meditation”. It teaches
that enlightenment is achieved through the profound
realisation that one is already an enlightened being.
It is affiliated with Buddhism but does not rely
heavily on scripture, doctrine or ritual. Rather, it is
all embedded in personal experience and self-control.
Shutterstock
 Shutterstock
Shutterstock
◀ ▴ ▴
Sand patterns The Hanging ▴
in a Zen garden Temple in China’s The London
in Japan Shanxi province is Buddhist Centre
in East London
taoism
a monastery that Taoism strays from Indian-originated Buddhism
uniquely brings where followers of
together three Buddhism come to and toward its origins in China. The beliefs diverge
philosophies: Taoism, meditate, pray and
Buddhism, and congregate but some religious and philosophical views coincide
Confucianism with one another. Whilst Buddhism’s ultimate goal
lies in Nirvana (the highest state of spiritual bliss
devoid of pain and suffering), Taoism’s lies in Tao,
“the way” towards harmony with the universe.
Whilst Buddhism’s ultimate goal lies in Buddhist beliefs surround moral living to achieve
Nirvana (the highest state of spiritual peace while Taoist beliefs focus on aligning oneself
bliss devoid of pain and suffering), to the natural way of the cosmos as a means of
Taoism lies in Tao, “the way” towards achieving peace. Nevertheless, both philosophies
harmony with the universe align in their belief in reincarnation. ag

23
 CHRISTIANITY

Crosses
Across Asia
Text Stephanie M. Leong
Shutterstock

24
While it is a minority religion in Asia,
Christianity remains a widely-practised
faith throughout the region.
A historical
reconstruction of the
crucifixion of Jesus
Christ in Magelang,
Indonesia

25
 feature | Crosses Across Asia

While Christianity has its roots in Western Asia, it is often

denoted as a Western religion due to its influential status in
Eurocentric cultures such as those of Europe and North America.
Nevertheless, the faith tradition of Christianity Today, Christianity remains a widespread
originated in Roman Judea (part of the Middle religion throughout Asia and has even established
East today) during the 1st century, and focuses itself as the majority religion in some countries
on the figure of Jesus Christ and his teachings. in the region.
The religion swiftly spread beyond Jewish lands
into the Eastern Roman Empire over the next
few centuries, and later expanded to Central and
East Asia. Today, Christianity remains a widespread
European missionaries on voyages of religion throughout Asia and has even
discovery subsequently played a prominent role established itself as the majority religion
in spreading Christianity to East and Southeast in some countries in the region
Asia. During their voyages, many churches
were constructed in the lands they visited, and ▾ ▶
subsequent colonisation further established Magellan’s Cross, as painted A portrait of the
Christianity as a prevalent religion across Asia. by Portuguese and Spanish Holy Trinity dating
explorers upon their arrival back to the end of
in Cebu, Philippines the 19th century

Shutterstock

26
 DID
YOU
KNOW?

The Philippines is the fifth-largest

Christian nation in the world. Some
80.6 percent of the population is
Catholic, while 9.5 percent belong to
other Christian denominations

Shutterstock

Shutterstock
Manila Cathedral in Manila, Philippines

KEY ASPECTS OF
CHRISTIANITY
the holy trinity
The central understanding of Christianity revolves
around the Holy Trinity. The Trinity defines God
as three beings in one central figure. These three
beings consist of God the Father, God the Son,
and God the Holy Spirit.
God the Father denotes the creator of the
universe, as well as the father and judge of
humanity. God the Son is identified as Jesus Christ,
the incarnation of God. According to Christian
teachings, Jesus was born from the union of the
Virgin Mother Mary and the carpenter Joseph,
taught the word of God, and performed divine
miracles. After being crucified to attain redemption
for humanity, he rose from the dead and ascended
into Heaven. While various definitions have been The Shield of the Trinity depicting the
attributed to God the Holy Spirit, it is generally interconnected nature of God the Father,
viewed as the divine manifestation and influence God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit
of God over the universe and humanity.
 Divided into the Old
Testament and the
New Testament, the
Bible consists of sacred
Christian scriptures
chronicling God’s
actions and teachings
in the universe

Shutterstock
◀
The New Testament
in an antique bible

the bible
Divided into the Old Testament and the New
Testament, the Bible consists of sacred Christian
scriptures chronicling God’s actions and
teachings in the universe. The Old Testament
records the dissemination of God’s word by
God himself, with a heavy emphasis on God’s
divine judgement and punishments for humanity.
The New Testament, on the other hand, details
the teachings of God through the life and death
of Jesus Christ.

baptism
Baptism refers to the Christian sacrament
through which the recipient is admitted into
the faith. The ritual commonly involves the
sprinkling or pouring of holy water on the
recipient’s head or immersing said recipient
into the water three times, one for each of the
Holy Trinity. Water in baptism is used as a means
for the recipient to undergo religious purification
and cleanse themselves from sin, representing
their newfound commitment to God. In
Shutterstock
Christianity, baptism is most common amongst
▴
infants who are born into Christian families, Holy water is poured
but children or adults who wish to join the onto an infant’s head
during their baptism
faith must also be baptised in order to do so.

28
 DID
YOU
KNOW?
eucharist
Also known as the Holy Communion or the
Lord’s Supper, the Eucharist is a Christian
sacrament practised in churches. The rite is a
reenactment of the Last Supper, which was Jesus
Christ’s last Passover meal with his disciples
before his crucifixion. During the meal, he
broke bread and served wine to his followers.
Stating that they were his body and blood, he
commanded them to eat these and “do this in
memory of me”. During Mass today, sacramental
bread and wine are blessed by the priest in the
process of consecration. It is believed that during According to Guinness World Records, the Bible
the process, the physical bread and wine are is the best-selling book of all time, having
transubstantiated into the body and blood of sold around five billion copies to date. By
comparison, an estimated 800 million copies
Jesus, which are then consumed to commemorate of the Quran, the central religious text in Islam,
the sacrifice of Jesus. have been sold

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▴
Sacramental bread,
or the “host”, is
typically eaten
during the Eucharist

29
feature | Crosses Across Asia

CHRISTIANITY’S SPREAD THROUGHOUT ASIA

72 CE
Christianity is
introduced to
Sri Lanka

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Sri Lanka

1 CE
Christianity is born from the
life story and teachings of
Jesus Christ in Roman Judea.
Through their missionary
work, his apostles spread
Christianity to other lands,
such as Mesopotamia

52 CE 224 CE
India
St. Thomas establishes The end of the Iranian Parthian
Christianity in India Empire makes way for Christianity’s
and founds India’s first increased spread eastward to lands
Christian church such as Kashkar (present-day Iraq)
and the Arabian coast of the Persian
Gulf. Over the decades, trade routes
connecting these lands to Central
Asia become vital channels that
further the spread of Christianity
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 635 CE
Armenia The first recorded Christian
mission to China is made
during the Tang Dynasty
under the leadership of the
monk Alopen. He and his China
fellow missionaries receive an
Imperial Edict permitting their
establishment of a church

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Etchmiadzin Cathedral near Yerevan, the capital of Armenia

301 CE
Armenia becomes the

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first nation in the world
to adopt Christianity as
a state religion The Daqin Pagoda is a Buddhist pagoda in Xi’an, Shaanxi, China.
It has been claimed as a Nestorian Christian church that dates back
to the Tang Dynasty

601 CE
The Mongols are
proselytised, with
Mongolia
many Mongol tribes
beginning to practice
Nestorian Christianity

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Marco Polo's arrival at the court of Kublai Khan in Kaifeng, China, 1266 CE

1266 CE
Marco Polo’s visit
to China marks the
reintroduction of
Christianity to
the country
Wikipedia

Epitaph of a Nestorian Christian with Mongol writing

 feature | Crosses Across Asia

1521 CE
The Portuguese explorer
Ferdinand Magellan arrives in
Cebu, Philippines, marking Spain’s
first attempt to convert natives to
Christianity. His voyage is one of the
many 16th-century European voyages
of exploration that significantly
Wikipedia
accelerated Christian proselytism in
Southeast Asia, often via colonisation Magellan Circumnavigation
Stopover
that led to the pervasiveness of Passing by

Eurocentric culture throughout

the region. Several Southeast Asian
countries that were introduced
to Christianity by European
figures (such as Roman Catholic
missionaries and the Portuguese)
in the 16th century include Malaysia,
Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia

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and Myanmar

North Korea
1784 CE
Yi Seung-hun becomes the first
recorded Korean to be baptised, South Korea
as well as one of the first Roman
Catholic martyrs from Korea
Shutterstock

Emblem of the United East India Company, which was established in 1602
and carried out numerous colonial activities in Asia

1602 CE
The United East India
Indonesia
Company is founded,
Wikipedia

initiating the first

advances of Christianity A painting depicting the first native Korean priest, Andrew Kim
in Indonesia Taegon, and his companions, who were among the victims of
persecution against Catholics in Korea during the 19th century
 Brunei

Malaysia Singapore

Indonesia

1814 CE
The London Missionary
Society begins its Christian
missions in Malaya and
Singapore. Over the rest of
the 19th century, churches
from various Christian
denominations such as the
Presbyterians, Anglicans and
Methodists are planted in
both countries

St. Andrew’s Cathedral, Singapore, 1822

PRESENT DAY
Christianity remains widespread throughout Asia. Although it remains the minority
religion in most Asian countries, it is the predominant religion in the Philippines,
East Timor, Cyprus, Armenia and Georgia
Philippines

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Baroque church of Paoay, Vigan, Ilocos Sur, one of several UNESCO heritage churches in the Philippines
 feature | Crosses Across Asia

CHRISTIAN SITES OF ASIA

KAZAKHSTAN

Almaty

SOUTH KOREA
Seoul

SRI LANKA
Colombo

ASCENSION
CATHEDRAL
Almaty, Kazakhstan
A historical monument
of Kazakhstan, Ascension
Cathedral was completed in
1907 and remains one of the
tallest wooden buildings in the
world today. Despite enduring
the 7.7-magnitude Kebin
earthquake of 1911, which
destroyed most of the buildings
surrounding it, the cathedral
remained standing, leading local
bishops to label the event an
act of God.

▶
The Ascension
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Cathedral
in Almaty

34
MYEONGDONG
CATHEDRAL
Seoul, South Korea
Myeongdong Cathedral serves
as the national cathedral of the
Roman Catholic Archdiocese
of Seoul. The cathedral is
recognised as a prominent
symbol of Roman Catholicism
in Korea – partly due to its
status as the country’s first
Catholic church – and was
designated as a historic site
by the Korean government
in 1977.

▶
Myeongdong
Cathedral in Seoul

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ST. LUCIA’S
CATHEDRAL
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Said to be the oldest and
biggest cathedral in the
country, St. Lucia’s Cathedral
currently serves as the seat
of the Archbishop of the
Roman Catholic Archdiocese
of Colombo. Mounted on the
cathedral’s altar is a statue of
St. Lucy, in which she is
depicted holding her eyes on
her palm, symbolising her
status as the patron saint of
the blind.

▶
St. Lucia’s Cathedral
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in Colombo

35
 feature | Crosses Across Asia

KHOR VIRAP
Ararat Plain, Armenia
One of the most visited
pilgrimage sites in Armenia,
Khor Virap offers sweeping
views of Mount Ararat and the
Ararat Plain. It plays an integral
role in Armenia’s history, as it
marks the place where Gregory
the Illuminator – the patron
saint and first official head of
the Armenian Apostolic Church
who converted the country from
Paganism to Christianity – was
imprisoned for over 12 years.

▶
Shutterstock

Khor Virap
Monastery in the
Ararat Plain

BASILICA OF
BOM JESUS
Goa, India
A UNESCO World Heritage
Site, the Basilica of Bom
Jesus is also one of the Seven
Wonders of Portuguese Origin
in the World. The basilica is
considered to be a paragon of
both baroque and Portuguese
colonial architecture in India,
and also holds the mortal
remains of St. Francis Xavier,
who is viewed as one of the
greatest missionaries in Roman
Catholic history.
Shutterstock

◀
Basilica of
Bom Jesus
in Goa

36
Ararat Plain ARMENIA

INDIA

Goa San Jose, Luzon

PHILIPPINES

MONASTERIO
DE TARLAC
San Jose, Luzon, Philippines
Completed only in 2001, the Monasterio
de Tarlac holds a nine-metre-tall statue of
the Risen Christ, marking its location on
top of Mount Resurrection. Aside from the
stunning view, the monastery is also said to
house a relic of the True Cross – the cross ▾
on which Jesus Christ was crucified. ag The statue of the
Risen Christ at
Monasterio de Tarlac

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 feature | Crosses Across Asia

TOTAL NUMBER OF
CHRISTIANS IN ASIA

382.8 million

12.6%
of Asia’s population

percentage of christian populations in asian regions

25%

20%
CENTRAL ASIA 9.3%

15%
EAST ASIA 6%
SOUTHEAST ASIA 21.3%

WEST ASIA 3.9%

10%
SOUTH ASIA 2%

5%

0
38
 countries with the highest concentrations
of christians in asia

CENTRAL ASIA EAST ASIA WEST ASIA

Kazakhstan South Korea Armenia
24.8% 29.4% 98.5%
3.98 million 14.2 million 3.04 million

DID
YOU
KNOW?

Although the vast majority of East Timor’s

population is Christian, with the Catholic
church being the dominant religious
institution, the country’s constitution
SOUTH ASIA protects religious freedom, and the country
Sri Lanka does not recognise an official religion
7.3% The Church of St. Anthony of Motael, the oldest
1.52 million Roman Catholic church in East Timor

Jordan

SOUTHEAST ASIA
Timor-Leste
99.6%
1.12 million
Shutterstock
 HINDUISM

One Religion,
Many Gods
Text Khushi Makasare

One of the world’s oldest religions

and with a following of about 1.2
billion people, Hinduism is deeper
than a religion – it is a way of life.
 Shutterstock

An elderly
ascetic (baba) in
Varanasi, India

41
 feature | One Religion, Many Gods

Colourful festivals and mouth-watering desserts are

only at the surface of Hinduism. There is a unique
▾
diversity and individualism that hovers over this faith. A devotee places a clay oil
But can we really define Hinduism as a religion? lamp (diya) on a puja plate
during Diwali, the Hindu
“festival of lights”

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Hinduism is not categorised as an organised
religion – it has no systemic approach nor a
simplified set of rules that its followers abide by.
Thus, the multiple interpretations of Hinduism
make it almost impossible to arrive at a sweeping
definition of the religion. With a myriad of ideas
on spirituality and beliefs, Hinduism has no all-
encompassing governing body, prophet or single
holy book.
To understand Hinduism completely, one
needs to understand its core values and beliefs.
Exploring the Hindu banyan and its many sects
is a deeper dive into its diversity. The history
and evolution of Hinduism over time have
solidified its role in society, making it the third-
largest religion in the world – after Christianity
and Islam.
The history and evolution of
Hinduism over time have solidified
its role in society, making it the third-
largest religion in the world – after
Christianity and Islam

42
DENOMINATIONS
There are four major traditions that are practised
by Hindus – Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism,
and Smartism. While there are many denominations,
they are all linked and overlap in areas such as
shared rituals, pilgrimage, and cosmology.
Vaishnavism is a stream of Hinduism
worshipping Vishnu, one of the supreme deities.
In this tradition, Vishnu creates, protects, and
transforms the universe. In Shaivism, Shiva
(also known as Rudra) is worshipped as the

Shutterstock

▴
Virupaksha Temple
in Karnataka, India supreme being. Most followers of Shaivism,
is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site called Shaivites and Saivas, accept an ascetic
life and the belief that Shiva lives within the
human soul.
Shaktism believes that the metaphysical
reality is a woman, and Shakti (better
known as Mahadevi) is the supreme god.
The denomination worships several other
▶
Ardhanarishvara,
goddesses such as Durga and Kali. The last
literally “the tradition, Smartism, equally worships five
half-woman lord”, deities – Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Ganesh,
combining deities
Shiva and Parvati and Shakti.

43
 feature | One Religion, Many Gods
Shutterstock

◀ ▴
A Hindu priest An idol of Ganesha
worshipping the is carried to the sea
goddess Durga for immersion during
during the Durga the Ganesh Chaturthi
Puja Festival Festival

DHARMA
Dharma is a key concept that is incorporated in
Hinduism, as well as Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
While the Sanskrit term is not completely translated
to its intentional English meaning, some of its
derivatives are “righteousness”, “merit” or “religious
and moral duties”. The concept of Hindu dharma
revolves around humans and their interaction
with Nature, inanimate objects, and the cosmos.
It is the power that connects all of life and binds
society together.
There are many aspects of dharma, which include
Sanātana Dharma (the eternal dharma), Varn Asrama
Dharma (one’s duty at the four stages of life), Sav
Dharma (one’s individual duty), Apad Dharma
(prescribed at times of adversity), Sadharana Dharma
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(moral duties irrespective of the stages of life), and

Vaidika Dharma (dharma related to the Vedas).

44
ARTHA
The second goal of human life outlined in
Hinduism is artha. When translated, artha can
mean “goal”, “purpose” or “sense”. An umbrella
term to club these definitions would be “means
of life”.
Artha can include one’s wealth, career, and
economic status. It focuses on one’s ability to earn
a living and to thrive in the body where the soul
has resided. The belief elevates one’s life through
the pursuit of activities that bring satisfaction and
pleasure. This can be inferred as material wealth,
as it is a basic necessity to live an enjoyable life.
KAMA
Kama connotes “desire” or “wish”, and it is
associated with sensual pleasures and longings.
The concept broadly defines passion and
the aesthetics of life, with or without sexual
connotations. The term refers to emotional
attraction and pleasure, including activities such
as art, dance, and Nature. In the Mahabharata,
kama is defined as any desirable experience from
any of one’s five senses. Kama could be the short
form of kamana, which means “desire” or “appetite”.
But in reality, kama is more than this; it is the
experience and process of enjoyment coupled
with emotional connections. All in all, kama
encompasses the feelings before, during, and after
the encounter.
MOKSHA
Moksha is the ultimate way to free yourself from
the cycle of rebirth. It comes in the form of
enlightenment, liberation, and release. This belief
is also prominent in Sikh, Jain, and Buddhist
traditions. It is synonymous with the term
“nirvana” used in Buddhist cultures, where one is
free from the sorrows of life.
Hindusim binds human life to a continuous
process of rebirth. With each birth, life is a cycle
of suffering and thus, released from this said cycle,
suffering ends and moksha is achieved.
45
KARMA
Karma is a Sanskrit word for “action”. Hindus
believe in the notion of karma as actions – either
good or bad – that affect society. They believe that
the actions that they’ve done in the past will affect
the actions in the present. Similarly, the actions
in the present can affect the future. The concept
further reads into the belief of an immortal soul,
known in Hinduism as atman.
When a person dies, the soul moves onto another
body in a process called transmigration. The kind
of body that the soul inhabits is determined by
the actions in the past life (karma). The cycle of
reincarnation and rebirth is strongly cemented into
Hinduism and its beliefs.
Karma can be defined in four ways – through
thoughts, through words, through actions on
ourselves, and through actions performed by
others on our word.
There are three different types of karma –
Sanchita, Prarabdha, and Kriyamana. Sanchita
is the sum of all the deeds that follow a person’s
soul. Prarabdha is the moment where karma is
experienced, or “ripened”, impacting one’s current
life. One cannot avoid or deviate from it as it is
already happening. Kriyamana is the karmic seed
that is planted and carried through our souls into
another life.
The premise of karma supports the Hinduism
view that time is circular. While Western
cultures perceive time as a linear concept, Hinduism
sees time as a continuous cycle; never-ending.
DID
YOU
Hinduism is also known as
Sanʓtana Dharma. It can either KNOW?
mean “eternal truth” or “the
natural and eternal way to live”
Eternal (sanatana) written in Devanagari script
 feature | One Religion, Many Gods

THE EVOLUTION OF HINDUSIM

As an ancient religion, it’s difficult to trace the origins
of Hinduism and how it has evolved over the centuries.
There are several distinct eras throughout history in
which Hinduism has played a primary role.

BEFORE 2000 BCE

THE INDUS VALLEY
CIVILISATION
The Indus Valley Civilisation was an
ancient civilisation in South Asia from
3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Today, the region
falls under northeastern Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and northwestern India. Scripts
uncovered from the region were difficult to
translate to modern languages but figurines
that have faint ties to Hinduism have been
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analysed. Archaeologist Sir John Marshall

(1876–1958) identified one of the figures
as resembling the Hindu god Shiva, posing Built around 2500 BCE, Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan was one of the largest settlements
cross-legged. of the ancient Indus civilisation

1500–500 BCE
THE VEDIC PERIOD
Texts uncovered from the Vedic period were
written in Vedic Sanskrit. Hinduism today is
derived from the Vedas, and elements of the
religion can be pointed out in the indigenous
way of life. For instance, Vedic rituals like
sacrificial practices were uncovered during
the Vedic period. The gods worshipped then
were divided into three broad realms – the
Earth, atmosphere, and sky. Many Vedic
gods prevail in Hinduism, notably Agni (the
fire god), Indra (the king of the gods), and
the pervader, Vishnu.
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Ancient Vedic text carved in stone

46
 500 BCE–500 CE
THE EPIC, PURANIC,
AND CLASSICAL AGE
This was a defining period for its many religious
texts, including the Dharma Sutras and Shastras,
the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the
Puranas. The period saw a deviation from
sacrificial worship to idolised versions of deities Wedding procession in Mughal Empire
in temples. The Gupta Empire saw a rise in
Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, three of
the many denominations of Hinduism.
1500–1757
PRE-MODERN PERIOD
The introduction of Islam on Indian soil marked
the start of another Hindu chapter in history. The
Mughal Empire (1526–1858) allowed the Hindus
to practise their religion freely. However, the sixth
Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb (1618–1707), disrupted
the peaceful Hindu climate by destroying temples and
restricting Hindu traditions.
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Bhakti evolved further in this period. The Sant practices

The Varaha panel in Cave 5 of the Udayagiri Caves near Vidisha,
Madhya Pradesh one of the most studied reliefs from the Gupta
Empire era. It narrates the Hindu mythology about a man-boar avatar
of Vishnu (Varaha) rescuing goddess earth
in northern India devoted poems to both gods with no
qualities (nirguna) and gods with qualities (saguna).
This tradition is an amalgamation of bhakti, yoga,
meditation, and Islamic mysticism.

500–1500
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
The fall of the Gupta Empire in 500 CE
dispersed Hinduism into the many forms
that we see today. Temples were erected
across India with each worshipping a
specific deity. While religion was the
cornerstone of early Indian society, it was
also a political power move.

The Medieval period played host to one

of the biggest Hindu revival movements
– the Bhakti movement. It originated in
South India, branching from Tamil Nadu
to Karnataka, and eventually spreading to
northern India. The movement provided
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the people with a self-focused way of life

through the practice of bhakti (devotion),
and also saw developments in religious
By 1500 CE, Hampi, in Karnataka, India, was the world’s second-largest medieval-era
literature, namely poet-saints and gurus. city (after Beijing)

47
 feature | One Religion, Many Gods

1757–1947
BRITISH COLONISATION
After defeating the Mughal Empire, the
British expanded their territory and
colonised India. The people encountered the
introduction of Christianity in the region.
Though Muslims, Christians, and Hindus
lived on the same land, each religion was able
to peacefully carry out its practices.

The most famous Indian from this period

is Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948). Gandhi
promoted the Hindu teaching, ahimsa
(non-violence), and was instrumental
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in India’s fight for independence through

his teachings.
Mahatma Gandhi

1947–PRESENT
INDEPENDENT INDIA
Post-colonisation, India suffered turmoil
and brutality. The different religions
fought for their dominance in the
country, leading to communal violence
and exacerbating tensions.

Hindus began to travel westwards to

spread the knowledge of the religion.
It gained popularity amongst Western
cultures and many Indians sought
education and asylum in Britain and the
United States.
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A yogi praying in Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu, Nepal

48
RELIGIOUS TEXTS
Scriptures of the ancient religion are written in
Sanskrit. These religious texts are categorised into
two forms – revealed texts and remembered texts.
Revealed texts are those believed to have been
written by a divine entity, whereas remembered
texts are those written by humans. One body of
revealed texts – and the oldest Hindu scripture – are
the Vedas. There are four Vedas – the Rigveda, the
Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each
one is broken down into four subdivisions – the
Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas
(rituals and sacrifices), the Brahmanas (hymns and
mantras), and the Upanishads (philosophy and
spiritual knowledge).
The Mahabharata and Ramayana are two other
major Hindu scriptures. Both written in Sanskrit
over centuries, these epics are often referred to
by many traditions. The Mahabharata dictates
the rivalry between Pandavas and Kauravas, two
groups of cousins, during the Kurukshetra War.
The Mahabharata houses the most sacred text in
Hindusim, the Bhagavad Gita. A major part of it is
attributed to the teachings of Krishna to his disciple
Arjuna on how to attain divinity.
49
The Ramayana is a compilation of seven books
(kandas) with about 24,000 verses and 500 sargas
(chapters). The epic was composed by the sage
Valmiki during the 5th and 1st century BCE. The
book narrates King Rama’s quest to rescue his
wife, Sita, from the clutches of Ravana, the king of
Lanka. The story introduces the other Hindu gods
and goddesses, namely Hanuman (the monkey
companion to King Rama), Bharata (half-brother
of Rama), and Lakshmana (younger brother
to Rama).
The Purana is a vast religious text that covers
many beliefs of Hinduism and its legends. With
18 Mukya Puranas (Major Puranas), 18 Upa
Puranas (Minor Puranas), and over 400,000
verses, the Purana in its entirety acts as an
encyclopaedia of Hinduism. The chapters delve
into cosmology, folklore, temples, medicine, love,
and philosophy – to name but a few areas. The
Purana is also the source of many Hindu festivals
and traditions that continue today.
▾
Stone carvings
of stories from
the Ramayana
Shutterstock
 feature | One Religion, Many Gods
GODS AND GODDESSES
SHIVA
Shiva – Sanskrit for “the auspicious one” – is
one of the main deities of Hinduism. He is
one-third of the Trimurti, a triple-deity divinity
for creation, maintenance, and destruction,
with Shiva as the god of destruction. Shiva is
often depicted with a serpent around his neck,
a third eye on the forehead, or holding a trishula
(trident). Shaivism, one of the major Hindu
traditions, worships Shiva as the supreme god.
VAYU
Vayu is a primary Hindu deity, the god of the
winds. He is the father of Hanuma, Bhima, and
Madhva. Vayu travels with Vishnu and Lakshmi,
as the god of the wind was important for the
sustenance of life.
50
DURGA
Durga is another widely revered deity in
Hinduism. She is associated with protection,
motherhood, strength, and destruction. The
stories that surround Durga detail her battles
against evil and other forces that threaten peace.
According to legend, Durga was created by the
gods to defeat the demon Mahishasura, who was
only able to be killed by a female.
HANUMAN
A notable character in the Ramayana, Hanuman
is a Hindu deity and a divine varana (monkey)
companion to Rama. Hanuman is the son of the
wind-god Vayu.
GANESHA
As the offspring of Shiva (the god of destruction),
Ganesha is fittingly known as the destroyer of
obstacles. There are many stories that surround
the birth of Ganesha, but the most notable story
is that he was brought to life by Parvati, his
mother, who needed someone to guard her while
she bathed. When Shiva was denied by Ganesha
to see Parvati, he chopped off his head. Realising
that it was his son, Shiva cut off an elephant’s
head to place on Ganesha’s body.
CHANDRA
The Hindu god of the moon, Chandra, is one
of the nine planets of Hinduism (Navagraha).
He married 27 daughters of Prajapati, which
represented the 27 constellations near the Moon.
Chandra is often depicted as a white-coloured
deity, holding a mace, and riding a chariot.
51
SURYA
Surya is the solar deity of Hinduism – better
known as the sun god. He is often illustrated
riding a chariot powered by horses, usually
seven – a numeral that represents the number
of visible colours and the number of days in
a week. In Hindu astrology, Surya is also the
lord Simha (Leo).
INDRA
The leader of all the devas, Indra is the god of rain.
He is depicted riding an elephant or sometimes
a chariot with 10,000 horses. Standing for
strength and courage, Indra is one of the most
important deities in Hinduism.
 feature | One Religion, Many Gods

KALI SARASWATI
Portrayed as an intimidating multi-limbed woman Saraswati is the goddess of wisdom, art, and
with blue or black skin, Kali is a dark goddess. Her learning. As the mother of the Vedas, she is
fierce feminine energy strongly resonates with characterised as the endless flow of consciousness.
the idea that she is Parvati’s reincarnation. She is Together with Laksmi and Parvati, Saraswati is part
portrayed as a slayer of demons in illustrations, of the Tridevi, the triad of goddesses. ag
holding a severed head and wearing a skirt of
human hands. Around her neck hangs a necklace
▾
of decapitated heads while she sticks out her Hindu devotees
tongue, dripping with blood. around the world
celebrate the many
festivals and gods

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HINDUS ACROSS THE WORLD
Hinduism is the dominant religion in India, with
Hindus comprising about 79 percent of the population.
That amounts to nearly 1.1 billion people out of a
total population of about 1.38 billion. Nepal and
Bangladesh, the countries with the next-largest
Hindu populations, both border India. india
1.1 billion

nepal bangladesh INDONESIA

28.6 million 13.8 million 4.2 million

pakistan sri lanka united states

4 million 3.1 million 2.5 million

malaysia united kingdom myanmar

1.9 million 1 million 890,000

53 *Data as at 2020
A Tumultuous
ISLAM

History
Text Khushi Makasare

The world’s fastest-growing religion

spread across the globe through
conquest and trade.

The most sacred

Shutterstock

site in Islam: The

Kaaba at Masjid
al-Haram, Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
 feature | A Tumultuous History

Originating on the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Islam is

now the second-largest religion in the world after Christianity.
Prominent in the Arabian Peninsula, Islam was introduced to East
Asia via the trade routes that connected West Asia and China.
The religion sparked colossal societal and economic changes,
and now provides a safe haven for around two billion followers.

◀
Arabic calligraphy
depicting the
Prophet Muhammad’s
name written on the
door of Al-Masjid
an-Nabawi in Medina,
Saudi Arabia

▶
The Quba Mosque
near Medina,
Saudi Arabia
Shutterstock

Islam, meaning “submission”, has its roots in
7th-century Mecca, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.
It is where Muslims believe the direct word of
God, or Allah, was revealed to Muhammad,
considered by adherents to be the final
messenger among the monotheistic prophets,
from Adam and Abraham to Moses and Jesus.
Born around 570 CE to one of Mecca’s
prominent families, Muhammad made a living
as a trader, earning the sobriquets “al-Amin”
(trustworthy) and “al-Sadiq” (truthful).
He worked for a widow called Khadija, whom he
went on to marry. At the age of 40, disillusioned
with society’s ills, Muhammad began retreating
to a cave to meditate, and it was here it is
reported that he was visited by the archangel
Gabriel. This marked the first revelation from
God and the advent of Islam.
Muhammad began to preach the messages that
he had received, secretly for several years and
then publicly. At the time, the Kaaba in Mecca
was an important place of worship for Arabia’s
pagan tribes with their polytheistic beliefs.
Muhammad’s revelations, and his insistence to
worship one God, were a direct challenge to
the social order, and the Meccan authorities
subjected Muhammad and the first converts to
abuse, torture, and even death.

56
 DID
YOU
In 622 CE, after some 12 years of persecution, The Islamic calendar is based KNOW?
Muhammad and his companions left Mecca on 12 months – Muharram, Safar,
and travelled to Medina. The journey, known Rabi al-Awwal, Rabi al-Thani,
Jumada al-Awwal, Jumada al-Thani,
as Hijrah (literally “migration”), marks the start Rajab, Shaban, Ramadan, Shawwal,
of the Islamic calendar. Mecca’s Qurayshi rulers Dhu al-Qadah, and Dhu al-Hijjah.
planned to kill Muhammad as soon as he left Each month begins approximately
the city, but the plot was foiled when his cousin at the time of a new moon and lasts
Ali stayed behind, dressed in Muhammad’s around 29 to 30 days.
cloak, fooling the assassins into thinking that
Muhammad had not departed. A short time
later, Ali left for Medina with his mother and
Muhammad’s family members, including his
second wife and his daughters.
Impressed by Muhammad’s teachings, Muharram
important members of Medina’s two main Arab Safar
tribes would soon embrace Islam, and it wasn’t Rabi al-Awwal
Rabi al-Thani
long before a sizeable Muslim community had Jumada al-Awwal
developed in Medina, with almost all of Mecca’s Jumada al-Thani
Muslims migrating to the city over a period Rajab
Shaban
of just two months. Muhammad went on to Ramadan
unite the warring Medinan tribes as well as Shawwal
create a constitution to maintain peace and Dhu al-Qadah
Dhu al-Hijjah
cooperation among all peoples, regardless of
religious affiliation.
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57
 feature | A Tumultuous History
Meccan authorities seized the property of the
Muslim emigrants, and in response, Muhammad
ordered various successful raids to capture
Meccan caravans. Conflict between the Muslims
and Quraysh Meccans came to a head in 630 CE
when Muhammad and 10,000 of his companions
marched into Mecca, overthrowing the city. The
Islamisation of Mecca was swift. The polytheistic
use of the Kaaba ended, the idols destroyed, and
as one of the Five Pillars of their faith, Muslims
were required to undertake a pilgrimage to the
city – the Hajj.
Two years after Muhammad’s victorious return
to Mecca, on June 8, 632 CE, the Prophet passed
away. His death brought disagreement over
who should succeed him, dividing the Muslim
community into various sects. For the majority,
Muhammad’s father-in-law and closest advisor
Abu Bakr was the legitimate successor, and he
58
Wikipedia – Scanned image from Dr. Umar Farrukh’s Tareekh Al-Islam Al-Musawwar
▴
One of the Muslims
destroys an idol after
the Conquest of Mecca
The Islamisation of Mecca was swift.
The polytheistic use of the Kaaba ended,
the idols destroyed, and as one of the
Five Pillars of their faith, Muslims were
required to undertake a pilgrimage to
the city – the Hajj
was confirmed as the first of the Rashidun
Caliphs, or “Rightly Guided Caliphs”.
Under the caliphate system, Islam began to
spread rapidly across the Middle East before
emerging in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The
system evolved into the Ottoman Empire
(1299–1922), and disintegrated soon after the
end of World War I.
 Shutterstock
▴ ▾
An elderly man The Quran, Islam’s holiest
reads the Quran book, has 114 chapters and
QURAN 6,236 verses

The holiest book in Islam is the Quran. the legal and social spheres of society. For over
Sometimes spelt “Qur’an” or “Koran”, the Quran 1,400 years, the Quran was only written and read
is the sacred text containing the revelations in Arabic. However, with an increasing Muslim
Muhammad received over a period of 23 years, population who is unable to understand the
from the age of 40 till his death. Muslims believe language, the Quran has
the Quran to be the literal word of God, and been translated into
as Muhammad’s most important miracle – many other languages.
especially given that he was not able to read or However, these
write – proof of his prophethood. According to translations are not
Islamic tradition, after Muhammad’s death, Abu considered
Bakr, the first caliph, decided to compile the the true Quran;
text from the companions who had committed for Muslims,
some of it to memory or written parts of it on only the original
parchments and stones. Arabic verse
The Quran has 114 chapters (suras) and 6,236 can convey the
verses (āyāt). The early chapters focus heavily true words
on spirituality, while the later chapters delve into of Allah.

59
 feature | A Tumultuous History
FIVE PILLARS
There are Five Pillars of Islam that form
the core Islamic beliefs and practices.
SHAHADA
The Shahada, or profession of faith, centres
on two beliefs: “There is no god but God”
and “Muhammad is the messenger of God”. It
cements the monotheistic belief of Islam, which
involves holding God as the source of existence.
New Muslims are required to utter the Shahada
during their conversion. It is also said five times
a day during prayer, which is the second pillar.
SALAH
Salah (prayers) are the obligatory acts that
Muslims must observe daily. Prayers are performed
throughout the day according to a strict schedule
that must be adhered to. At a mosque, the muezzin
has the task of proclaiming the call to prayer five
times a day: Maghrib (evening), Isha (night), Fajr
(dawn), Zuhr (noon), Asr (afternoon) – since a
day starts at sunset in Islam. Before every prayer,
Muslims perform a ritualistic washing of their hands,
face, and feet called wudu, literally “purification”, and
they pray facing the Kaaba. Salah can be performed
anywhere, if unable to do so in a mosque.
ZAKAT
Zakat (almsgiving or charity) is the third pillar
of Islam, obliging Muslims to donate a portion of
their income to the community. The practice is not
mentioned in the Quran, but rather the Hadith,
Islam’s second most important text, which records the
words and actions of Prophet Muhammad. The pillar
is a form of purification, wherein Muslims donate to
those in need to facilitate the collective progression of
society. The “tax” collected is used to build mosques
and holy sites, as well as schools and hospitals to
elevate societal standards.
SAWM
During Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic
calendar, Muslims abstain from eating and drinking.
This is known as Sawm (fasting) and occurs from
dawn to sunset. Aside from abstaining from food
and drink, Muslims must also refrain from sexual
intercourse and smoking. During the fasting month,
Muslims reflect upon their faith and are reminded
of their religious duty to support the less fortunate
in their community.
 DID
HAJJ YOU
The Black Stone, a rock set into KNOW?
The final pillar of Islam is the Hajj (pilgrimage). At the eastern corner of the Kaaba,
least once in their lives, Muslims are required to visit was venerated in pagan times, long
before Islam, when the Kaaba held
the holy city of Mecca, health and financial status hundreds of idols of the Meccan
permitting. During the Hajj, among other rituals, gods. Muslims believe the Black
pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, touch Stone fell from heaven to show Adam
the Black Stone, travel seven times between Mount and Eve where to build an altar,
Safa and Mount Marwah, and throw stones at three which subsequently became the first
temple on Earth. According to Islamic
walls in the city of Mina, which represents the tradition, Muhammad himself set
renouncement of the devil (Shaitan). the Black Stone in its current place,
five years before he received the first
revelations, and when the Muslims
later conquered Mecca, in 630 CE,
he is said to have ridden around the
Kaaba seven times, touching the
stone with his stick.

SUNNI AND SHIA MUSLIMS

Side view Front view of the Black Stone

There are two main sects in Islam – Sunni

The fragmented Black Stone as it appeared
and Shia – which emerged following in the 1850s, front and side illustrations
disputes about whom should succeed Image: Wikipedia, by William Muir: The Life of Mahomet from
Prophet Muhammad after his death in original sources. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1894. p. 27.

632 CE. Sunni Islam, which comes from

the word Sunnah, denoting the traditions
and practices of Muhammad, holds that
Muhammad’s close friend Abu Bakr The Maldives is the only country
succeeded him. Shias, a term that stems in the world where all citizens are
from Shiat Ali, literally “followers of Ali”, Muslim – a requirement laid out in
believe Muhammad appointed his cousin the 2008 constitution
Ali to be his successor. Today, Sunni Islam
is the majority sect, followed by roughly
85 to 90 percent of the world’s Muslims.
Shia Muslims – while only constituting
10 to 15 percent – are the majority in
countries such as Iran, Iraq, Bahrain,
and Azerbaijan.

Sunni salah prayer

Shia salah prayer

 feature | A Tumultuous History
ISLAM’S
INFLUENCE IN ASIA
Muhammad’s close companion Abu Bakr,
the first caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate,
began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula,
and three successive caliphs, Umar, Uthman
and Ali, presided over the rapid expansion
of Islam across the Middle East, ultimately
conquering Persia and ruling most of
the Byzantine Empire. This eventually
led to the decline of the Iranian religion
Zoroastrianism and the dominance of Islam
across the region.
As the Islamic Empire grew in power and
influence, the religion spread along the Silk
Road, with Muslim traders bringing their
culture and beliefs along with their goods
to East Asia. Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas, a Muslim
military general who played a key role in
the Muslim conquest of Persia, is often
credited with introducing Islam to China and
Bangladesh. Chinese Hui Muslim tradition
has it that Sa’d was warmly received as an
envoy in 651 CE by Emperor Gaozong of the
Tang dynasty, leading to the construction
Islam continued to flourish in most of
Asia before reaching Southeast Asian
shores, with Meccan traders bringing
their wares – and their religious views –
to the western part of Indonesia
62
of the country’s first mosque, the Huaisheng
Mosque in Canton (today’s Guangzhou).
Arabs traded with the Malabar Coast
along the southwestern shores of India, namely
Kerala. Even before the death of Muhammad,
Islam had already begun to spread to India;
the country’s first mosque is estimated to have
been built in 629 CE. Islamic rule, which greatly
shaped the cultural trajectory of India, was
introduced during the conquests of Muhammad
ibn al-Qasim, an Arab military commander under
the Umayyad Caliphate. Over the centuries,
Islamic empires were rampant, dominating much
of the Indian subcontinent – the biggest being
the Mughal Empire (1526–1857).
Islam continued to flourish in most of
Asia before reaching Southeast Asian shores,
with Meccan traders bringing their wares –
and their religious views – to the western part
of Indonesia. From the Indonesian archipelago,
Islam mushroomed in other parts of the
region, particularly Malaysia, and also touched
the Philippines. ag
▶▴ ▶
Huaisheng Muslims praying in
Mosque in Indonesia during Eid
Guangzhou, al-Fitr, the festival that
China marks the end of the
fasting month of Ramadan
63
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 feature | A Tumultuous History

◀
Friday prayer during
the holy month
of Ramadan,
Peshawar, Pakistan

▾
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Muslims attend
Friday prayers in
Bangladesh
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64
MUSLIMS IN ASIA
Out of the 1.8 billion Muslims worldwide,
about 62 percent lives in Asia – with
Indonesia, Pakistan and India making indonesia
up well over a third of the total. 231 million

pakistan india bangladesh

212 million 200 million 154 million

nigeria egypt iran

95–103 million 85–90 million 83 million

turkey algeria sudan

74 million 41 million 40 million

65 *2021 data
 SIKHISM

The World’s Largest

Community Kitchen
Text Khushi Makasare
The Golden Temple in Punjab, India,
hosts 100,000 Sikhs for a meal they
don’t have to pay for.

Tens of
Shutterstock

thousands gather
at the Golden
Temple every day
 feature | The World’s Largest Community Kitchen

Utensils clatter. Sweltering heat engulfs the room.

Hundreds of volunteers busily go about their work.
These are all familiar to anyone setting foot in the
kitchen of the Golden Temple in Amritsar, Punjab.
The Golden Temple is the holiest gurdwara,
a “door to the guru”. Located in northern India, this ▾
place of worship and assembly is the spiritual centre The Golden
Temple has been
for Sikhs all over the world and sees large numbers nominated as a
UNESCO World
every day. Heritage Site
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THE LANGAR
The Golden Temple, or Harmindir Sahib,
runs the Guru Ram Das Langar, the largest
community-driven free kitchen and dining
hall in the world. Food is available around the
clock; pilgrims can show up at the oddest of
times to feast here.
About 350 volunteers, or sevadars, provide
their service in the kitchen day and night,
continuously putting out food for the
thousands that show up. The Golden Temple
welcomes anyone and everyone, regardless of
their economic status or cultural background.
Food never runs out and visitors are never
turned away.
Food never runs out and visitors
are never turned away
69
Shutterstock
▴
Volunteers
prepare
vegetables at
the langar
Everyone is treated as an equal in the Golden
Temple: Visitors sit on the floor, cross-legged,
and are given the same meal on a metallic tray.
To cater to all faiths and dietary restrictions, a
dedicated team of volunteers cooks up a fixed
vegetarian menu. Meals are typically served
with chapatis (flatbread) and daal (lentils),
and topped off with a classic Indian sweet rice
pudding called kheer. While modest, it’s a filling
and nutritious meal.
Devotees sit in endless rows, pangats. On
average, around 20,000 people show up at the
temple daily, but on special occasions, the
temple can see over 100,000 visitors. Large
groups of homeless people dine together
with the Sikhs without feeling ostracised and
discriminated against.
 feature | The World’s Largest Community Kitchen
Shutterstock
Delivering large amounts of food to rows
of people non-stop is no easy task. It’s hard,
physically demanding work for the hundreds of
sevadars who prepare, cook, serve, and clean in
the langar. Yet there is a long line of volunteers
ready and willing to put in their time and effort.
They believe that working in the kitchen and
providing food to the visitors is an act of
service (seva) that promotes a stronger, more
egalitarian society.
The numbers are staggering. By one
estimate, every day, the langar uses around
12,000 kilograms of flour, 1,500 kilograms of
rice, 13,000 kilograms of lentils, and around
By one estimate, every day, the langar
uses around 12,000 kilograms of
flour, 1,500 kilograms of rice, 13,000
kilograms of lentils, and around 2,000
kilograms of vegetables
70
▴ ▴
Food is prepared Sikh devotees
in large vessels offer food, as per
tradition, at the
Vaisakhi festival
2,000 kilograms of vegetables. Each day, a
mechanised oven and conveyor belt churn out
about 200,000 chapatis. From producing the food
to the upkeep and expansion of the dining halls,
the total expenses amount to approximately
USD4 million per year. The costs are at an
all-time high and the numbers are continuing
to swell.
So how is it possible to maintain such
astonishing figures? In short, extraordinary
generosity. The Golden Temple functions
entirely through donations from devotees – in
cash and kindness, sometimes food. These
donations are central to what the community
does for the people, regardless of their identity.
Moreover, Guru Ram Das Langar isn’t a feature
specific to the Golden Temple. Almost every
Sikh gurdwara operates langar; the temple at
Amritsar happens to be the largest one.

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ONENESS IN HUMANITY
Sikhs believe in the idea that food should be
available on every corner. The concept of langar
was derived from a Sikh guru nearly 500 years
ago: A place should exist where everyone, no
matter their faith or social background, can sit
together as equals and eat the same food, as
simple as it may be.
The notion is simple, but it runs far deeper.
The philosophy behind free meals was to dilute
the Indian caste system that dictated what you
eat and with whom you eat. By breaking this
norm, Sikhism provides a safe space for visitors,
from near and afar, to enjoy a simple meal in
a simple setting.
In today’s India, the langar is still as much
a revolutionary idea as it was half a millennium
ago. It makes a stand against the social divide
and advocates for an equal society. Every day,
it provides for hundreds, if not thousands,
71
DID
YOU
KNOW?
Derived from a Persian word, langar
translates to “almshouse” – a place
for the poor and needy
As the sevadars cook and serve
the food to the masses, they mutter
the guru’s name
of underprivileged people, who rely on the food
that is provided as a source of sustenance.
During a festival, the energy at the gurdwara
is unimaginable. The palpable sense of unity
and respect between the communities is
overwhelming as they gather to celebrate special
occasions such as Gurpurab (a celebration of
the anniversary of a guru’s birth) and Vaisakhi
(marking the initiation of the Khalsa tradition
by Guru Gobind Singh). Whole families come
together to cook, a tradition that has been kept
alive over generations. As the sevadars cook and
serve the food to the masses, they mutter the
guru’s name.
 feature | The World’s Largest Community Kitchen

▶
A volunteer cleans
the sarovar
surrounding the
Golden Temple

CONSTRUCTING
THE GOLDEN TEMPLE
In 1577, Guru Ram Das, the fourth of the 10
Sikh gurus, acquired the land, and his son,
Guru Arjan, initiated the construction of the
temple and the pool that surrounds it. A victim
of violent turmoil, the Golden Temple has been
reconstructed and renovated countless times to
uphold its title as the preeminent spiritual site
for Sikhs.
In the early 19th century, the founder of the
Sikh Empire, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, rebuilt the
temple using marble and copper, covering the
upper floors of the temple with 750 kilograms
of pure gold.
The water that envelops the temple, called
the sarovar, is considered holy by pilgrims.
The square-shaped water body is about five
metres deep. Bathing in the pool is seen as a
purification and a balancing of karma, with some
devotees carrying home bottles of “holy water”
for the sick. Before entering the temple, everyone
must cleanse their feet in the water and remain
barefoot in the temple.

▶
The Golden Temple
gets its name from
the gold leaf-
covered sanctum

72
 ARCHITECTURE
Attracting more people than any other site in
India – even the Taj Mahal – the Golden Temple
is a monumental site. As described by scholars,
the architectural style is inspired by Indo-Islamic
Moghul as well as Hindu Rajput architecture.
The temple has four separate entrances, a
symbol of unity and the assimilation of cultures
and socioeconomic backgrounds. The four doors
to the temple, one on each side, encapsulates the
Sikh belief perfectly: They are open to all and
everyone is welcome in this holy place.
The sanctum, with its gold leaf-covered dome,
has two floors. The Guru Granth Sahib is placed
on the lower floor for about 20 hours a day; for
the remainder, the Sikh scripture is taken to the
Akal Takht for various daily ceremonies. The
upper floor is a gallery with a splendid interior
of marble and gold leaf-covered copper. The
ceiling is gilded and decorated with jewels, while
the corners of the room are adorned with gilded
copper cupolas.

The four doors to the temple, one on

each side, encapsulates the Sikh belief
perfectly: They are open to all and
everyone is welcome in this holy place

THE FOUNDATION
Sikhism is based on three pillars – Kirat Karna
(honest living), Vand Chakna (sharing with
others), and Naam Japna (focus on God).
These key values were shaped by Guru Nanak,
the founder of Sikhism. According to Sikh
tradition, a person following these pillars will
achieve spiritual happiness. This ultimately
circles back to the langar. Feeding people
without an ulterior motive and out of one’s
goodwill is a representation of one’s love and
admiration for God. ag

73
Shutterstock
 ANCIENT RELIGION

Zoroastrianism
A Persian Religion
Text Khushi Makasare

One of the world’s oldest

religions, Zoroastrianism might
slowly be fading into obscurity.

A Navjote initiation
ceremony performed
in Mumbai, India
 feature | Zoroastrianism: A Persian Religion

The Dadar Parsi Colony in Mumbai, India is home to the

largest concentration of Zoroastrians in the world. The colony
is made up of about 15,000 Parsis, an ethnoreligious group of
Persian descendants who follow the Zoroastrian religion.

Continuous political turmoil and draconian acts An ancient pre-Islamic religion with a rich
of religious persecution forced the community to history tracing back to the era of Iranian empires,
flee Persia in the 7th century. The travellers set Zoroastrianism is followed by no more than
sail east, with no certainty of their destination, 120,000 globally, and numbers are dwindling,
and landed in the western Indian state of Gujarat. with orthodox Parsis refusing to allow the remit
Parsi communities can now be found in several for new members to be widened.
regions across the country, including Mumbai, ▾ ▶
Kolkata, Hyderabad, Pune, and Bangalore. The symbol of Ruins of the ancient
Besides India, a substantial number of Parsis are Zoroastrianism on Persian city of
the facade of a fire Persepolis near
also located in neighbouring Pakistan. temple in Yazd, Iran Shiraz, Iran

Shutterstock

76

origins
Zoroastrianism gets its name from its spiritual
founder, Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra),
who inaugurated a movement that challenged
the pagan beliefs that existed in ancient Persia.
Scholars disagree on when Zoroaster lived. Some
insist the religion’s roots date back as far as the
second millennium BCE, while others suggest he
belongs to the 6th or 7th century BCE, prior to
the first Persian empire of Cyrus the Great.
Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion
during the Persian empires for well over 1,000
years. But with the Arab Muslim conquest of
Persia (633–654 CE), Zoroastrian temples were
destroyed, Persian libraries were burned, and
Zoroastrians were forced to convert to Islam.
77
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Zoroastrianism was the dominant
religion during the Persian empires
for well over 1,000 years.
It was this widespread persecution at the hands
of the Rashidun Caliphate that led to a mass
migration of Zoroastrians to India, where they
have enjoyed refuge ever since.
Zoroastrians branch out into mainly two
communities in the Indian subcontinent – the
Parsis and the Iranis – which are culturally,
ethnically and linguistically distinct.
 feature | Zoroastrianism: A Persian Religion

◀
Atashgah
Zoroastrian
fire temple,
Surakhani, Baku,
Azerbaijan

▾
Sofreh Aghd:
The traditional
Persian wedding
ceremony spread
▶
A dakhma, or the
Tower of Silence, in
Yazd, Iran
Shutterstock

rituals and practices

Shutterstock

Followers of Zoroastrianism celebrate

auspicious festivals such as Nowruz, the
Persian New Year, as well as Pateti, the day
preceding Nowruz, where devotees seek
repentance. On many such special occasions,
the fire temple – the place of worship for
Zoroastrians – witnesses large crowds of
devoted followers.
While most religions welcome individuals
of all ages, Zoroastrianism is somewhat stricter.
Instead, to be initiated into Zoroastrianism,
children have to be of at least seven years of
age or prepubescent. The unusual emphasis
on age is due to the ritual’s requirement for the
child to recite religious scriptures and prayers
in order to be inducted – hence, the appropriate
age of seven. This initiation ceremony is known
as Navjote.
A wedding is always looked upon as a
joyous day of celebration, but the Parsis really

78

celebrate in style. The bride and bridegroom,
as well as their guardians, will first sign a marriage
contract. Then, the service is followed by feasts
and celebrations, which traditionally last up to
seven days. Among the many wedding rituals are
the Nahan and Supra Nu Murat. In the former,
the couple takes a holy bath to purify their souls.
The latter is a joyous ceremony where a mustard-
hued paste – made from betel nut, betel leaf,
dates, turmeric, and coconut – is applied to the
faces of the soon-to-be-married couple.
By contrast, the traditional Zoroastrian funeral
is an unsettling affair for observers outside the
religion. Zoroastrians consider the human corpse
to be nasu, or unclean, and there are specific rules
for disposing of the dead so as not to contaminate
the sacred elements, earth, fire, and water. The
dokhmenashini tradition requires laying the
dead in an open-air structure called the dakhma,
or the Tower of Silence. The bodies consigned
79
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to the dakhma are eaten away by birds of prey,
mainly vultures. The event has a softer side –
the love and respect for dogs. The bodies of the
deceased are followed by dogs to the dakhma, and
it is believed that in the afterlife, the souls are led
by dogs to the gates of heaven.
In recent decades, South Asia’s population
of vultures, the principal scavengers in the
excarnation ritual, has plummeted, from an
estimated 40 million in the 1980s to fewer than
20,000 today. It was discovered that Diclofenac,
a common anti-inflammatory drug administered
to livestock, was toxic to vultures, which received
a fatal dose upon feeding on a contaminated
carcass. The issue has had a huge impact on India’s
Zoroastrians, who have been forced to resort to
cremation. But many priests, vehemently opposed
to the idea of polluting fire with dead matter, have
refused to hold prayer ceremonies for corpses that
were to be cremated.
 feature | Zoroastrianism: A Persian Religion

the 1832 dog riots

Bombay of the early 1800s was filled with stray
dogs, considered a nuisance by the city’s British-
administered magistrate of police. But with
dogs being regarded as particularly noble and
righteous creatures in Zoroastrianism, when
the authorities decided to resort to culling the
animals in 1832, the community was outraged.
Protests eventually turned violent as Parsis took
to the streets, ultimately forcing the magistrate
to back down and allow the dogs to be relocated
outside the city. The “Dog Riots” have the
distinction of being the first riot in Bombay
under British India.

a force to be reckoned with

The Parsi community has made important
contributions to society in India, with
monumental architectural feats and successful
careers in the film and music industries.
Household names such as Godrej and Tata are
some of the most well-known Parsi families to
have paved the way for industrial growth. Iconic
landmarks across Mumbai such as the Jehangir
Art Gallery and Crawford Market were built by
Parsi leader and industrialist Cowasji Jehangir
Readymoney. He also funded the construction
of hospitals and asylums for the poor. Jamsetji
Tata, founder of the Tata Group, India’s largest
conglomerate, came from a poor family of
Parsi priests.
While there have been many accomplished
Parsis in history, there is one in particular who
made the notorious list. Physician Buck Ruxton,
born Bukhtyar Chompa Rustomji Ratanji
Hakim in 1899, was from a wealthy Parsi family
hailing from Mumbai. Relocating from India
to Edinburgh, Scotland to become a surgeon,
he soon met a woman who managed a café in
the city. The couple had three children and a
comfortable life with a live-in housekeeper, but
the relationship became strained as Ruxton housemaid, and was hanged. The prosecution
became consumed by fits of anger and jealousy. of the crimes of “The Savage Surgeon” was one
Six years later, Ruxton was convicted of of the most notorious legal cases in Britain
murdering the mother of his children and the during the 1930s.

80
 DID
YOU
KNOW?

Late Queen frontman Freddie Mercury,

born Farrokh Bulsara, hailed from a
distinguished Parsi family that had origins
in Gujarat, the Indian state to which

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Zoroastrians from Greater Iran fled.

AN EASILY ACQUIRED TASTE

They say the best way to experience a culture is to
taste it. Undeniably, Parsi cuisine is tantalising to
one’s taste buds. Rich in flavour and a perfect blend
of spices, Parsi dishes are very often a delicious
combination of both Persian and Gujarati elements.
The classic dish dhansak – lentils cooked with
mutton or goat meat and vegetables served with
rice – is a favourite in India, but there are so many
hidden gems on the Parsi menu. How about akuri,
a Parsi twist on scrambled eggs? Or sali boti, a
mouthwatering mutton curry with crispy potatoes
that’s simultaneously sweet, sour and spicy?

Akuri, Parsi style scrambled eggs

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▴ ▴
▴ The Taj Mahal Palace,
An illustration of one of Mumbai’s most
the bay of Bombay famous buildings,
published in 1857 was commissioned
by prominent Parsi
industrialist Jamsetji Tata

Sali boti, a meaty Parsi dish topped with tomatoes,

onions, jaggery (cane sugar) and vinegar
 feature | Zoroastrianism: A Persian Religion

▴
The entrance
to a Parsi fire
temple in India

▶
A statue of
the Faravahar,
the symbol of
Zoroastrianism,
in India

82

the beginning of the end?
While the Zoroastrian community was only ever
a drop in India’s enormous ocean of people, the
country has witnessed a huge decrease in the Parsi
population over the decades. By some estimates,
today there are only around 50,000 Parsis, down
from approximately 114,000 in 1941. Among the
community in Mumbai, the approximate 750
deaths annually far outstrip the roughly 150 births
per year. Approaching half of Parsi marriages are
with outsiders, a dilution of Parsi culture that is
unacceptable to an orthodoxy that defines Parsi as
only those who have Parsi fathers.
Other factors that could explain the dwindling
numbers can’t be blamed entirely on religious
83
▴
Children celebrate
Parsi New Year at a
fire temple in India
By some estimates, today there are
only around 50,000 Parsis, down from
approximately 114,000 in 1941
strictures. Some young Parsis are migrating to
the West, while others are choosing to raise one
child because of the rising cost of living. Others
still, with a limited choice of partners from the
community and marrying outside being frowned
upon, have resigned themselves to remaining
single. With the steady decline in the Parsi
population, it seems Zoroastrians are fighting the
very extinction of their faith. ag
 feature | Zoroastrianism: A Persian Religion

5 OLDEST RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD

HINDUISM
The oldest scriptures of Hinduism,
the Vedas, are thought to have
been orally transmitted since the
second millennium BCE, with the
Rigveda being the oldest known
Vedic Sanskrit text. The mantras
are the oldest part of the Vedas and
are considered by Hindus to be
“primordial rhythms of creation”.

JUDAISM
Judaism is the oldest monotheistic
religion in the world. Originating
from Israel and Judah, the religion first
appeared around the ninth century
BCE. It is seen as the foundation
for the other Abrahamic religions,
principally Christianity and Islam.

84
CONFUCIANISM
Living from approximately 551–479 BCE,
Chinese politician and philosopher
Confucius considered himself merely
a transmitter of the cultural values of periods
past. But his philosophical teachings, known
as Confucianism, became the bedrock of
Chinese and East Asian society.

BUDDHISM
Originating in ancient India between the
6th and 4th centuries BCE, Buddhism is a
philosophical tradition that competes with
the world’s largest religions. Founded by
Siddhartha Gautam, better known as the
Buddha, it gained traction after his death,
spreading from the Indian subcontinent to
other parts of Asia.

JAINISM
Another dominant religion in the ancient
Indian subcontinent, Jainism originated in
the 7th to 5th century BCE in the Ganges
basin of eastern India. While it shares many
concepts with Hinduism and Buddhism –
such as karma and non-violence – much of
Jain belief is distinct, and the religion has
no historical founder.

85
 LIVING GODDESS

The Worshipped
Child
Text Khushi Makasare

In Nepal, young girls are revered as

supreme deities – but not for long.

A curious
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Kumari
peeping from
her window
 feature | The Worshipped Child

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▴
The Kumari Ghar in
Kathmandu, Nepal
The sun rises over the Kathmandu Valley as a toddler is
beautified with red and yellow face paint. She is decked in gold
and silver jewellery, and her eyes are outlined with bold kohl.
This young girl is a Kumari, a manifestation of palace in the city centre called the Kumari Ghar.
the divine female energy. She is believed to be The Kumari makes short appearances at the
a living goddess (devi), the incarnation Taleju, window of this ornate brick building, attracting
a manifestation of the Hindu goddess Durga. throngs of curious devotees for a glimpse of the
A Kumari’s reign can begin as young as two girl. Kumaris live a life of seclusion – confined in
years old and last till the first day of her the “Temple of the Living Goddess” – and rarely
menstrual cycle. speak to the public.
The tradition is followed in several cities in
Nepal, and as a result, there are a number of
Kumaris in the country, but the best known is the Kumaris live a life of seclusion – confined
Royal Kumari of the capital, Kathmandu. For the in the “Temple of the Living Goddess” –
duration of her period of divinity, she resides in a and rarely speak to the public

88
 DID
YOU
THE LEGEND KNOW?

While virgin worship, or Kumari-Puja, is thought

to have taken place in Nepal for over 2,300 In Nepalese, Kumari means “virgin girl”
years, the current tradition of venerating a living
Kumari dates from as recently as the 17th century
CE. A variety of legends tell of how the tradition
began, the most popular involving the last king
of the Malla Dynasty (12th–17th century), King
Jayaprakash Malla. In the dark of the night, the
goddess Taleju would secretly meet with the king
in his chambers – to play the traditional Nepalese
dice game Tripasa. Growing suspicious of her
husband, the king’s wife followed him one night
and uncovered their secret, angering the goddess.
Taleju told the king that if he wanted to continue
seeing her, he would have to find a young girl
from the Newari community whose body the
goddess could possess. And thus began an age-old
tradition as the king set out to find a “pure” young ▾
girl who would serve as the incarnated Taleju. Girls sitting together waiting
to be worshipped during the
Kumari-Puja festival, Nepal
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 feature | The Worshipped Child
AUDITIONING FOR THE TITLE
Patan, Bhaktapur, Kathmandu, Bungamati and
other Newari communities have their own
Kumaris, but the Royal Kumari of Kathmandu
is the most well-known. While the Kumari
is selected by the Nepalese Newari Buddhist
community, she is also worshipped by Hindus
in the region. The tradition borrows elements of
both religions and blends them when selecting
and nurturing the goddess. But how is a girl
determined to be fit for the role?
Families volunteer their daughters from a
young age, and the girls’ courage is put to the
test. Dressed in the goddess’s traditional red, they
are brought before five Vajracharya priests – the
Panch Buddha, the Bada Guruju (Chief Royal
Priest), Achajau, the priest of Taleju, and the
royal astrologer. According to the commonly
understood screening process, the priests select
eligible girls from the Newar Shakya caste of
silversmiths and goldsmiths. Candidates must be
healthy, have no blemishes on their bodies, and
have lost neither blood nor teeth.
The lucky few are then assessed based on the
battis lakhshanas, or “thirty-two perfections” of
a goddess, beauty ideals expressed in a rather
poetic language, including “a neck like a conch
shell”, “a body like a banyan tree”, “eyelashes like
a cow”, “thighs like a deer”, “a chest like a lion”
and “a voice soft and clear as a duck’s”. Among
other physical requirements, hair and eyes must
be very black, teeth must number 20, and hands
and feet should be dainty. The contenders’
horoscopes must also align with that of the king,
while the piety and devotion to the king of the
girls’ families must be unquestioned.
The lucky few are then assessed based
on the battis lakhshanas, or “thirty-two
perfections” of a goddess
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 DID
YOU
KNOW?
The chosen candidate is obliged to undergo a
final bizarre test of courage to prove she is indeed
a worthy vessel for Taleju. In her autobiography, Trishna Shakya (Kathmandu), Nihira
Rashmila Shakya, a former Royal Kumari, Bajracharya (Patan), and Kripa
Bajracharya (Bungamati) are among
describes the ritual of decapitated animal heads the current reigning Kumaris
presented to her as a test of her fearlessness. Girls
are observed for any reaction, and crying results
in their elimination. She also says that there were
no masked men dancing around trying to scare
her, contrary to popular belief.
Once the girl passes the series of tests, her
body is cleansed in the Taleju Temple via various
Tantric rituals, before the spirit of Taleju enters
her. Dressed as a Kumari, she is carried from the
temple to the Kumari Ghar, where she remains Kathmandu
throughout her appointment. Patan
Bungamati

◀ ▾
Young girls are brought The chosen candidate is
forward by their families obliged to undergo a final
for the selection process bizarre test

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 feature | The Worshipped Child

LIFE AS A KUMARI
The Kumari takes on many roles in society. Her
actions – however small – are believed to predict
the future. If she’s crying, it might indicate
death; if she’s clapping, there is a reason to fear
the king.
She is visited by locals, tourists, government
officials, and even the royal family. They come
bearing gifts for the girl. While she meets with
them, she is not allowed to speak to them. Her
immediate family members are the only people
she is allowed to talk to. In her leisure time,
she plays in her courtyard with other Newari
children. Traditionally, Kumaris did not receive
an education, but today, they attend a school or
receive their education through private tutors.
As a goddess, she is treated above all. Her feet
never touch the floor – she is always carried in
someone’s arms or her palanquin when outside
the Kumari Ghar. The living goddess is clad
in red and adorned with gold jewellery. Out of
respect for their daughter being the “chosen
one”, her family performs the nitya puja ritual
every morning.
The Royal Kumari only leaves her temple to
observe religious festivals in Kathmandu. Of
the many festivals, Indra Jatra is one of the most
important. The eight-day-long celebration marks
the end of the monsoon season.

Her actions – however small – are believed

to predict the future. If she’s crying, it
might indicate death; if she’s clapping,
there is a reason to fear the king
▶
Kumari Matina
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Shakya carried
during a festival
in 2017

92
Shutterstock

▴
Nihira Bajracharya, the
current Kumari of Patan
HOLY GODDESS TURNS MORTAL TEENAGER
The first day of a Kumari’s menstrual cycle
marks the end of her divinity. She is stripped
of her title and walks on the roads across from THE 60-YEAR-OLD KUMARI
the Kumari Ghar as a symbol of the goddess Dhana Kumari Bajracharya is Nepal’s longest-
departing her body. Another scenario where serving Kumari. As her menstruation never
she might be dismissed is if she is grazed or started, she held her title for over 30 years. She
loses blood. was finally dethroned in the 1980s when then
Once back in the mortal world, a Kumari crown prince Dipendra stirred up a controversy
can attend a local school. Many have moved that abruptly ended her tenure. Bajracharya
decided to continue living her life as a Kumari,
on to higher education institutions. Sumika adamant that the goddess still resided in her.
Bajracharya, a former Kumari of Patan, Only when the devastating 2015 earthquake struck
completed her master’s degree and is a part Nepal, when Bajracharya was in her 60s, was she
of a communications organisation. forced to leave her home for the first time – and
As you might expect, the transition isn’t for the first time on foot.
seamless for these girls – their worlds are turned
upside down. From being adored and showered
with gifts, ex-Kumaris become an anonymous
face in the crowd. Her striking red garments are
exchanged for a T-shirt and jeans. Moreover,
finding a life partner can be difficult for former
Kumaris. Many superstitions surround them,
including the belief that the men they marry
face inevitable death. However, there have been
many ex-Kumaris who are married and whose
husbands are still breathing!
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A FADING TRADITION
Like many age-old customs, the Kumari tradition
is dying out, with fewer families bringing forth Parents are aware that the Kumari’s
their daughters to be judged to become the next isolation has consequences for the girl’s
living goddess. The shrinking candidate pool in mental health and her social skills
recent years has been a concern to the priesthood.
After all, with no one to occupy the throne, the
deity would not have a body in which to reside. While supporters of the Kumari tradition
Fewer parents are willing to volunteer their might lament the demise of a cherished facet
prepubescent daughters and sacrifice their of Nepali culture, its detractors argue that the
formative years. An increasing majority of practice has no place in modern Nepal, which
families are striving to give their daughters a more attaches importance to girls’ education and the
liberal life with education, friends, and real-world value of women in society and the workplace.
experiences. Parents are aware that the Kumari’s Either way, the manifestation of the goddess
isolation has consequences for the girl’s mental Taleju in child form remains a profound
health and her social skills. demonstration of the potency of belief. ag
▾
Nepalese schoolgirls
pose for a photo during
their breaktime

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95
 SACRED REPTILE
Power
in Venom
Text Khushi Makasare

Snakes may be responsible for

tens of thousands of deaths
across India each year, but this
fearsome reptile is a powerful
symbol in the region’s religions.
Shutterstock

A snake
charmer on
the streets of
Varanasi, India
 feature | Power in Venom

Snakes have been milked for their venom for centuries.

Frenchman Léon Charles Albert Calmette (1863–1933)
created the world’s first antivenom for snake bites in 1894.
The immunologist developed antibody-based
antivenoms by injecting snake venom into horses.
The work revolutionised the treatment of bites
from these poisonous predators, yet snakes have
maintained their fearsome reputation and remain
powerful symbols of malice in many religions.
In the Bible, it was a serpent who tempted Eve
to take a bite of the fruit from the forbidden tree.
The Medusa of Greek mythology, a gorgon with
serpents for hair, turned to stone anyone who
dared to look into her eyes. Similarly, from J.K.
Rowling’s Harry Potter series slithered Nagini,
a malicious serpent and right hand to the main
antagonist, Lord Voldemort.
With popular culture and religions giving
snakes negative connotations, it’s easy to overlook
the fact that some belief systems view snakes in
a positive light. They are seen as powerful entities
and deemed the rightful protectors of mortals
and gods. In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and
Sikhism, the naga is a semidivine deity that is half
human and half serpent. Nagas have concretely
established themselves in these religious
philosophies and legends.

In Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and

Sikhism, the naga is a semidivine deity that
is half human and half serpent. Nagas have
concretely established themselves in these
religious philosophies and legends.

▴ ◀
An illustration A typical depiction
of a medusa of the serpent
head engraving king, or naga king,
in Thailand
 DID
YOU
KNOW?
Snake charmers hypnotise snakes
with a wind instrument called a pungi. It
was first recorded in ancient Egypt, where
snake charmers were heeded as magicians
and healers, before spreading to India, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, and other parts of Asia

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Shutterstock
▴ Snake charmers playing a pungi in Jaipur, India
A statue of Shiva in
Rishikesh, India, seen
with a snake around The perception of snakes as bearers of
hinduism its neck
misfortune is perfectly illustrated in
the game of Snakes and Ladders, which
In Hinduism, the significance of the serpent originated in ancient India, where it is
called Mokshapat, among other names
is highlighted through its association with
the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity
personified by Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver, and Shiva the destroyer. The three-
headed naga represents this triad of gods and is
known as the guardian of wealth.
The nagas are said to have established
themselves in the netherworld, known as Patala
or Naga Loka, the realm of the nagas. Associated
with water, they reside in lakes, ponds, seas, and
even wells. While this race of semidivine creatures
goes by the umbrella term naga, female nagas are
known as nagi, nagin or nagini.
Nagas are widely depicted in the Hindu epic,
Mahabharata. The two notable nagas mentioned
Jain Miniature/Wikimedia

in the texts are Shesha and Vasuki. Shesha acted as

a bed for Vishnu, upon which the world he created
lies. Vasuki, which rests on Shiva’s neck, was used
as a rope to churn the Ocean of Milk, one of the
central events in the constant battle between the A 19th-century Jain version of the game Snakes
devas (deities) and the asuras (demigods). and Ladders, which is known as jnana bazi or
gyan bazi in India

99
 feature | Power in Venom
Animals sacred to Hinduism are associated with
many rituals and festivals. Naga Panchami is one
such major festival where devotees celebrate
snake deities and worship live snakes. Also
known as Naga Puja, this auspicious event sees
offerings in the form of milk, sweets, and even
sacrifices put before live snakes. It is held on the
fifth day of the month of Shravana, between July
and August.
The symbolism of snakes is ambiguous in
Hinduism. On the one hand, snakes can be seen
as symbols of desire (kama). On the other, they
can be seen as bearers of misfortune. In the real
world, snake bite is a very common cause of
accidental death in livestock, especially in rural
India. Their presence is bad luck for farmers,
who depend on cattle for their livelihoods.
On the spiritual side, Kundalini, literally
“coiled snake”, is the divine feminine energy
resting at the base of the spine. It may also be
illustrated as a pair of serpents intertwined
100
around each other as they ascend the spine.
Through tantric practice, this energy is believed
to be awakened, leading to spiritual liberation.
The initially coiled snake gradually climbs
up the seven chakras, the focal points used in
traditional meditation practices. It begins at the
lowest, the Muladhara chakra, all the way up
to the Ajna chakra. The energy is exposed as
the snake reaches the highest chakra, when the
person experiences pure bliss. In depictions of
the Kundalini serpent, it is usually coiled upon
itself three-and-a-half times. The number three
represents the states of consciousness, while the
half is representative of the higher consciousness,
which must be awakened in order to commune
with the divine.
▾ ▶
Stone sculptures of A statue of Buddha
nagas decorated with Mucalinda’s
with flowers and heads protruding
yellow powder from behind him
Shutterstock
 However, Mucalinda emerged from below the
ground and with the aid of his enormous cobra
hood and seven heads, shielded the Buddha
from the pelting rain. As the Buddha attained
enlightenment, the storm cleared and the serpent
king assumed human form as a youth.
According to Buddhist cosmology, the Four
Heavenly Kings serve Sakra, the ruler of the
Trayastrimsa Heaven. The kings – Virupaksa,
Dhrtarastra, Vaisravana, and Virudhaka – are
guardians of each of the four directions, watching
over the mortals. The western king, Virupaksa,
is the rightful leader of the nagas. In Buddhism,
the nagas are also loyal protectors of Mount
Sumeru, the sacred five-peaked mountain at
the centre of the physical, metaphysical, and
spiritual universes in Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain
cosmology. The nagas protect the devas from
attack by the asuras.
Important figures in Buddhism are often
depicted as nagas, reflecting their magical or
supernatural gifts. These include Nagarjuna,
an Indian Mahayana Buddhist philosopher and
thinker; Dignaga, one of the Buddhist founders
of Indian logic; and Nagasena, a Sarvastivadan
Buddhist sage.

Mucalinda emerged from below the

Shutterstock

ground and with the aid of his enormous

cobra hood and seven heads, shielded
the Buddha from the pelting rain

buddhism
Buddhism originated in India and spread rapidly
into other parts of the world. Followers of
Buddhism make up a large proportion of the
population of Southeast Asia. The nagas also
play an important role in Buddhist belief, and
religious texts narrate the serpentine deities with
high regard.
Many depictions of Gautam Buddha, the
founder of Buddhism, have seven snakes looming
behind his head. The origin of this iconography
lies in the legendary tale of the Buddha and
Mucalinda, the naga king. According to the
story, after the Buddha began meditating under
the Bodhi Tree, the sky grew gradually darker
for seven days as a fierce storm approached.

101
 feature | Power in Venom

jainism
While nagas are particularly important in
Hinduism and Buddhism, they are also a
feature of one of the world’s oldest religions,
Jainism, another ancient belief system from
India. Central to Jainism are the spiritual ideas
of the 24 Tirthankaras, the supreme preachers
of Dharma, otherwise referred to as the
“teaching gods”. Of these, the first, 23rd and 24th
Tirthankaras – Rishabhanatha, Parshvanatha,
and Mahavira, respectively – are considered the
most prominent.
The legends linked to Parshvanatha emphasise
his association with nagas. For instance, before
his birth, Parshvanatha’s mother, Queen
Vamadevi, is said to have seen a black snake
crawling by her husband’s side, and saved King
Ashvasena from the serpent. Idols depicting
Parshvanatha typically portray the Tirthankara
under a canopy of snake hoods, usually featuring
seven snake heads. On some statues, the nagas
essentially function as a crown.
Shutterstock

◀ ▴
A typical depiction A white marble statue
of Parshvanatha of Parshvanatha in the
with snake hoods Jain temple at Vadodara,
over his head Gujarat, India

The similarities between the common

depictions of the Buddha and Parshvanatha
are obvious, but the legends behind them do
differ. The seven-headed naga-king Mucalinda
protected the Buddha from a storm as he was
meditating. In the Jain scripture, Kalpa Sutra,
Parshvanatha once saved a snake that had been
trapped in a log. Later, the serpent, reborn as
Dharana, lord of the underworld kingdom of
nagas, sheltered Parshvanatha from a storm
sent by a demon.
The significance of the nagas in the Dharmic
mythologies of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism
can’t be overstated, but one thing is certain: The
ambiguous nature of these divine serpents only
adds to the mystery surrounding these half-
human half-snake beings.

102

naga kanya
According to both Hindu and Buddhist legends,
the giant birdlike demigod Garuda spends eternity
fighting the nagas. The story goes that Garuda’s
mother and the nagas’ mother marry the same
husband, who gives each wife one wish. While the
nagas’ mother wishes for 1,000 children, Garuda’s
mother asks for just two children, but they are
superior to all of the nagas. This rivalry worsens
when Garuda’s mother loses a bet and becomes
the prisoner of the nagas’ mother. Garuda finally
frees his mother but swears eternal vengeance on
the nagas for his mother’s treatment.
The conflict makes the mythology surrounding
the Naga Kanya – essentially the embodiment of
the unification of the two warring parties – all
the more curious. This queen of the nagas has
the torso of a woman and the lower body of
a serpent, but with wings of a bird. In some
depictions, she’ll have five hooded cobras
presiding over her crown, in others, seven or nine.
Typically connected with Lakshmi, the Hindu
goddess of fortune and abundance, Naga Kanya
is also an ally of Vishnu, a fact not shared with
103
▴
Both the caduceus, the staff carried by
Hermes in Greek mythology (left), and
the Egyptian goddess Isis have bird-
and snake-like features
other nagas, who fear the deadly talons of Vishnu’s
companion, Garuda.
For Hindu devotees, Naga Kanya is an immortal
goddess that brings prosperity, blessings,
protection, aligned relationships, and even magic
to all forms of existence. In the Buddhist traditions,
she is a tantric protector of Dharma. Notice how
her iconography is similar to symbols of other
religions and cultures? Isis, the ancient Egyptian
goddess, and the caduceus, a staff carried by
Hermes of Greek mythology, both have elements
of a snake and a bird, which brings us to ponder the
Naga Kanya’s universal influence.
The nagas are particularly fond of water and
can be found in lakes, ponds, seas, and wells.
No wonder they have inherited the conch shell
as a symbol of their race. Conches have been
used both as tools to collect water and as
communication devices. The distinctive
trumpet sound is used as a call of awakening or
announcement. Naga Kanya is thus commonly
depicted holding conches in her hands – symbols
of emotional nourishment.
 feature | Power in Venom

Shutterstock
▴
Ancient Egyptian deity
Apep in the tomb of
Ramesses III

snakes in ancient egypt

The ancient Egyptians worshipped snakes,
especially the cobra. Ancient deity Apep is
depicted as a giant serpent with evil intent, going
against sun god Ra. Other deities such as Wadjet,
Renenutet, Nehebkau, and Meretseger are also
associated with snakes. Wadjet was the serpent
The Egyptian serpent
god Renenutet goddess of Lower Egypt and was represented by
a cobra or a snake with a woman’s head.

Ancient deity Apep is depicted as a giant

serpent with evil intent, going against
sun god Ra. Other deities such as Wadjet,
Renenutet, Nehebkau, and Meretseger
are also associated with snakes

The Book of the Dead, an ancient Egyptian text

aimed at preserving the spirits in the afterlife,
dictates a spell to keep away snakes in the
afterlife. ag
Egyptian cobra-headed The snake god Nehebkau, Spell
goddess Meretseger 87 from The Book of the Dead

104
ANIMALS IN RELIGION

COW
Hinduism
Cows are a sacred symbol
in Hinduism – one that
gives more than it
takes. The many
products of a cow,
from its milk
to its dung, are
key elements
in Hindu
rituals.
Cows are TIGER
protected, Taoism
and harming
a cow for The ferocity and quiet prowess of the tiger
its meat is symbolises yin while the dragon stands
considered taboo. for yang. Taoists believe that tigers protect
people from three dangers – fire, thieves,
and evil spirits.

LAMB
Christianity
The lamb signifies CAT
suffering, triumph, Islam
forgiveness, and
purity. In the Bible, According to
Jesus Christ is the Hadith,
referred to as the the scripture
“Lamb of God”. describing
Muhammad’s
words and
actions, the
Prophet was
fond of cats and prohibited their persecution
or killing. A popular story shared by Muslims,
though not confirmed by the Hadith, is that
Muhammad once found his favourite cat
Meuzza asleep on the sleeve of his prayer robe,
and instead of waking it up, cut off his sleeve.

105
 ABOVE NATURE

Faith
for Earth
Text Satya S. Tripath Secretary-General of Global
Alliance for a Sustainable Planet (GASP)

Science and religion are

often thought of as being at
odds. But the two seem to
agree on the intrinsic value of
ecosystems and biodiversity.
Ta Prohm Temple
enveloped with
snaking roots
and vines in Siem
Reap, Cambodia
Shutterstock
 feature | Faith for Earth

HEALTHY AND RESILIENT ECOSYSTEMS – the foundation of all life

on land and underwater – are now threatened like never before.
Human activities such as pollution, unsustainable
use of land and sea, the exploitation of organisms,
climate change, and the invasion of alien species
are leading to the decline and degradation of
natural ecosystems on an unprecedented scale.
Climate scientists are urging the world to make
a paradigm shift and to live more sustainably
within the regenerating threshold of Nature.
This is also acknowledged by many religions.
From Buddhism and Christianity to Hinduism
and Islam, they all recognise that we must protect
the environment and treat Nature with care.
The holy texts and spiritual teachings highlight
the intrinsic value of the natural world and the
inherent need to treat all species with respect.
Pope Francis, Archbishop of Canterbury Justin
Welby, and Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch
Bartholomew issued a joint statement ahead
of the 2021 United Nations Climate Change
Conference, better known as COP26. “We call
on everyone, whatever their belief or world view,
to endeavour to listen to the cry of the Earth and
unfortunate people, examining their behaviour
and pledging meaningful sacrifices for the sake of
the earth which God has given us,” they urged.
▾
Deforestation contributes to climate
change, soil erosion, flooding, and
problems for indigenous communities
 The current, global trend is the pursuit of
material wealth. Nature is seen as an extractive
resource that humans can consume for their
benefit. This commodification of Nature leads
to environmental destruction through the
consumption of raw materials that come from
the natural environment such as wood, oil,
and gas.
A 2020 study by Columbia University, USA,
investigated the link between environmental
challenges and religion. The researchers
found that nations whose populations are
more religious tend to use fewer natural
resources. This suggests that communities in
these countries might be more mindful of their
environment, implying that religion can indeed
influence people’s view of Nature.
“We call on everyone, whatever their
belief or world view, to endeavour to
listen to the cry of the earth and of
people who are poor, examining their
behaviour and pledging meaningful
sacrifices for the sake of the earth
which God has given us.”
- His Holiness Pope Francis, Archbishop of Canterbury Justin Welby,
and Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew
Shutterstock
 feature | Faith for Earth

RELIGION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Christianity
Islam
Hinduism
Buddhism
Judaism
Chinese Religions
Shinto
Korean Religions
Folk Religions
No Religion

Asia is the birthplace of many religions. Islam
and Hinduism are the largest religions in Asia
with approximately 1.2 billion worshippers
each. Other prevalent religions in Asia include
Buddhism and Christianity.
Hinduism and Buddhism both originate
from the Indian subcontinent. The two
religions are poles apart but they do share
the basic concept of reincarnation – a
philosophical concept that living beings can be
reborn. In both Hinduism and Buddhism, life
can take on different forms, creating continuity
and connection between human life and other
living things such as Nature and animals. All
life is considered to be equal, whether it is
human or animal.
Christianity and Islam agree that Nature was
created by a God. God created the order of the
natural world, and all living beings are God’s
creatures. Both religions believe that God has
given humans a special responsibility to take
care of all life.

110
HINDUISM
Hinduism is deeply rooted in Nature. The
sacred texts reference the beauty of Nature
such as animals, mountains, rivers, and trees.
The natural world is considered to be a part of
humanity; it is something that does not exist
outside of us but within us. Hinduism believes in
environmental protection, and many faith-driven
organisations promote sustainable development
and environmental conservation.
“Wise utilise three elements variously,
which are varied, visible and full of
qualities. These are water, air, and plants
or herbs. They exist in the world from
the very beginning. They are called as
Chandamsi, meaning ‘coverings available
everywhere’.”
– Atharvaveda, the fourth Veda; from the Vedas, a large body of
Hindu religious scripture
BUDDHISM
Reincarnation as a concept shows that
conservation and responsibility for the future are
important. A Buddhist’s actions in their present
life will impact the future. This is an idea close to
sustainable development and the corresponding
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.
“As a bee – without harming the
blossom, its colour, its fragrance – takes
its nectar and flies away: so should the
sage go through a village.”
– Dhammapada IV, Pupphavagga: Blossoms, 49
111
CHRISTIANITY
There are about 100 verses in the Bible
that mention the protection of the
environment. Worshippers are expected to
have environmental responsibility and be
considerate of their actions that might affect
future generations. While not mentioned in
the Bible, greed is considered to be one of the
seven deadly sins, according to teachings in the
spheres of Christianity.
“The nations were angry, and your wrath
has come. The time has come for judging
the dead, and for rewarding your servants
the prophets and your people who revere
your name, both great and small – and for
destroying those who destroy the Earth.”
– Revelation 11:8
ISLAM
The Quran mentions the protection of the
environment, with its worshippers bearing a
responsibility to take care of Allah’s creation:
the Earth. Islam also forbids the overconsumption
of natural resources (Quran 7:31, 6:141, 17:26-
27, 40:34), with the Quran also listing wasteful
consumption (Isrāf ) as the 32nd greatest sin.
“Do not strut arrogantly on the Earth.
You will never split the Earth apart nor
will you ever rival the mountains’ stature.”
– Quran 17: 37
 feature | Faith for Earth

AGREEMENTS AMONG ASIA’S RELIGIONS

The four major religions in Asia have similar
spiritual messages regarding Nature and the
environment. Spirituality, religion, and respect 5 OVERLAPS IN MAJOR RELIGIONS
for Nature are umbilically linked.
Religion and spirituality can offer us guidance The natural world has value and does
to restructure the way we see and use Nature not only exist to serve humanity
both in terms of the well-being of our planet and
ourselves. In religious and spiritual traditions,
we are taught that we must not be greedy. We
have the responsibility to minimise our impact Greed and destructiveness
are unacceptable
on the environment, and more importantly, the
Earth. Humanity should stop treating Nature
as a mere resource for exploitation, personal
use, or enjoyment, and take into account the The dependence of humanity on
consequences of their actions on the future of Nature should be acknowledged
people, the planet, and Nature. and appreciated

The four major religions in Asia have There are acceptable and
unacceptable uses of Nature
similar spiritual messages regarding
Nature and the environment. Spirituality,
religion, and respect for Nature are Humans should live in harmony with
umbilically linked. Nature and should follow specific
practices described by their religious
▾ and spiritual traditions
People from the
four major religions praying

Images: Shutterstock

112
 Mission East Asian National Support (MEANS)
▴
Members of Plant
with Purpose hard
TAKE ACTION at work

To fulfil Sustainable Development Goals

(SDGs) by 2030, interreligious and intercultural
conversations should be promoted so that we
can learn from each group. There are plenty
of initiatives by faith-based organisations that
contribute to the SDGs that call for action.
Many faith-based organisations have
also been engaged in ecological restoration,
conservation, and environmental protection,
while also tying these initiatives to equity
issues and local livelihoods. For instance, the
Christian non-profit organisation, Mission
East Asian National Support (MEANS), has
started a disaster risk reduction project, Plant
with Purpose, in the Philippines to combat
commercial logging. “Trees are an important
part of the quality of life – environmentally,
culturally and economically,” reads MEANS’
mission statement. “Your help and the
communities that will be involved will leave
a legacy of trees, an appreciation of the
value of green-cover, and strong community
partnerships for future generations.”
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
are 17 interlinked global goals designed to
be a “blueprint to achieve a better and more
sustainable future for all”. The SDGs were
introduced in 2015 by the United Nations General
Assembly and aim to be achieved by 2030.
OUR SHARED FUTURE
We cannot claim that we do not understand
sustainability and environmental stewardship: It
has long been an ancient tradition and belief of the
world’s major religions. Science has shown us that
unsustainable choices lead to ecological disasters.
Religion and spirituality can offer ethical guidance
on how to respect Nature and minimise our impact
on the Earth. Try to think of Nature as something
equal to you, or as a part of you: Protect it, take care
of it, and give back!
Faith-based organisations deliver great work
and contribute to protecting Nature, people, and
the planet. It is important to recognise them as key
stakeholders in our fight for a sustainable world. ag
SATYA S. TRIPATHI is Secretary-General of
Global Alliance for a Sustainable Planet (GASP),
an organisation that works with climate
champions across the world to achieve the
UN Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.

113
 timeless

Kneeling
R.S. Thomas

Moments of great calm,

Kneeling before an altar
Of wood in a stone church
In summer, waiting for the God
To speak; the air a staircase
For silence; the sun’s light
Ringing me, as though I acted
A great rôle. And the audiences
Still; all that close throng
Of spirits waiting, as I,
For the message.
Prompt me, God;
But not yet. When I speak,
Though it be you who speak
Through me, something is lost.
The meaning is in the waiting.

R.S. THOMAS (1913–2000) was a Welsh poet

and an Anglican priest. He gained recognition
as a poet with his critically acclaimed volume
of poetry, Song at the Year’s Turning: Poems,
1942–1954. He was known for his poems
revolving around the tribulations of the rural
Welshman, as well as the religious overtones
and bleak portrayals of selfhood in his works.
Shutterstock
 RELIGIOUS

SACRED SITES
IN THE PHILIPPINES

A beautiful stained glass

Shutterstock

window in Manila’s San

Sebastian Basilica, a
church noted for its Gothic
Revival architecture
 E XPEDITION
I N FO R M AT I O N
WHEN
November to June
PHILIPPINES

GETTING AROUND
The most convenient way of getting
around most towns is either by
tricycle or jeepney – the ubiquitous,
colourfully decorated buses that are
the most popular means of public
transportation in the Philippines.
Depending on where you are going,
cheap flights are also an option for
travel between cities. Travellers can
also consider hiring private cars or
motorcycles to get around

GETTING THERE
The main gateway into the Philippines
is either via the capital city of Manila,
arriving at Ninoy Aquino International
Airport; or via Cebu, arriving at
Mactan-Cebu International Airport. ◀
These two transport hubs serve The Miagao Church,
international flights from all over one of the four Baroque
the region and the world. An extensive churches of the
network of domestic flights brings Christianity Philippines included
travellers to every corner of this
in UNESCO’s World
Islam
Shutterstock

vast archipelago
Heritage List

IN SPITE OF its predominantly Christian

population, the Philippines is home to a
wealth of religious sites scattered across
the country.

Alongside East Timor, the Philippines is one

of the only predominantly Christian nations
in Southeast Asia, with an overwhelming
majority of its population identifying with
the faith or several of its denominations.
Nevertheless, the Philippines is a melting pot
of religions. Amongst the country’s various
minority religions, Islam is often considered
to be the largest one, whilst smaller ones
include indigenous folk religions unique to
the Philippines. The coexistence of the
multitude of religions in the Philippines has
yielded an impressive spectrum of holy sites
and places of worship in the country, all of
which offer fascinating histories.

◀
Dimaukom Mosque, or the Pink Mosque,
in Maguindanao in the Bangsamoro
Shutterstock

Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.

The colour pink is believed to symbolise
peace and love

116

{christianity }
DISTRIBUTION: 90 PERCENT
HISTORY: Christianity is thought to have been
introduced to the island of Cebu with the
arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
Magellan, leading a fleet for Spain, in 1521.
After Magellan helped to cure the ill grandson
of the island’s chief, Chief Humabon, he allowed
Magellan to baptise 800 of his followers in
a mass Christian baptism. Following Magellan’s
death at the hands of a chief from a different
Filipino island, the Spanish sent another
explorer, Miguel López de Legazpi, to the
Philippines, who converted even more Filipinos
to Christianity. This marked the beginning
of the Philippines’ Spanish colonial era,
from 1565–1898, followed by the American
colonial era, from 1898–1946. During these
four centuries of colonisation, Christianity
was spread throughout the archipelago by
missionaries. Today, Christianity remains
the predominant religion in the Philippines.
As of 2010, about 80 percent of the population
identifies as Roman Catholic, and 10 percent
belong to other Christian denominations such
as Iglesia ni Cristo, Protestantism, Orthodox,
and Methodism.
117
Shutterstock
PLACE OF WORSHIP: When Christianity was
first introduced to the country, churches
were constructed at the behest of the
Spanish colonial missionaries preaching
the religion. Due to the missionaries’
lack of experience in architecture and
engineering, churches often incorporated
a fusion of native Spanish and Southeast
Asian designs. Initially, churches were
made of flimsy materials such as wood and
bamboo, making them susceptible to natural
disasters. In order to adapt to these hazards,
churches were redesigned to be more
structurally sound so that they could resist
the country’s earthquakes, which created an
aesthetic known as “Earthquake Baroque”.
These Baroque churches hold valuable
cultural significance in the Philippines and,
in 1993, four of the local Spanish colonial-
era churches were included in UNESCO’s
World Heritage List.
▴
Art on a church’s
ceiling in Cebu depicting
Magellan’s cross
Sacred Sites
SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH
One of the four Baroque churches to be
inducted into UNESCO’s 1993 World Heritage
List, the San Agustin Church was the first
religious structure constructed by the Spanish
on the island of Luzon in 1571, and is the
oldest church in the Philippines. Over four
centuries old, the church has borne witness to
many significant landmarks in the Philippines’
history, such as the Battle of Manila in 1762.
It is also reputed for its ornate trompe l’oeil
(three-dimensional trick-eye art) frescoes on
its vaulted ceiling.
▾ ▶
The beautiful interior San Agustin Church

Shutterstock
of San Agustin Church is the oldest stone
in Manila church in the Philippines

Shutterstock

118
 Shutterstock
▴
Mount Banahaw is
considered a sacred
site not only by
Christians, but by
many others including
pilgrims, psychics,
and mystics

MOUNT BANAHAW
With various myths and folk tales surrounding
the origins and supposed proof of its status SAN AGUSTIN CHURCH, MANILA
as a holy mountain, Mount Banahaw is a
popular pilgrimage site for those who wish to MOUNT BANAHAW, QUEZON
supplement their spiritual health and faith,
and often sees numerous worshippers during
Holy Week. A Christian shrine known as Kamay
ni Hesus sits at the foot of the mountain. Aside
from the healing masses conducted there, the
shrine boasts a 300-step climb marked with
statues of the Stations of the Cross that lead
up to a towering statue of Jesus Christ, as well
as a life-sized replica of Noah’s Ark.

{islam }
DISTRIBUTION: 5.6 PERCENT
HISTORY: Islam was introduced to the
Philippines around the 14th century with
the arrival of Muslim traders from India
and the Malay Archipelago. Arab Muslim
missionaries from overseas subsequently
helped spread Islam throughout the
Philippines, and sultanates were founded
in the country. Filipino Muslims were labelled
“Moros” by the Spaniards, who, alongside
Japanese and American rulers, attempted
to subdue the increasing number of Muslims
or convert them to Christianity. The Moros
firmly resisted these attempts, even
going so far as to challenge the United
States’ military in armed conflict during
the Moro Rebellion in the midst of the
Philippine–American War. Today, Islam is
generally thought to be the Philippines’
largest minority religion.
120
Shutterstock
▴
The Sultan Haji
Hassanal Bolkiah
Mosque, otherwise
known as the Grand
Mosque of Cotabato
PLACE OF WORSHIP: Muslims in the Philippines
worship in mosques. Like Christian churches
in the country, early mosques were often made
of flimsy materials and constructed by
inexperienced missionaries, resulting in many
of them being destroyed by natural disasters.
There are three types of mosques recognised
in the Philippines. Firstly, the masjid constitutes
a large, permanent building where formal
observances and assembly prayers are
conducted. Secondly, the langgal (or ranggar)
is a smaller, semi-permanent building built to
facilitate the convenience of those who live a
distance away from masjids. Lastly, the familiar
onion-domed mosques are the most widespread
styles of mosques in the Philippines, and
were possibly adopted after Filipino Muslims
encountered Middle Eastern mosques during
their Mecca pilgrimages.
 MARAWI GRAND MOSQUE
LANAO DEL SUR

SHEIK KARIMOL MAKHDUM MOSQUE

SIMUNUL, TAWI-TAWI

Shutterstock
Sacred Sites
▴ ▾
SHEIK KARIMOL MAKHDUM MOSQUE Sheikh Karimul The Marawi Grand
Said to have been established by Arab trader Makhdum Mosque, Mosque in 2020,
Sheikh Makhdum Karim in 1380, the Sheik Simunul, Tawi-Tawi damaged due to the
Karimol Makhdum Mosque is the oldest of Marawi siege of 2017
its kind in the Philippines. The mosque has
been designated a National Historic Landmark
by the National Historical Commission,
and a National Cultural Treasure. The four
sacred pillars currently found within the
mosque date back to the 17th century, and
are regarded as the oldest known Islamic
artefacts in the country.

MARAWI GRAND MOSQUE

The largest mosque in the Philippines, Marawi
Grand Mosque is a distinguishing landmark of
Marawi City. Construction of the mosque began
in the 1950s and was completed in 1970. During
the siege perpetuated by extremists in 2017, the
mosque was heavily damaged due to the violent
conflict that ensued. The mosque was repaired
by December 2021, and in May 2022, 6,000
Muslims flocked to the mosque to attend the
prayer for Eid al-Fitr, the celebration marking
Shutterstock

the end of Ramadan.

121
 {indigenous folk religions }
DISTRIBUTION: 0.2 PERCENT (DATA AS AT 2010)
HISTORY: The Philippines is home to a
variety of native religions that belong to
the country’s different ethnic groups. A
common theme amongst these native
religions is animism – the belief that spirits
of Nature, ancestors, and deities inhabit
creatures and the environment. Most of
these religions often believed in a Creator
God as well as lesser deities who were either
benevolent or malevolent, and also had
spiritual practitioners such as shamans and
witches. During the Spanish colonisation
from the 16th to the 19th century, the
majority of Filipinos, including those who
practised these native religions, converted
to Christianity. Some practitioners of these
native religions even found ways to integrate
aspects of Christianity into their belief
systems and practices. During the Philippine
Revolution from 1896 to 1898, proposals to
revive these indigenous folk religions and
make them the national religion were made.
However, these proposals did not succeed,
as attention and resources were primarily
122
diverted towards conflict with the Spanish
colonisers at the time. Nevertheless, a small
yet deep-seated portion of the Philippines’
population continues to practise their folk
religions today.
PLACE OF WORSHIP: While Filipinos who
practise these indigenous folk religions do
not have specific places of worship, they
do have sacred sites. Some of these sites
include spirit houses and sacred caves known
as moog, which can be used to store the
caskets of ancestors or the carved statues of
spirits. Sacred sites in indigenous Filipino
religions also include sites that are believed
to be the tangible residences of divine spirits
and realms. These sites include mountains,
trees, and caves. While many sacred sites –
especially man-made ones – were destroyed
or repurposed by both Spanish colonialists
and American imperialists between the 16th
to the 20th centuries, several sites still remain
in the country, granting native Filipinos places
to practise their folk religions.
Shutterstock

AGUSAN MARSH
AGUSAN DEL SUR
MOUNT APO
SOUTH CENTRAL MINDANAO
WEST OF DAVAO CITY
Sacred Sites
MOUNT APO
Mount Apo is inhabited by three indigenous
tribes: the Manobo, the Bagobo, and the Klata.
They consider the mountain sacred and the
burial site of their forefather, Apo Sandawa.
Aside from acting as an environment that
influences and reinforces their cultures and
religions, Mount Apo also serves as a source
of food and medicine for these tribes.
123
Shutterstock
◀ ▴
At 2,954 metres, Agusan Marsh in
Mount Apo is the Agusan del Sur
highest mountain
in the Philippines
AGUSAN MARSH
Agusan Marsh is home to the Manobo
indigenous tribe, who lives in moored floating
houses and traverse its waterways using
canoes. The Manobo believe that countless
spirits watch over life and the environment
in the marsh. To respect these spirits and
avoid incurring their displeasure, the Manobo
conduct rituals in which they offer symbols
of life to the spirits and protect forests that
are rich in medicinal plants. When visiting the
marsh, guests can look forward to witnessing
the panagtawag, a welcome ritual performed
to ensure their safety. ag
 festival highlights

Asia Festival Guide

Your Calendar Guide to Religious Festivals in Asia (2022–23)
From Hinduism’s Holi festival and Islam’s Feast of the Sacrifice to
Buddhist New Year and Christian Holy Week, you’re invited to take part
in the holiest and most vibrant religious celebrations across Asia!

AUG
AUG 11 18–19
JANMASHTAMI
RAKSHA India
BANDHAN This celebration
India, of Krishna’s
Nepal, Pakistan birth sees
On this day, sisters devotees hold
tie a talisman vigils and a fast
called the Rakhi until midnight.
around the wrists Dahi Handi
of their brothers, is a defining
symbolically communal event of
protecting them. Janmashtami, where
The sisters men form a pyramid
receive a gift to break a hanging
in return pot and release
yoghurt, butter or
other milk products

August 2022

AUG 12 AUG 31
HUNGRY GHOST GANESH CHATURTHI
FESTIVAL Nepal, Singapore,
Throughout Asia Malaysia, India
For Buddhists and The Hindu festival honours
Taoists, the spirits the birth of the beloved
of deceased ancestors Hindu elephant-headed
visit the living on god, Ganesh. Celebrations
this day. Activities can last up to 10 days,
include making and conclude with the
food offerings, immersion of idols of
burning incense, Ganesh in water
and watching opera
performances
and puppet
shows (getai)
 SEP 24
PCHUM BEN DEC 8
Cambodia BODHI DAY
This 15-day Cambodian religious
festival sees locals show respect China, Korea,
to their ancestors. Devotees go to Japan, Vietnam
the pagoda to honour the tradition, and Philippines
while people who live close to a
pagoda take turns cooking food for The holiday commemorates Buddhism
the monks and the many visitors from the day the Buddha
other regions. During this period it is achieved Nirvana. Christianity
believed that the gates of hell open Buddhists celebrate
and manes (spirits) of the ancestors through meditation, Hinduism
are especially active chanting, and performing
kind acts towards others Islam
Sikhism

September October December 2022 Zoroastrianism

OCT 24 DEC 24
DIWALI CHRISTMAS
India, Malaysia, Throughout
Singapore, Nepal, Fiji Asia
Celebrated by Hindus, Buddhists, The day celebrates
Jains and Sikhs, the “festival of the birth of
lights” symbolises the victory of Jesus Christ,
light over darkness, good over but it has
evil. Devotees place oil lamps in also become
their homes, light fireworks, and a secular,
partake in family feasts cultural
celebration
among
non-Christians

*Dates are subject to change

Images: Shutterstock
 festival highlights

FEB 22
JAN 6– ASH WEDNESDAY
FEB 18 Philippines

MAGH MELA
For Christians,
the day marks
the start of the
MAR 8
India 40-day fasting HOLI
The Hindu festival period known as India, Nepal, Pakistan
is celebrated Lent. Palm leaves
annually on river of the previous years Holi is an ancient Hindu event
banks, in which are burnt, and their that takes place across the
devotees dip ashes are collected India subcontinent which
themselves and and applied on the celebrates the start of spring
offer prayers to foreheads of devotees and signifies the importance
the gods of good over evil. In the
signature ritual, devotees

January 2023 February March

throw coloured powder on
each other

FEB 5 MAR 6 MAR 21

THAIPUSAM MAGHA PUJA NOWRUZ
Indonesia, Malaysia, Laos, Cambodia, Iran, across Asia
Sri Lanka, Singapore Thailand and Myanmar The Persian New Year marks
and India Observed on the first full moon the beginning of spring – and
Celebrated by the Tamil day of the month of Magh, Magha ushers in a raft of celebratory
Hindu community, the Puja is a day that commemorates rituals, including house
festival is a foot procession a time when 1,250 Buddhists cleaning, visiting family and
to honour Lord Murugan. spontaneously came together friends, and feasting. In some
Hooks and needles to pay respect to the Buddha countries, celebrations last
(kavadis) are pierced into for two weeks
the devotees’ skin and
women carry pots of milk
APR 2–8
HOLY WEEK
Countries with Christian
communities such as
Philippines, Singapore
and Malaysia
During Holy Week, Christians
across Asia recall the
JUN 28
events that led up to Jesus’ EID AL-ADHA
death by crucifixion and his
subsequent resurrection.
This week includes five days
APR 21 Countries with Muslim
communities such as Indonesia,
Malaysia and Singapore
of special significance
EID AL-FITR Known as the “Feast of the Sacrifice”,
Countries with Muslim the observance commemorates the
communities such as Indonesia, Quranic story of Prophet Ibrahim's
Malaysia and Singapore willingness to sacrifice his son Ismail
as an act of obedience to God. It
The first day of the 10th month of the coincides with the final rites of the
Islamic calendar marks the end of annual Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca in
the fasting period (Ramadan). During Saudi Arabia
this joyous time, it is customary for
Muslims to attend morning mosque

April prayers, visit relatives, decorate their

houses, and buy new clothes May June August 2023

APR 13 APR 14 MAY 26 AUG 2

SONGKRAN VAISAKHI BUDDHA JAYANTI KHAO PHANSA
Thailand, India South Asia and Thailand
Myanmar, Laos, To celebrate spring Southeast Asia as well The festival marks the
Cambodia, harvest, Sikhs as Tibet and Mongolia beginning of Vassa,
Sri Lanka, visit places of a three-month “rains
Known as Vesak Day in retreat” for Theravada
Bangladesh worship called Southeast Asia, Buddha’s
Gudwaras and birthday is celebrated practitioners. Vibrant
During the special parades candle processions
in many different ways
Buddhist New take place across Asia. Celebrations take place throughout
Year’s Day festival, on the streets. commonly involve an the country, especially
water is thrown Particularly in Ubon Ratchathani,
assembly of people, Nakhon Phanom and
over crowds as a large celebrations water, flowers, light,
symbol of washing take place in the song, and dance Nakhon Ratchasima
away evil. Fragrant city of Anandpur
herbs are often Sahib in Punjab
placed in the jug or
bucket containing
the water

*Dates are subject to change

Images: Shutterstock
 www.asiangeo.com
AsianGeo @asiangeographic @asiangeographic chairman
LIM Geok Khoon

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