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 Brief Contents
Part ONE The Foundations of Public Speaking   1

1 Finding Your Voice   1

2 Managing Your Fear of Speaking   21
3 Your First Speech: An Overview of Speech Preparation   37
4 Becoming a Better Listener   59
Part TWO Preparation for Public Speaking 79

5 Adapting to Your Audience and Situation   79

6 Finding Your Topic   104
7 Building Responsible Knowledge   122
8 Supporting Your Ideas   147
9 Structuring and Outlining Your Speech   167
PArt THREE Developing Presentation Skills  199

10 Presentation Aids   199

11 Putting Words to Work   229
12 Presenting Your Speech   255
Part FOUR Types of Public Speaking  283

13 Informative Speaking  283
14 Persuasive Speaking  306
15 Persuasion in Controversy  337
16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions  362
Appendix A Communicating in Small Groups  385

Appendix B Speeches for Analysis  400

vii
 Contents
Preface  xiv
Instructor and Student Resources  xxiii
Acknowledgments  xxiv

Part ONE    The Foundations of Public Speaking  1

1 3
 Your First Speech: An
Finding Your Voice  1 Overview of Speech
Preparation  37
What Public Speaking Has to Offer You  3 Preparing and Presenting Your First Speech   38
Personal Benefits  3 Step 1: Find and Focus Your Topic   39
Social Benefits  4 Step 2: Gather Supporting Material   40
Cultural Benefits  5 Step 3: Organize the Body of Your Speech   43
Step 4: Add an Introduction, Transitions, and a
Introduction to Communication   7 Conclusion  46
Historical Roots of Public Speaking   7 Step 5: Prepare a Formal Outline   46
Communication: Interactive and Dynamic   8 Step 6: Practice, Practice, Practice!   47
What Public Speaking Asks of You  14 Step 7: Present Your Speech   49
Respect for the Integrity of Ideas and Information   15 Managing the Impressions You Make   49
A Genuine Concern for Consequences   18 Competence  49
Integrity  50
Final reflections A Quest that Deserves
Goodwill  50
Commitment  19 Dynamism  51
Speeches of Introduction   51

2  Managing Your Fear

of Speaking   21
Final reflections Taking The First Steps   55

Understanding Communication Anxiety  24

An Unfamiliar Situation   24
The Importance of the Occasion  24
4  Becoming a Better
Listener  59
The Power of Negative Thinking   24
The Benefits of Effective Listening   60
Managing Your Communication Anxiety  25
Listening in the Classroom   61
Reality Testing   26 Listening at Work   62
Cognitive Restructuring   28
Selective Relaxation   28 Understanding Listening  63
Attitude Adjustments   29 Comprehensive Listening   63
Visualization  30 Critical Listening   63
Putting It All Together   31 Empathic Listening   64
How You Can Help Your Classmates   33
Overcoming Barriers to Effective Listening  64
Final reflections  Climbing Fear Mountain  33 Noise  65

viii
 Contents ix

Inattention  65 Your Ethical Responsibilities as a Listener   71

Bad Listening Habits   66
Emotional Reactions   67 Evaluating Speeches   72
Biases  67 General Considerations   72
Evaluating Substance   74
Becoming a Critical Listener   68 Evaluating Structure   74
Do Speakers Support Their Claims?   68 Evaluating Presentation Skills   74
Do Speakers Cite Credible Sources?   69
Do Speakers Use Words to Clarify or Obscure?   69 Final reflections The Golden Rule
of Listening   76
Becoming an Empathic Listener   71

Part TWO   Preparation for Public Speaking  79

5 Adapting to Your Audience

and Situation   79
6 Finding Your Topic   104

Understanding Audience Demographics   81 What Is a Good Topic?   105

Age  82 A Good Topic Involves You   105
Gender  83 A Good Topic Involves Your Listeners   106
Education  84 A Good Topic Is One You Can Manage   106
Sociocultural Background   84
Group Affiliations   85 Discovering Your Topic Area   107
Some Words of Caution   87 Brainstorming  107
Interest Charts   107
Understanding Audience Dynamics   88
Media and Internet Prompts   109
Beliefs  88
Attitudes  88 Exploring Your Topic Area   109
Values  89 Mind Mapping   110
Motives  90 Topic Analysis   111
Gathering Information About Audience
Dynamics  93 Refining Your Topic   113
General Purpose   113
Rewards and Challenges Specific Purpose   113
of Audience Diversity   94 Thesis Statement   116
Become Familiar with Audience Cultures   94
Use Supporting Materials Skillfully   95 An Overview of the Topic Selection
Speak from Shared Values   95 Process  117
Choose Your Words Carefully   96
Final reflections The Great Chain
Avoid Rhetorical Land Mines   96
of Communication   118
Adjusting to the Speaking Situation   98
The Occasion   98
The Physical Setting   98
The Psychological Setting   99

Final reflections Looking Beyond the Self   101

x Contents
7
Building Responsible
 Knowledge  122
The Quest for Responsible Knowledge   124
Preparing for Research   124
Planning Your Time   124
Developing the Right Research Attitude   124
Setting Your Research Priorities   125
Recording What You Discover   125
Avoiding Chance Plagiarism   127
Your Quest for General Knowledge   127
Drawing on Personal Experience   128
Certain Sites on the Internet   128
Certain Places in the Library   129
Exploring the Social Media   129
Seeking In-Depth Knowledge   129
Going Deeper on the Internet   130
Going Deeper in the Library   132
Conducting Personal Interviews   134
Evaluating What You Discover   137
Information from the Internet   137
Information from the Library   141
Information from Personal Interviews   142
Final reflections  Empowering Your Voice   143
8 Supporting Your
 Ideas  147
Facts and Statistics   148
Constructing Facts and Figures   149
Testing Facts and Figures   150
Testimony  152
Using Expert Testimony   152
Developing Lay Testimony   153
Constructing Prestige Testimony   154
Designing Testimony: Other Considerations   154
Examples  156
Types of Examples   156
Fashioning Powerful Examples   158
Testing Your Examples   159
Narratives  160
Types of Narratives   160
Building Narratives   161
Testing Your Story   162
Selecting and Combining Supporting
Materials  164
Final reflections  Developing a
Well-Supported Voice   165
9 Structuring and Outlining
 Your Speech   167
Principles of a Well-Structured Speech   168
Simplicity  168
Order  170
Balance  170
Structuring the Body of Your Speech   171
Selecting Your Main Points   172
Arranging Your Main Points   172
Developing Your Main Points   175
Developing a Working Outline   176
Adding Transitions   178
Introducing and Concluding Your Speech   181
Introducing Your Speech   181
Concluding Your Speech   185
Selecting and Using Introductory and Concluding
Techniques  188
Preparing Your Formal Outline   189
Heading  189
Introduction  191
Body  191
Conclusion  192
Works Cited or Consulted   192
Formal Outlines: A Caution   193
Final reflections  Deep Roots of Structuring
and Outlining   193

Part Three   Developing Presentation Skills  199
10  Presentation
Aids  199
The Advantages and Disadvantages
of Presentation Aids   201
Advantages of Presentation Aids   201
Disadvantages of Presentation Aids   203
Types of Presentation Aids   204
People  204
Objects and Models   205
Graphics  206
Pictures  209
Presentation Media   210
Traditional Media   210
PowerPoint, Prezi, iPad Apps, and More   213
Preparing Presentation Aids   219
Principles of Design   219
Principles of Color   221
Using Presentation Aids  223
Ethical Considerations for Using
Presentation Aids   224
Final reflections Amplifying Your Voice   226
11  Putting Words
to Work   229
What Words Can Do   230
What Makes Oral Language Special   231
Shaping Perceptions   232
Arousing Feelings   233
Bringing Listeners Together   235
Moving Listeners to Action   235
Celebrating Shared Values   236
The Six C’S of Language Use   237
Clarity  237
Color  239
Concreteness  239
Contents xi
Correctness  240
Conciseness  242
Cultural Sensitivity   242
How Language Techniques Can
Magnify Your Voice   243
Using Figurative Language   243
Changing the Order of Words   248
Using the Sounds of Words to Reinforce Their
Meaning  249
Final reflections Give Me the Right Word   251
12 Presenting Your
 Speech  255
The Power of Presentation   256
Developing Your Physical Voice   257
Pitch  258
Rate  260
Volume  262
Variety  264
Vocal Problems   264
Developing Your Body Language   266
Facial Expression and Eye Contact   266
Movement and Gestures   267
Personal Appearance   269
Developing Versatility in Presentation   270
Impromptu Speaking   270
Extemporaneous Speaking   272
Reading from a Manuscript   273
Memorized Text Presentation   275
Practicing for Presentation   275
Developing Flexibility in Special Situations   278
Handling Questions and Answers   278
Moderator  279
Making Mediated Presentations   280
Final reflections Holding Court   281
xii Contents

Part FOUR   Types of Public Speaking  283

Agreement  316

13  Informative
Speaking  283
Enactment  317
Integration  317
The Challenges of Persuasive Speaking   318
Informative Speaking: An Overview   285 Convincing a Reluctant Audience to Listen   319
Removing Barriers to Commitment   324
Forms of Informative Speaking   286 Moving from Attitude to Action   325
Speeches of Description   286 The Challenge of Ethical Persuasion   327
Speeches of Demonstration   286
Designs for Persuasive Speeches   328
Speeches of Explanation   287
Problem–Solution Design   329
Helping Listeners Learn   288 Motivated Sequence Design   330
Motivating Audiences to Listen   288
Final reflections The Case for Persuasion   332
Maintaining Audience Attention   289
Promoting Audience Retention   291

15
Speech Designs   292 Persuasion in
Categorical Design   292  Controversy  337
Comparative Design   293
Spatial Design   294
Sequential Design   296 Reasoned Persuasion Versus Manipulative
Chronological Design   297 Persuasion  339
Causation Design   298 Forming Evidence   339
Developing Proofs   341
Rising to the Challenge of the Informative
Speech  299 The Master Proof   345
Defining Major Issues   345
Briefings: An Application   300 Deductive Reasoning   346
Inductive Reasoning   347
Final reflections Bringing Fire to Your
Analogical Reasoning   348
Listeners  302
Refutative Design   350
Design Combinations   351
Avoiding Defective Persuasion   352

14  Persuasive
Speaking  306
The Gallery of Fallacies   352

Final reflections Persuasion That

Has Legs  357
The Nature of Persuasive Speaking   308
The Types of Persuasive Speaking   310
Speeches That Focus on Facts   310
Speeches That Emphasize Attitudes and Values   312
Speeches That Advocate Action and Policy   313
16 Ceremonial Speaking
 on Special
Occasions  362
The Persuasive Process   314
Techniques of Ceremonial Speaking   364
Awareness  315
Understanding  315 Identification  364
Magnification  366
 Contents xiii

Types of Ceremonial Speeches   368 Appendix A Communicating in Small Groups   385

Speeches of Tribute   368
Appendix B Speeches for Analysis   400
Acceptance Speeches   373
Speeches of Introduction   373 Glossary  423
Speeches of Inspiration   375
After-Dinner Speeches   376 Notes  431
Acting as a Master of Ceremonies   378
Photo Credits 440
Narrative Design   379
Index  441
Prologue  380
Plot  380
Epilogue  381

Final reflections “And in Conclusion

Let Us Say”   381
 Preface
CHAPTeR 1 Finding Your Voice 19

FinAl
reflections A Quest that Deserves Commitment

P What’s New in This Edition?

aleontologists tell us that a dramatic moment in the story of human evolution
occurred several hundred thousand years ago when our early ancestors devel-
oped the capacity for speech. It is interesting to consider that each of us—as we
discover our voices through preparation, practice, Each newsuccess
and ultimate edition offers the chance to improve our book, and the tenth edition
in presenta-
tion—replicates in miniature the experience of our takes
speciesfull advantage
as humans discoveredof this opportunity. Those familiar with previous editions will
their voices and the incredible power of communication.
recognize at least
In some of us, this experience can be quite dramatic. In his biography of seven major changes:
President Lyndon Johnson, Robert Caro tells the story of Johnson’s mother, who
taught communication skills to isolated Hill Country children, and of Johnson’s
cousin, Ava, who studied public speaking with her. ■ WhenNew Mrs. Coauthor.
Johnson began as-We are proud to welcome a dedicated teacher, distinguished
signing speech topics, Ava recalls,
scholar, and officer of the National Communication Association to our writing
team. Professor Kathleen J. Turner of Davidson College has assumed respon-
I said “I just can’t do it, Aunt Rebekah.” And she said, “Oh, yes, you can. There’s
nothing impossible if you put the mind to it. I know you have the ability to
sibility for updating, revising, and refreshing the chapter on the use of presen-
deliver a speech.” And I cried, and I said, “I just can’t do it!” Aunt Rebekah
tation aids (Chapter 10) and the chapter on presenting (Chapter 12), which
said, “Oh, yes, you can.” And she never let up, never let up. Never. Boosting
me along, telling me I could do it. She taught me speaking and elocution, and
gives greater emphasis to impromptu and extemporaneous presentations. The
I went to the state championships with it, and I won a medal, a gold medal, in
successful results of her work are self-evident in these significantly revised
competitions involving the whole state. I owe her a debt that I can never repay.
She made me know that I could do what I never thought I could do.21
chapters.
Our hope for you is that you win your own gold medal, whatever form it may take,
as you find your voice as a public speaker.
■ New
Features. We have developed a self-test,
After Reading This Chapter, You Should Be Able “After Reading This Chapter…,” at the end
To Answer These Questions of each chapter to review and reinforce the
1 What are the three levels of meaning involved in “finding your voice”?
major concepts introduced and developed. ChaPTER 4 Becoming a Better Listener
2 What is ethnocentrism?
3 What are the three major forms of public speaking and the three main kinds
These reviews measure Learning Outcomes that
of appeals named by Aristotle? after Reading
relate to theThis Chapter,
Learning You Should
Objectives providedBe able at
4 What seven elements are central to the nature of public speaking as an Tothe
answer Theseof
beginning Questions:
each chapter. In addition, “For
interactive process?
Discussion
1 how can becomingand Further
a more Exploration”
effective listener benefit you? questions
5 How are identification and community related?
and projects at the end of 2each
6 How can a speaker meet the challenge of responsible knowledge?
chapter
What are the majorencourage
types of listeningthe
usedextension
when listeningand applica-
to speeches?

7 What is plagiarism, and why should it be avoided?tion of chapter content. In3 addition, the book
how you can overcome common offers new
barriers material
to effective on presen-
listening?
tation media and cutting-edge
4 Whattechnologies, such
are the most important skills as presentation
needed programs
for critical listening?
For Discussion And Further exploration for tablets, as well as discussion of you
5 What must research resources
do to become an ethical from
listener?the library to the
1 What personal and social benefits may be lost to societies that do not encourage
Internet to social media. 6 how should you evaluate the speeches you hear?
the free and open exchange of ideas? To prepare for this discussion, read online
John Stuart Mills’ classic treatise, On Liberty. See especially his Chapter II: “Of the 7 how can you provide a helpful yet supportive critique of a speech?
Liberty of Thought and Discussion.”

For Discussion and Further Exploration

1 Complete the listening problems checklist in Figure 4.1. Working in small
groups, discuss your listening problems with your classmates. Develop a listen-
ing improvement plan for the three most common listening problems in your
group. Report your findings to the rest of the class.
2 Review your class notes from one of your lecture courses. Were your notes co-
herent? Were you able to identify the main points, or did you try to write down
M01_OSBO1095_CH01_p001-020.indd 19 everything that was11:41
17/09/13 said?
PM Was the material easy to follow and understand? How
might you change your note-taking behavior?
3 One way to improve your concentration is to keep a listening log in one of your
other classes. As you take class notes, put an X in the margin each time you no-
tice your attention wandering. By each X, jot down a few words pinpointing the
cause: for example, “used men as generic signifier.” After class, count the number
of times your mind drifted, and note the causes. Can you identify a pattern of
reactions? This exercise will help you identify the conditions that bring on in-
attention and will make you more aware of your tendency to daydream. Once
you realize how often and why you are drifting away, you can more easily guard
against this.
4 Think of a time when not listening effectively put you in a difficult situation.
What problems did this cause you? What could you have done differently? Share
your insights with a classmate, and discuss the similarities and differences in
your experiences.
5 Think of a person you like to listen to (speaker, teacher, etc.). List all the adjec-
tives you can that describe this person. Think of another person you do not like
to listen to. List the adjectives that describe this person. Compare the two lists,
and share your conclusions with your classmates.
6 Evaluate a contemporary political speaker on ethical grounds using the ques-
tions on page 73. Be sure to differentiate between the ethical uses of speech
techniques and the moral consequences of the message. Be prepared to defend
your judgments in class.

xiv
 Fortunately, realizing that we must compete for the agreement and commit-
ment of our listeners can lead us in a more positive, constructive direction. The path
to this better option was mapped long ago by communication theorists in ancient
Greece. It is the path of reasoned persuasion.

Preface xv
Reasoned Persuasion Versus
Manipulative Persuasion
Reasoned persuasion concentrates on building a case that will justify taking some ■ Clearer Approach to Persuasion. Development of a
action or adopting some point of view with regard to a public controversy. The case
rests upon arguments carefully constructed out of evidence and patterns of reason-
clearer conceptual approach to persuasion: Chapter
ing that make good sense when carefully examined. Reasoned persuasion invites 14 covers the nature of persuasion, and Chapter
rather than avoids careful inspection. It appeals to our judgment rather than to our
impulses. It aims for long-range commitments that will endure in the face of coun- 15 focuses on the social role of persuasion in the
terattacks. It honors civilized deliberation over verbal mudslinging.
Yet reasoned persuasion does not turn us into robotic thinking machines. It ad-
resolution of controversy. New material emphasizes
dresses us in our full humanity as thinking as well as feeling beings. Reason without that reasoned persuasion is the ethical, enlightened
feeling can seem cold and heartless, but feeling without reason is shallow and fleet-
ing. It is the blend of passion and reason that can help you find your voice. alternative to manipulative persuasion.
Chapter 16 Ceremonial Speaking on Special Occasions 375
The rest of this chapter will help you meet the challenge and enjoy the conse-
quences of reasoned persuasion. We show how to develop compelling evidence and
■ Expanded Horizons. Expansion of the book’s horizons reflects the reach of
proofs, build patterns of effective reasoning, and avoid defects ofSpeeches of Inspiration
evidence, proof,
and reasoning.
public speaking beyond the classroom. Apursue new case study of speaking and
A speech of inspiration helps an audience appreciate, commit to, and
a goal or set of values or beliefs. These speeches may be religious,
persuasive
Forming evidence practices related to the nationally honored
commercial, political, orWellness
social. When a Program of
sales manager introduces
product to marketing representatives, pointing up its competitive advan-
a new

Nabholz Construction Services company has

tages and been
its
Supporting materials are transformed in the heat of controversy into evidence, the stellaradded
market to Chapters
potential, the speech is 14
both and 16.
inspirational and
foundation of reasoned persuasion. persuasive. The marketing reps should feel inspired to push that product
Numerous new examples from the workplace, including motivational speakers
with great zeal and enthusiasm. Speeches at political conventions, such
as keynote addresses that praise the principles of the party, are inspira-
such as Biz
Facts and Stone,
Figures. the founder
In controversy, facts and of Twitter,
figures andSothe
loom important.
tional. late
They help
also is that Steve Jobs,
great American appear
institution, the through-
commencement
answer a crucial question: Which of the contending sides has the better graspAs reality?2 as these speech occasions may seem, they have im-
of different
out. Examples from the courtroom have
Be sure you supply enough facts to answer that question in your been
address.
added
favor.
portant pointsMoreo- to
in common.
Chapters 10 and 12.
ver, Americans have always been practical people who have a special
First,respect
speechesfor
of inspiration are enthusiastic. Inspirational speakers set
■ More
numbers.Compact
Recent researchand
in persuasion.3
Student
confirms the ongoing Friendly.
importance ofFor many
statistical
an example students,
evidence
through this
their personal has become
commitment and energy.the
speaker and the speech must be active and forceful. Speakers offer a
Both the

Age of Multi-Tasking, a time in which many model demands

for their audiences are being
through their made simultane-
behavior both on and off the
examples. Examples put a human face on situations. They bring speaking
it intoplatform.
focus forThey must practice what they preach.
ously
us. At theon theiroftime.
beginning Partly
his speech toofhelp
at the end suchAustin
this chapter, students,
Second,
Wright uses andan ofpartly
speeches inspiration (we
draw onadmit!)
past successes because
or frustrations to
future accomplishment. In a commencement speech at Stanford
shorter is usually better, we have sought encourage to tighten
University, the latethe
Steve writing,
Jobs, co-founderand streamline
of Apple, told the story of how
and condense certain sections without sacrificing the quality many have come to
he had been fired when he was 30 years old and the company was worth
two billion
reasoned persuasion Persuasion evidence Supporting materials used dollars. “It was devastating,” he said.
associate
that builds a casewith
to justify our book. Examples
its recommen- of this
in persuasive speeches, greater
including facts accessibility are the revised dis-
dations. and figures, examples, narratives,Then
and it turned out that getting fired from Apple was the best thing that
cussion of the “Historicaltestimony. Roots of Public Speaking” in Chapter
could have ever happened 1 andofthe
to me. The heaviness expla-was
being successful
replaced by the lightness of being a beginner again, less sure about eve-
nation of persuasion in Chapters 14 and 15. rything. It freed me to enter one of the most creative periods of my life. Steve Jobs, speaking
During the next five years, I started a company named NeXT, an- at Stanford graduation
other company named Pixar, and fell in love with an amazing woman who ceremonies, gave an in-
■ Social Media Connections. Connections between public speaking and social would become my wife. Pixar went on to create the world’s first computer ani- spiring commencement
address that described
media have been added in the “Finding Your Voice” boxes and end-of-chapter
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 339
mated feature film, Toy Story, and is now the most successful animation studio
11/10/13 5:00 PM
in the world. In a remarkable turn of events, Apple bought NeXT, I returned to how past career frustra-
activities, as well as thought-provoking questions and examples throughout. Apple, and the technology we developed at NeXT is at the heart of Apple’s cur-
rent renaissance. And Laurene and I have a wonderful family together.16
tions ultimately led to his
current successes.
Students will find these applications particularly relevant to their daily lives and
The implication was clear: Out of apparent failure can arise spectacular success.
interactions. Third, speeches of inspiration revitalize our appreciation for values or beliefs. In the
later years of his life, after his athletic prowess had faded, Jesse Owens became
■ Development of “Finding Your Voice” known Theme. as a great inspirational speaker. According to a an obituary reported in the
Cogressional The“The
Record, ninth edition
Jesse Owens of Public
best remembered by many Americans was
Speaking introduced a subtitle. “Finding speeches]
Your Voice” focused on a theme that
a public speaker with the ringing, inspirational delivery of an evangelist. . . . [His
praised the virtues of patriotism, clean living and fair play.”17
had been implicit from the first edition: from
that developing
The following as
excerpts, taken a speaker
from can also
a statement protesting America’s withdrawal
the 1980 Summer Olympic Games, illustrate his inspirational style. Jesse
help one develop a sense of purpose andOwens mission.
was unableFinding
to deliver this your voice in
message personally. He the pub-
prepared it shortly before
his death from cancer.
lic speaking class means developing on at least three levels. On the first and most Owens’s introduction sug-
basic level of competence, the student learnsWhat how to analyze audiences, find good
the Berlin games proved . . . was that Hitler’s “supermen” could be
beaten. Ironically, it was one of his blond, blue-eyed, Aryan athletes who
gests the larger meaning of his
victories and sets the stage for
topics, conduct research, design messages, word helped them
do the beating.for maximum effect, and identification.

present them so that they achieve the desired communication goals. The second
level of finding your voice involves self-discovery: helping
speech of inspiration students gain confi-
A ceremonial
speech directed at awakening or reawak-
dence so that they can communicate successfully
ening an audience
set of values.
and
to a goal, find those causes that most
purpose, or

deserve their personal commitment. The third level begins the process of finding
your place in society, helping students develop a sense of the communication roles
that they might play in their communities or in the global workplace.
M16_OSBO1095_CH16_p362-384.indd 375 17/10/13 3:42 PM

318 PaRt FOuR Types of Public Speaking

FinDinG YOuR

voice Persuasion in the Raw

The “Letters to the Editor” section of the Sunday newspaper is often a rich source for
the study of persuasive material. Using a recent Sunday paper, analyze the persuasion
attempted in these letters. You might also check blogs with which you’re familiar or that
discuss a topic of interest to you. Do you find the ideas expressed in these persuasive?
Why or why not? Do you evaluate these comments differently from letters to the editor or
from other media sources? Which do you think are most and least effective, and why? How
might these help you find your voice on a topic? Report your findings in class discussion.

the Challenges of Persuasive Speaking

The challenges that persuaders face range from confronting a reluctant audience
to satisfying strong ethical requirements. As you plan a persuasive speech, you
 epilogue
The epilogue of a narrative reflects on the meaning of the action and offers final
comments on the character of those who participated in it. It is the counterpart of
xvi Preface
the conclusion in other speech designs. When used in ceremonial speeches, the
epilogue often conveys a moral. In the Owens example, we see the nobility of Luz
Long reaffirmed in the final scene of the story:
230 PARt tHRee Developing Presentation Skills

‘‘
The new edition develops, integrates, and
A
Luz Long
legislator was was
askedkilled
how heinfeltWorld War II He
about whiskey. and, although
replied, “If, whenI don’t cry often,
Give me the I wept
you when you
say whiskey, I received
mean thehis lastbrew,
Devil’s letter—I knew
the poison it was
scourge, thehis refines this idea throughout the book. Each
last. In it he asked
right word and bloodyme to someday
that defilesfind his son, Karl, reason,
and tocreates
tell him “of how we fought
monster innocence, dethrones misery
well together, and of the good times, and that any two men can become chapter begins with stories and examples that
the right accent,
and I will move
‘‘ and poverty—yes, literally takes the bread from the mouths of little children; if
brothers.”
you mean the drink that topples Christian man and woman from the pinnacle
of righteous, gracious living into the bottomless pit of degradation, despair,
illustrate finding your voice and concludes
with an expanded “Final Reflections” section
the world. shameWhat Owens doesn’t quiteI am
tellagainst
us, but weallcan infer it from what he says, is that
—JoSePH ConRAD
and helplessness, then certainly it with my power.
Long and Owens had become good friends, that they corresponded often, that
and places
that in context the importance of what
Long
“But knew
if, when youthat his endyou
say whiskey, was near.
mean These
the oil inferences
of conversation, philo-strengthen the you
theonly have learned. As each chapter develops,
underlying
lessonwine,
sophic forthe
thealeaudience Owens
that is consumed addressed
when in 1980:
good fellows get together,
that puts a song in their hearts and the warm glow of contentment in their
the “Finding Your Voice” feature offers short
eyes; ifThat
you mean Christmas
is what cheer; if you
the Olympics aremean the stimulating
all about. The roaddrink
tothat
the Olympics does exercises,
not questions, and applications that
lead
puts the to Moscow.
spring It leads tostep
in an old gentleman’s noon city, no country.
a frosty morning; ifItyou
goes
mean challenge students to think about and apply
far beyond Lake Placid
or Moscow,
that drink, the sale ofancient Greece
which pours or treasury
into our Nazi Germany. Theofroad
untold millions to the Olympics leads,
dollars
which in
arethe end,
used to thetender
to provide best within us. crippled children, our blind,
care for our
what they are learning, providing opportu-
our deaf, our dumb, pitiful, aged and infirm, to build highways, hospitals, nities for class discussion and a stimulus to
Just asthen
and schools, the Olympic
certainly I am in spirit
favor of could
it. learning.
thrive in the bigoted atmosphere of Nazi
Germany in 1936, so also could it blossom in the Cold War atmosphere of Moscow
“That is my stand, and I will not compromise.”1
in 1980. Owens’s speech became an argument criticizing America’s 1980 boycott of
the Olympic Games. A video showing this dramatic encounter may be found in the
Public Broadcasting System’s archive of American Experience.
The “Whiskey Speech,” a legend in southern politics, was originally presented some
years ago by N. S. Sweat, Jr., during a heated campaign to legalize the sale of liquor-
by-the-drink in Mississippi. Because about half of his constituents favored the
initiative and the other half were opposed, Representative “Soggy” Sweat decided
to handle the issue with humor. In the process he provided an illustration of how
words can extend or transform meaning.

FinaL
In this chapter, we discuss how to make language work for you. We explain six

reflections
standards for the effective and ethical use of language in your speeches. We end by
exploring special techniques you can use to magnify the power of your voice.

“and in Conclusion Let Us Say”

What Words Can Do
Consider Joseph Conrad’s eloquent statement about the power of language at the

W
beginning of this chapter. Until speakers find the right words, they will not find
e began our book by encouraging your quest to find your voice. We hope
their voice. Before speakers can move the world, or anyone in it, they must first dis-
cover whatthat
theyyour
believequest
and thehas been of
importance successful and
their subjects. It is that
wordsyou have benefited, are benefit-
that form,
frame,
ing, and
andexpress
willthese understandings.
continue to benefit from it. We end our book with our own speech
Words can reveal the world in many ways. They can arouse or dull our feelings.
of tribute,
They thisthat
can be magnets time totogether
draw us you. or Public
drive us speaking
apart. They can may not
goad us intohave
ac- always been easy for
you.
tion. But
They makeit up
isthe
our hope
rituals that you
that celebrate have
who we grown
are and what we asbelieve.
a person
Clearly, as you have grown as a
words are vital not just in finding our voice but also in helping us express ourselves.
speaker. Our special wishes, expressed in terms of the underlying vision of our
book, are

■ that you have learned to climb the barriers that people sometimes erect to
382 PARt FOuR Types of Public Speaking
separate themselves from each other and that too often prevent meaningful
communication.
■ that you have learned to weave words and evidence into eloquent thoughts
M11_OSBO1095_CH11_p229-254.indd 230 and persuasive ideas. 05/11/13 2:08 PM

epilogue
■ that youThe finallearned
have part of ato
narrative
build and present speeches that enlighten others in
that reflects upon itsand
responsible meaning.
ethical ways.
■ above all, that you have found subjects and causes worthy of your voice.

And so we propose a toast: May you use your new speaking skills to improve the lives
and lift the spirits of those who may listen to you.

M16_OSBO1095_CH16_p362-384.indd 381 19/11/13 12:14 PM

After Reading this Chapter, You Should Be Able
to Answer these Questions Some Things Don’t Change; They Just
Study and
Review at
MyCommunicationLab
Get Better
1 What are the values and uses of ceremonial speaking?
2 how can you develop a sense of identification between yourself and
listeners?
3 What purpose So
doesitmagnification
is, we think, with
serve, ourcan
and how book. Foritall
you make the
work? changes from one edition to another,
4 core values remain. With each edition, we try
What are the different kinds of ceremonial speeches, and how should you to state them a little more clearly, a
prepare for them?
little more powerfully. Among these values are the following:
5 What skills are required to be a master of ceremonies?
6 how can you use narrative design to tell an effective story?
■ From ancient times, educators have recognized that the study and practice of pub-
lic speaking belongs at the foundation of a liberal education. What other discipline
For Discussion requires students
and Further to think clearly, be attuned to the needs of listeners, organize
exploration
1 Watch the commencement speech “How to Live and
their thoughts, select Beforecombine wordsatartfully and judiciously, and express
You Die,” offered
Stanford University by the late Steve Jobs. (The speech can be found under
“Inspirational Speeches” on TED.) Look for the processes of identification and
magnification at work in the speech. Do they work effectively?
2 Develop a speech of tribute to yourself as you would like to be remembered.
What do you hope to accomplish? What do you stand for? What values give
meaning to your life?
3 Prepare a speech of tribute in which you honor a person or group that has con-
tributed to the cause advanced in your persuasive speech.
4 For and against magnification: Some might argue that magnification is distor-
tion, that when you select a person’s achievements and accomplishments to
praise in speeches of tribute, you are ignoring less desirable features and short-
 Preface xvii
CHAPTeR 1 Finding Your Voice 9
themselves with power and conviction,
all while under the direct scrutiny of an Figure 1.1
audience? The challenge to teach such a Ten Timeless
lessons from the
complex range of abilities has always been Ancient World
difficult, but it also suggests the potential
value of the course to many students. This Old wisdom is sometimes the best wisdom, especially when it has been
tested repeatedly and confirmed time and again in human experience.
book represents our best effort to help Here are ten gold nuggets of advice for the public speaker, mined from
ancient writings:
teachers and students rise to this challenge. 1. If you want to convince listeners that you have a good message for
them, you must first convince them that you are a good person.
2. If you want strong commitment from an audience, you must engage
■ Another core objective of our book is strong feelings.
3. If you want commitment to last, you must be able to show that your
to illuminate the role of public speaking arguments are based on sound, logical interpretations of reality.

in a diverse society. Adjusting to a diverse 4. When speaking on matters of guilt or innocence, you must empha-
size the morality of past actions.

audience is a challenge ancient writers 5. When speaking on matters of future policy, you must stress the
practical advantages of proposed plans of action.
could not have anticipated. The increas- 6. When celebrating great achievements, you must emphasize the
values that make them great.
ing cultural diversity of our society adds to the importance7. Yourofspeech
public
should bespeaking
based on a thorough investigation of a topic,
so that you have the widest possible range of choices as you select
as a force that can express the richness of a diverse society,ideas
asandwell asforcounter
materials emphasis.
8. You should follow an order of ideas that leads listeners to greater
the growing division and incivility that are the disease eating away
illumination at diversity.
and stronger conviction as you speak.

Our renewed emphasis on identification as the antidote 9.toThe division, on the

right words will make your points come to life in images that
your audience will easily remember.

importance of shared stories that express universal values, and on the ethical
10. The more you can speak in a direct, conversational way from a
pattern of ideas imprinted in your mind, rather than by reading a
importance of reasoned discourse as a preferred mode of public deliberation,
prepared text or reciting a memorized script, the better the quality
of communication you will achieve.
all respond to the vital importance of diversity in our society. Thus, cultural
diversity is a theme that remains constant in our book.
■ We continue to believe that a major goal of the public speaking course is to
make students more sensitive to the ethical impact of speaking on the lives of others.
We discuss ethical considerations throughout the book.
interests Forthey
and goals, example,
will be more we
likelydirect
to accept the message. We discuss estab-
the attention of students to ethical concerns as we lishingconsider listening,
your credibility as a speaker inaudience
Chapter 3.

analysis and adaptation, cultural variations, topic selection,

Message. A speakerresearch,
must have a clearways
idea ofofwhat a speech is to accomplish—this
is called its message. You should be able to state your specific purpose in one clear,
structuring speeches, presentation aids, uses of language, andsimpler,
simple sentence—the the consequences
the better. To promote a message, your speech should
of informing and persuading others. Often we use followaa “Finding Your
design and strategy Ethical
appropriate to the subject and to the needs of listeners.
To make the message clear and attractive, your speech must use words artfully and
Voice” feature to highlight these concerns. often may use presentation aids such as graphs, charts, or photographs projected on
a large screen. To make the message credible, your speech should offer convincing
■ We continue to believe that a college course in public speaking should offer both
evidence drawn from reputable sources and sound reasoning. To make your message

practical advice and an understanding of why such advice works. We emphasize

both the how and the why of public speaking—how pathosso Appeals
thatbased
beginners
on feelings. can speaker Initiates the communication message What the speaker wishes to
ethos Appeals based on the charac- process by framing an oral message for accomplish.
achieve success as quickly as possible, and why so that they can manage
ter, competence, and personality of the their
the consideration of others.
new skills wisely. Our approach is eclectic: we draw
speaker.
from the past and present
and from the social sciences and humanities to help students understand and
manage their public speaking experiences.
M01_OSBO1095_CH01_p001-020.indd 9
■ The Roman educator Quintilian held forth the ideal of “the good person
speaking well” as a goal of education. Two thousand years later, we join him
in stressing the value of speech training in the development of the whole person. In
addition, understanding the principles of public communication can make students
more resistant to unethical speakers and more critical of the mass-mediated commu-
nication to which they are exposed. The class should help students become both
better consumers and better producers of public communication.

In addition to these core values, we continue to offer features that have remained
constant and distinctive across the many editions of our book.

■ Responsible knowledge as a standard for public speaking. In order to develop a

standard for the quality and depth of information that should be reflected
 xviii Preface

Chapter 15 Persuasion in Controversy 341

in all speeches, we offer the concept of responsible knowledge. This concept is
Gather more evidence than you think you will need so that
you have a wide range of material to choose from. Be sure
developed in detail in Chapter 7, in which we discuss the foundation of re-
you have facts, figures, or expert testimony for each of yoursearch that should support speeches and provide an updated account of current
major points. Use multiple sources and types of evidence to
strengthen your case. research resources available to speakers, as well as a new system for recording
information as the student conducts research and personal interviews to find
Developing proofs
supporting materials.
As persuaders representing different interests and agendas strug-
gle to win in the competition of ideas, four questions loom as
vital to their success or failure:
■ How to cope with communication anxiety. A separate chapter early in the book
■ Which speaker can we most trust?
addresses communication anxiety and how to control it. Many students come
■ Which speech best arouses emotions favorable to its cause?
to our public speaking classes with anxiety that amounts sometimes to terror.
■ Which advocated action best fits with our society’s values, Our book helps them to confront their feelings and to convert their fear into
dreams, and aspirations? positive energy.
■ Which position offers the best grasp and understanding of
reality? ■ Special preparation for the first speech. As teachers, we realize the importance of
In order to answer these questions, persuaders must de- the first speaking experience to a student’s ultimate success in the course. Yet
velop what the ancient writers called proofs, which manage the
persuasive resources available in each particular situation. Out much useful advice must be delayed until later chapters as the subject of public
of these proofs, you will weave your arguments into a case that speaking develops systematically over a semester. Having experienced this frus-
justifies your position. Much of the rest of this chapter will focus
on how you can develop proofs successfully. tration ourselves while teaching the course, we include an overview of practi-
Developing ethos. What the ancient writers called ethos iscal advice early in the book that previews later chapters and prepares students
212 on
based our thRee
PARt perception of a speaker’s
Developing competence,
Presentation Skills character,more effectively for their first speeches. This overview is provided in Chapter 3.
goodwill, and dynamism. If listeners believe that you know what reasoned persuasion
The
you are talking about and that you are trustworthy, they will listen step-by-step
respectfully to approach
often to preparing the first speech offered in this chapter
depends on expert
When you arrange slides in a carousel, be sure theytestimony.
are in the proper order and
what you have to say. Therefore, you should work ethos-building material into the
introduction of your speech whenever you can. You should explain,hasfor
that none of them is upside down been
and/or strengthenedpersonal
backwards.
example,
Today, most andcomput-
restructured.
ers are packaged with software that allows you to prepare and present slides without a
your personal connection with the topic or what special things you have done to
carousel projector. We discuss this in greater detail in our section on new media.

Video and Audio Resources. Such video resources as DVDs and videotapes
Your
ethical voiCe
and such audio resources as MP3 or computer recordings and audiotapes can add ■ Situational approach to communication
variety to your presentation. Make sure in advance that the place where you will be
making your presentation Guidelines for the
has the proper ethicaltouse
equipment work ofwith
evidence
your materials. ethics. We have always discussed ethi-
Video resources are useful for transporting the audience to distant, danger-
To use evidence ethically follow these guidelines:
ous, or otherwise unavailable locations. Although you could verbally describe the
cal issues as they arise in the context
beauty of the Montana Rockies, your word-pictures can become more powerful if
1. Provide evidence from credible sources. 6. Do not withhold important evidence. of topics. The “Finding Your Ethical
reinforced with actual scenes projected electronically.
2. Identify your sources of evidence. Using video poses some 7. Use expert
special testimony
problems fortospeakers.
establish facts,
Movingprestige
images attract Voice” feature helps highlight these
testimony
spoken toword,
enhance credibility, and lay testimony
3. Use evidence that can stand up moreunder critical scrutiny.
attention than does the
to create
so they
identification.
can easily upstage you. In a concerns as they develop chapter by
4. Be sure evidence has not beenshort speech,
tainted keep the focus on the speaker by limiting clips to thirty seconds or
by self-interest.
less. A videotape segment must
5. Acknowledge disagreements among experts.
8. Quote or paraphrase
be edited so that testimony accurately.
splices blend cleanly. Such editing chapter.
takes special skill and equipment. A simpler means is to transfer this material onto
a CD, which can be done on most personal computers with a DVD/CD burner. For
certain topics, carefully prepared videos can be more effective than any other type
of presentation aid. A student at Northwest Mississippi Community College who
was a firefighter used videotape in an informative speech on fire hazards in the
home. By customizing the video to fit the precise needs of his speech, he was able
proof An arrangement of the re- to show ethos A form
of of proof
■ thatandrelies onzoom in on various hazards.12 He prepared
sources of persuasion so that it satisfies a
long shots a room The importance of narrative in public speaking. We discuss narrative as an impor-
then
the audience’s perceptions of a speaker’s
the video without sound so that his speech provided the commentary needed to
basic requirement for success and drives
thoughtful listeners toward a conclusion.interpret andgoodwill,
acter, explainandthedynamism.tant form of supporting material and as a previously neglected design option.
leadership qualities of competence, char-
pictures. Using this technique, he made his subject much
more meaningful for listeners.
This material is initially presented in Chapter 3. We also identify appeals to
Audio resources may also be useful as presentation aids. Sabrina Karic started
traditions, heroic symbols, cultural identity, and legends—all built upon
her self-introductory speech on growing up in war-torn Bosnia and Herzegovina
with a recording of a loud explosion and gunfire, during which she ducked beneath
narrative—as an important, emerging form of proof in persuasive speaking.
the table as the audience jumped (see “A Little Chocolate” at the end of Chapter 3).
When in doubt about the wisdom or practicality of using such aids, consult your 11/10/13 5:52 PM

instructor.

■ Speaker’s Notes as a major pedagogical tool.

SPeAKeR’S
notes Deciding What Presentation Media to use
When our first edition appeared some
twenty-five years ago we introduced to
Let the following suggestions guide your selection of presentation media.
the field a feature we called “Speaker’s
When you need to . . . try using . . . Notes.” This feature serves as an internal
■ adapt to audience feedback ■ flip charts or chalk or marker boards summary that helps highlight and bring
display maps, charts, graphs, or textual graphics posters or computerized programs
■

■ present complex information or statistical data

■

■ display graphics or photos to a large audience
■ authenticate a point
make your presentation appear more professional
■ ■
■ handouts
into focus important concepts as the
■ slides or transparencies student reads the text. In the new edition,
■ audio and video resources this traditional feature works in col-
computerized programs
laboration with the new “Finding Your
Voice” and “Finding Your Ethical Voice”
features to encourage learning and enrich
the student’s reading experience.

M10_OSBO1095_CH10_p199-228.indd 212 04/11/13 10:42 AM

 Preface xix

■ Improving language skills. We introduce students to the power of language, help

them apply standards so that this power is not diminished, and demonstrate
special techniques that can magnify this power at important moments in
speeches. Among the standards is learning how to avoid grammatical errors
that make listeners cringe.
■ Enhanced understanding of ceremonial speaking. We provide coherence and re-
spect for the study of ceremonial speaking by pointing out the importance
of such speaking in society, and by indicating how two powerful concepts,
one offered by Aristotle and the other by Kenneth Burke, can combine to
generate successful ceremonial speeches, especially speeches of tribute and
inspiration.

Plan of the Book

Public Speaking: Finding Your Voice is designed to help beginning students build
cumulative knowledge and skills. Positive initial speaking experiences are especially
important. For this reason, Chapter 2 helps apprehensive students manage commu-
nication anxiety as they stand to speak for the first time. Chapter 3 offers an over-
view of advice to help students design and present successful first speeches.
In the chapters that follow, students learn how to listen critically and empa-
thetically; analyze their audiences; select, refine, and research speech topics; de-
velop supporting materials; arrange these materials in appropriate structures; and
create effective presentation aids. They also learn how to use language effectively
and present their messages well. Students become acquainted with the nature of
information and how to present it, the process of persuasion and how to engage
it, and the importance of ceremonial speaking in its various forms. Appendix A,
“Communicating in Small Groups,” describes how to use public communication
skills to participate effectively in small group interactions.
Teachers may adapt the sequence of chapters to any course plan, because each
chapter covers a topic thoroughly and completely.

Detailed Plan of the Book

Part One, “The Foundations of Public Speaking,” provides basic information that
students need for their first speaking and listening experiences. Chapter 1 defines
public speaking and the significance of “finding your voice,” highlights the per-
sonal, social, and cultural benefits of being able to speak effectively in public, and
emphasizes the ethical responsibilities of speakers. Chapter 2 helps students come
to terms with communication anxiety, so that they can control this problem early
in the course. Chapter 3 offers practical advice for organizing, practicing, and pre-
senting first speeches. Chapter 4 identifies common listening problems and ways to
overcome them, helps students sharpen critical listening skills, and presents criteria
for the constructive evaluation of speeches.
Part Two, “Preparation for Public Speaking,” introduces the basic skills needed
to develop effective speeches. Chapter 5 emphasizes the importance of the audi-
ence, indicating how to adapt a message and how to adjust to factors in the speak-
ing situation. Chapter 6 provides a systematic way to discover, evaluate, and refine
speech topics. Chapter 7 shows how to research these topics, emphasizing the im-
portance of acquiring responsible knowledge. Chapter 8 identifies the major types of
xx Preface

supporting materials fashioned from such research, includ-

ing facts and statistics, examples, testimony, and narratives.
Objectives
Chapter 9 shows how to develop simple, balanced, and or-
this chapter will help you
1 understand how
derly speech designs, select and shape main points, use tran-
persuasive speaking
differs from informative
speaking.
sitions, prepare effective introductions and conclusions, and
2 Master the types of
persuasive speaking
3 Grasp how the develop outlines.
persuasive process
works
Part Three, “Developing Presentation Skills,” brings the
4 Soften the opposition of
reluctant listeners
speaker to the point of presentation. Chapter 10 explains the
5 Remove barriers that
block commitment

types, media, and preparation of presentation aids. Chapter 11

6 turn agreement into
action
7 Select appropriate
designs for your provides an understanding of the role of language in com-
persuasive speeches

munication and offers practical suggestions for using words

Outline
effectively. Chapter 12 offers concepts and exercises for the
improvement of voice and body language to help students
the nature of Persuasive
Speaking

develop an extemporaneous style that is adaptable to most

the types of Persuasive
Speaking

speaking situations.
the Persuasive Process

the Challenges of Persuasive

Speaking

Designs for Persuasive

Part Four, “Types of Public Speaking,” discusses informa-
Speeches
tive, persuasive, and ceremonial speaking. Chapter 13 cov-
Final Reflections The Case for
Persuasion
ers speeches designed to share information and increase un-
derstanding. The chapter discusses the types of informative

14
speeches and presents the major designs that can structure
Persuasive them. Chapter 14 describes the persuasive process, focusing
Speaking Listen to on how to meet the many challenges of persuasive situa-
Chapter 14 at
tions. Chapter 15 examines the work of persuasion in contro-
MyCommunicationLab

306
versy. The chapter encourages reasoned persuasion, helping
students develop strong arguments to support their positions.
M14_OSBO1095_CH14_p306-336.indd 306
The chapter also identifies the major forms of fallacies so that
06/11/13 12:09 PM

student speakers can avoid them and detect them in the messages of others. Chapter
16 explains how to prepare effective ceremonial presentations, including speeches of
tribute and inspiration, speeches introducing others, eulogies, after-dinner speeches,
and speeches presenting and accepting awards. The chapter shows how to use narra-
tives and narrative design, often found in ceremonial speeches.
Appendix A, “Communicating in Small Groups,” introduces students to the
problem-solving process and to the responsibilities of both group leaders and
group participants. This appendix also provides guidelines for managing meet-
ings, including virtual meetings, and explains the basic concepts of parliamentary
procedure. Appendix B provides a number of student and professional speeches for
additional analysis.

Learning Tools
To help students master the material, we offer a number of special learning tools.

■ We open each chapter with a chapter outline and learning objectives that pre-
pare students for productive reading.
■ The epigrams and vignettes that start each chapter help point out the topic’s
significance and motivate readers to learn more.
■ We conclude each chapter with a “Final Reflections” summary, a self-test to
­review key concepts and assess how the learning objectives were met, and
questions and activities to explore chapter content in greater detail.
 Christie, governor of New Jersey, used this technique when
he described how one child responded to Hurricane Sandy
in his 2013 State of the State Address:

I met nine-year-old Ginjer. Having a 9-year-old girl my-

self, her height and manner of speaking was immediately
familiar and evocative. Having confronted so many cry-
Chris Christie, governor
of new Jersey.
Preface xxi
ing adults at that point I felt ready to deal with anything.
Then Ginjer looked at me, began to cry and told me she was scared. She told
me she had lost everything; she had lost her home and her belongings. She
■ We use contemporary artwork and photographs to illustrate ideas, engage stu-
asked me to help her.
As my eyes filled with tears, I took a deep breath and thought about what
dent interest, and add to the visual appeal of the book.
I would say to my Bridget if she said the same thing to me. If she had the same
look on her face. If she had the same tears in her eyes. I asked her where her
mom was and she pointed right behind her. I asked her if her dad was okay.
■ Examples illustrate the content in a clear, lively, and often entertaining way.
She told me he was. So I told Ginjer, you haven’t lost your home; you’ve just CHAPteR 15 Persuasion in Controversy 355
lost a house. A house we can replace, your home is with your mom and dad.
■ Special embedded features help stu-
I hugged her and told her not to cry—that the adults are in charge now and
there was nothing to be afraid of anymore. Ginjer is here today—we’ve kept in
dents read productively. “Speaker’s
touch—and I want to thank her for giving voice to New Jersey’s children dur- FinDinG YOuR

voice
ing Sandy and helping to create a memory of humanity in a sea of despair.10
Notes” offer guidelines to help stu-
A factual example is based on an actual event or the experiences of a real person. Find the Fallacies
dents focusprovide
Factual examples on the strongessentials; “Finding
support for your ideas because they actually did
happen: They authenticate the point you are trying to make. Joseph Jimenez, CEO Look for examples of fallacies in the “Letters to the Editor” section of your local
Your Voice”
of Novartis, used the offers exercises
following factual example to and ap-
support a more positive view of newspaper or in opinions expressed in blogs. Consider how these fallacies affect the

plications that stimulate the learning

his pharmaceutical company: credibility or character of the people who commit them. Did you ever commit such
an error? Do you think this damaged your credibility? Might personal fallacies be an
process;
We believeand. . . it is“Finding
our obligation to Your Ethical
offer low-cost generics to lower health- obstacle to finding your voice?
care costs around the world.
Voice”Here’s heightens
just one example.ethical
We introducedsensitivity.
generic enoxaparin in this country
last year. This is a medicine that helps prevent blood clots. It matters because clots
can break free, and cause a deadly blockage in the lung. When we introduced a
generic version, it saved the U.S. government $700 million. That’s a big deal.11

A hypothetical example is not offered as “real” so much as representative of actual Begging the Question. The begging the question fallacy occurs when
people, situations, or events. This kind of example can be useful when factual exam- speakers neglect their responsibilities to prove their points. Instead, they make
ples are not available or when their use would not be appropriate. While generally claims and barge ahead as though ■ A Glossary runs through the book at
the claims didn’t need to be proven. This fal-
not as authoritative as their factual counterparts, hypothetical examples can still be lacy often relies on colorful language to disguise the lack of proof. The words used
very effective. They can be the fiction that reveals reality. Consider the following the bottom of each page, helping
seem to justify the conclusion. Sometimes this fallacy occurs when speakers rely
solely on mythos to support an argument. A conclusion such as “Be patriotic!
hypothetical example, which illustrates the growing problem of childhood obesity:
students focus on key terms as they
Support our American way of life. Vote against gun control” begs the question
are introduced. In addition, all the
because the speaker has not demonstrated that being against gun control is a form
of patriotism.
extended example A more detailed
example that speakers use to illustrate or
factual example An example based
on something that actually happened or
hypothetical example An example
offered not as real but as representative
key terms and their definitions are
Straw Man. Theofstraw man fallacy occurs when the persuader creates a like-
develop a point. really exists. actual people, situations, or events. gathered
ness of the opposition’s position that makes in aextreme,
it seem trivial, completeor easy toGlossary at
refute. Referring to health care reform as “socialized medicine” and to banking
regulations as “a government takeover”the endexamples
are recent of the book.
of such fallacies. As
an ethical persuasive speaker, you should represent opposing positions fairly and
fully. The straw man fallacy is an implicit admission of weakness or desperation
on the part of its user.
M08_OSBO1095_CH08_p147-166.indd 157 21/09/13 1:38 PM

■ Sample classroom speeches found at the end of many chapters

Faulty Premise. illustrate im-fallacy occurs when the major premise
The faulty premise
of an argument is not sound. If the major premise is faulty, the entire argument may
portant concepts. The annotated speech texts show how crumble.the concepts
We once apply
heard a student begin in
a line of argument with the following
statement of principle: “College athletes are not really here to learn.” She was in-
actual speaking situations. Appendix B contains additional speeches
stantly in trouble. thatwas
When her speech offer
over, the class assailed her with questions:
an interesting array of topics, contexts, and speakers.How did she define athletes? Was she talking about intercollegiate or intramural
athletes? How about the tennis team? How did she define learning? Was she aware
of the negative stereotype at the center of her premise? Wasn’t she being unfair,
not to mention
ChAPteR 16 Ceremonial arrogant?
Speaking It’s safe
on Special to say that
Occasions 383the speaker did not persuade many
people that day.
To learn more about the fascinating subject of fallacies, go to Fallacy Files,
an online site containing an extensive collection of fallacies and bad arguments.
SAMPle CeReMOniAl SPeeCh Developed by Gary N. Curtis, the site offers definitions and examples and is well or-
ganized and entertaining. See especially “Stalking the Wild Fallacy,” offered under
Simone Mullinax presented this speech of tribute to her grandmother in a the “Examples” feature on the menu.
public speaking class at the University of Arkansas. The speech develops a
master narrative based on an extended metaphor and paints an endearing
portrait of a complex person who–like key lime pie—combines the qualities
of sweetness and tartness.
begging the question fal- straw man fallacy Understating, faulty premise fallacy A reasoning
lacy Assuming that an argument has distorting, or otherwise misrepresenting error that occurs when an argument is
been proved without actually presenting the the position of opponents for ease based on a flawed major premise.
Baked-in traditions evidence. of refutation.

SimONE mULLiNAx

Have you ever baked a pie? No, I don’t mean one you get from the freezer this brief opening does a
section at the grocery store—I’m talking about one you bake from scratch. I great deal of work. Simone
M15_OSBO1095_CH15_p337-361.indd 355
learned to bake a pie at an early age. And what I learned, early on, is that there opens with a rhetorical
are three things you have to master: the crust, the filler, and the topping. You question and a defini-
can’t have a pie if you lack any of these. tion and establishes her
So where do you start? You start of course in the kitchen, which is where I personal ethos. She then
meet my grandmother every time we get together. I would like to tell you she’s hints of a clever categori-
that sweet, picturesque, grandmotherly grandmother you see on television, but cal design that will follow
she’s not. Rather, she’s that opinionated, bold, “her-way-or-the-highway” type the three main ingredients
that scares some people off. Her salvation is that she’s also insanely funny and of a pie.
you fall in love with her stories, her cooking, and her opinions, even when you
don’t agree with all of them. Just when you’re ready to pack up and move on,
she does or says something that makes you want to hang around. this paragraph completes
She’s the woman who marches to the front of the line when her “ba- the sketch that introduces
bies” don’t get what they need. She’s the woman who sends us care packages Simone’s grandmother.
made up of “goodies” from Dollar General. She’s the woman who offers her Simone paints this portrait
opinions to everyone on any occasion, whether they want them or not. She’s by offering a few glimpses
also the woman who gathered all the family recipes together—some of them of her grandmother in ac-
unique and over a hundred years old—and gave them to me for a Christmas tion, small slices of life that
present. She’s my grandmother and my best friend. depict character.
But back to baking pies. My signature pie is a key lime pie. It really isn’t
my signature at all because I frequently forge my grandmother’s. People often As she tells us more about
think of it as a hot weather treat, but every time we are together, even if it’s pies, Simone also reveals
23 degrees outside, we make that key lime pie. Last year before I competed more about herself. We
in the Miss Oklahoma pageant, a reporter called and asked what I was most learn that she has been a
looking forward to eating after the competition, and I said, “A key lime pie. A beauty pageant contestant
whole key lime pie.” It was in bold headlines the next day: “Miss Tulsa looking who has a particular fond-
forward to eating a pie.” For weeks afterwards people asked me, “So did you ness for key lime pies.
get your key lime pie?” And I was able to answer, “Sure did.” Because after the this begins an elabora-
pageant my grandmother had two pies sitting on the counter, one for now, and tion of the pie as extended
one for later. metaphor in order to reveal
Grammy taught me you can’t have the pie without the crust. Everything the value and values of her
in her life is built on a firm foundation, from the love of her family to the grandmother. Family con-
strength of her husband and the companionship of her friends. She stands nectedness is an underly-
behind her word, her love, and her family. She is the crust that keeps us all ing theme.
www.mycommunicationlab.com
MyCommunicationLab is an online homework, tuto-
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xxii
visual aids, video assignments, role plays, group
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■ Class Preparation Tool: Finding, organizing, and
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Instructor and Student
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xxiii
 Acknowledgments
Many people have helped our book evolve and succeed over its twenty-five years
of existence. Margaret Seawell and George Hoffman, communication editors at
Houghton Mifflin, and Nader Dareshori, president of the company, were warm and
helpful friends who enjoyed early good fortune with us.
More recently, for special assistance in the preparation of the tenth edition, we
especially thank the following:

■ Anne Osborn Tomasso, who offered creative, dedicated, and extended help in
revising our chapter on research.
■ Jayme Mayo, Chris Goldsby, and all the gang at Nabholz for their patience and
enthusiasm in supporting our case study of persuasion at work in their work-
place.
■ David Horan, who helped us at the last minute enhance some photographs we
really wanted to use in the book.
■ Pat Baker, who constantly energizes her colleagues with her innovation and
passion.
■ And (most especially) Hilary Jackson, our brilliant development editor, who
guided us, encouraged us, inspired us, and occasionally goaded us to complete
this revision. Revising a book is not quite like going on the Lewis and Clark
expedition, but to the extent that it is, Hilary has been our Sacagawea!
■ We also thank our colleagues over all the years who have reviewed our book
and helped us to make it better.

For the tenth edition, we are grateful to those listed below whose critical readings
have inspired improvements:

Richard Armstrong, Wichita State University

Haley Draper, Odessa College
Sheryl Hurner, CSU Stanislaus
Nick Linardopoulos, Rutgers University
Mark May, Clayton State University
Crystal Rolison, Cisco College
David Testone, University of Bridgeport

xxiv
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Napoleon. His soldiers in drinking at pools sucked up the small leeches not thicker
than a horse's hair, whose presence in the hinder part of the mouth cavity produced
divers objectionable results, such as spitting of blood and hindered respiration.

Fam. 2. Herpobdellidae.—Pharynx without denticulate jaws, with three unarmed

chitinous plates.

A characteristic genus of this family is Trocheta, which is so common at the

Zoological Society's Gardens and in the Regent's Park, and which has been met
with in other places near London; it is in this country an introduced species, but is
found in many parts of the continent. It is a land-leech, and lives upon earthworms.

The genus Haemadipsa, which M. Blanchard places in a special sub-family,

contains a number of species which are for the most part land-leeches. Land-
leeches occur in many parts of the world, but chiefly in the tropics—in India, Ceylon,
Java, South America, etc. They lie in wait for their prey, upon the ground as a rule;
but they may ascend herbs and shrubs to gain a better outlook when they are aware
of an approaching footstep. A vivid account of the ferocity of these tiny Annelids in
Ceylon can be read in Sir J. E. Tennent's Natural History of Ceylon. They have been
said to be so pugnacious and so poisonous that persons surprised in their sleep by
the pests have succumbed to their united efforts. A whole battalion of English
soldiers decamped on one occasion from a wood which was overflowing with land-
leeches. The familiar misquotation "lethalis hirudo" might well be applied to this
species. Professor Whitman has written much upon the habits of the land-leech of
Japan (Haemadipsa japonica), which bites so softly that its presence cannot be
detected except for the stream of blood which trickles from the wound. While it is
feeding it emits from the pores of the nephridia a clear fluid, which, as it appears, is
used to keep the skin moist; when unduly dried the same phenomenon occurs. It is
curious that in this and other leeches the nephridia should play a part which in the
earthworm is played by the dorsal pores; in both animals the glands of the skin are
also concerned with the same duty.

The purely aquatic leeches swim by undulations, and also crawl by the help of the
two suckers, like a "Geometer" caterpillar. But when a land-leech is dropped into the
water it at once sinks to the bottom and crawls out; it does not swim, but can survive
immersion for a long period. In this it resembles the earthworms, which can also
survive a prolonged immersion, and even in the case of some are indifferent to the
medium, land or water, in which they live; the land-leech, however, is entirely
dependent upon damp surroundings; a dry air is fatal to it. The land-leech of Japan
leaves a slimy trail behind it as it crawls, in this respect recalling the land Planarian
Bipalium kewense.
 GEPHYREA AND PHORONIS

BY

ARTHUR E. SHIPLEY, M.A.

Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge

CHAPTER XV

GEPHYREA

INTRODUCTION—ANATOMY—DEVELOPMENT—SIPUNCULOIDEA—PRIAPULOIDEA—
ECHIUROIDEA—EPITHETOSOMATOIDEA—AFFINITIES OF THE GROUP.

The animals included in the above-named group were formerly associated with the
Echinodermata. Delle Chiaje[468] states that Bohadsch of Prague in 1757 was the
first to give an accurate description of Sipunculus under the name of Syrinx, but
Linnaeus, who noted that in captivity the animal always kept its anus directed
upwards, re-named it Sipunculus. Lamarck[469] placed the Gephyrea near the
Holothurians; and Cuvier[470] also assigned them a position amongst the
Echinoderms. He mentions Bonellia, Thalassema, Echiurus, Sternaspis, and three
species of Sipunculus, one of which, S. edulis, "sert de nourriture aux Chinois qui
habitent Java, et qui vont la chercher dans le sable au moyen de petits bambous
préparés."

The name Gephyrea[471] was first used by Quatrefages, who regarded these
animals as bridging the gulf between the Worms and the Echinoderms. He included
in this group the genus Sternaspis (vide p. 335), now more usually classed with the
Chaetopoda.

The Gephyrea are exclusively marine. They are subcylindrical animals, which can
either retract the anterior end of their body—the introvert—carrying the mouth into
the interior; or are provided with a long flexible but non-retractile proboscis. The
latter is easily cast off. They usually bear spines or hooks of a hard chitinous
character, secreted by the epidermis or outermost layer of cells. The mouth is at the
base of the proboscis or at the end of the protractile part, the anus is at the other
end of the body or on the dorsal surface. The nervous system consists of a ring
round the mouth and of a ventral nerve-cord. A vascular system is present as a rule.
Nephridia are found which act as excretory organs, and in most cases also as ducts
for the generative cells. The Gephyrea are bisexual, and the male is sometimes
degenerate.

The group may be divided into four Orders:—(i.) Sipunculoidea; (ii.) Priapuloidea;
(iii.) Echiuroidea; (iv.) Epithetosomatoidea; of these the first is by far the largest,
both in number of genera and of species.

The Anatomy of Sipunculus nudus.

External Characters.—The body of S. nudus when fully extended may attain a

length of a foot, or even a little more; in this condition it is seen to consist of two
portions, the anterior of which is, however, retracted into the other when the animal
is disturbed. The retractile portion is sometimes termed the proboscis, but as its
nature is entirely different from that of the proboscis of the Echiuroidea, it is better to
refer to it as the introvert. Special retractor muscles are attached on the one hand to
the body-wall about half-way down the body, and on the other hand are fused into a
muscular sheath which surrounds the gullet, just behind the mouth. When these
muscles contract, they withdraw the introvert into the rest of the body or trunk in
much the same way as the finger of a glove may be drawn into the hand, by a
thread fastened to the inside of its apex. The introvert is protruded by the
contraction of the circular muscles of the body-wall. These exert a pressure on the
fluid which fills the body-cavity, and by this means the sides of the introvert are
forced forward until finally the head is exposed.

The introvert occupies about one-sixth or one-fifth of the total body length. It is
somewhat narrower than the trunk, and is covered by a number of small flattened
papillae, some of which lie with their free ends directed backward, overlapping one
another like tiles on a roof. In some other genera, as Phymosoma, the introvert
bears rows of horny hooks, which are apt to fall off as the animal grows old.

The trunk has from thirty to thirty-two longitudinal furrows, the elevations between
which correspond with a similar number of muscles lying in the skin. This
longitudinal marking is crossed at right angles by a circular marking of similar origin,
the elevations of which correspond with the circular muscles in the skin. These two
sets of markings thus divide the skin of the trunk into a number of small square
areas, very regularly arranged (Fig. 212).

The outline of the trunk is more or less uniform, but it is capable of considerable
change according to the state of contraction of its muscles. The circular muscles, for
instance, may be contracted at one level, thus causing a constriction at this spot.
The colour of S. nudus is a somewhat glistening greyish-white.
 Fig. 211.—Right half of the anterior end of Sipunculus nudus L., seen from the inner
side and magnified. a, Funnel-shaped grooved tentacular crown leading to the
mouth; b, oesophagus; c, strands breaking up the cavity of the tentacular crown
into vascular spaces; c', heart; d, brain; e, ventral, and e', dorsal retractor
muscles; f, ventral nerve-cord; G, vascular spaces in tentacular crown.

The anterior end of the fully-expanded Sipunculus may be termed the head; here
the skin is produced into a frayed fringe which stands up in the shape of a funnel
round the mouth. This fringe is grooved on its internal surface with numerous little
gutters, all of them lined with cilia, which by their constant motion keep up a current
which sweeps food into the mouth. The fringe may be in the form of a simple ring
round the mouth, or the ring may be folded in at the dorsal side so as to take the
form of a double horse-shoe (Figs. 211 and 212).

Body-wall.—The glistening appearance of Sipunculus is due to the cuticle, a

chitinoid layer which is secreted by the external layer of cells, the epidermis.
Beneath this lies a layer of connective tissue, which is not always present in other
Gephyrea; within this lies a layer of circular muscles arranged in bundles, then
comes a very thin sheath of oblique muscular fibres, then a thicker layer of
longitudinal muscles, and finally a layer of peritoneal epithelial cells, which in
Sipunculus are for the most part ciliated.

Scattered over the surface of the body, and opening by narrow tubes which pierce
the cuticle, are a number of glandular bodies which may be either bi- or multi-
cellular. The glandular cells are apparently enlarged and modified epidermal cells;
they are arranged in a cup-shaped manner, with their apices directed towards the
orifice. They are crowded with granules, which are presumably poured out over the
cuticle, but the exact function of the secretion is entirely unknown. They have a well-
developed nerve supply.

Digestive System.—The mouth lies in the centre of the fringe, and is not provided
with any kind of jaw or biting armature; it leads directly into the thin-walled
alimentary canal, the first part of which is ciliated. The alimentary canal is not
marked out into definite regions, but passes as a thin-walled semi-transparent tube
to the posterior end of the body, and then turns forward again and opens to the
exterior by an anus situated about an inch below the junction of the introvert with the
trunk, on the median dorsal line. The descending and ascending limbs of the
alimentary canal are coiled together in a spiral, which may be more or less close in
different individuals. The whole is supported by numerous fine muscular strands,
which pass from the walls of the intestine to the skin, and by a spindle-muscle,
which runs from the extreme posterior end of the trunk up the axis of the spiral and
terminates in the skin close to the anus.

No glands open into the alimentary canal at any point of its course, but near the
anus a simple diverticulum, or pocket, of unknown function arises. The size of this
outgrowth differs enormously in different individuals. The alimentary canal near the
anus also bears two tuft-like organs, which, however, do not open into the intestine,
but probably have some function in connexion with the fluid in the body-cavity.

Along the whole course of the alimentary canal there runs a ciliated groove, into
which the food does not pass, but the cilia of which probably keep in motion a
current of water whose function may be respiratory.

Fig. 212.—Sipunculus nudus L., with introvert and head fully extended, laid open by
an incision along the right side to show the internal organs. × 2. a, Mouth; b,
 ventral nerve-cord; c, heart; d, oesophagus; e, intestine; f, position of anus; g,
tuft-like organs; h, right nephridium; i, retractor muscles; j, diverticulum on
rectum. The spindle-muscle is seen overlying the rectum.

Vascular System.—On the dorsal surface of the anterior end of the alimentary
canal lies a contractile vessel, usually termed the heart. It is a tube about an inch
long, ending blindly behind, but opening in front into a ring-shaped space
surrounding the mouth and partially enveloping the brain. From this ring-like vessel
numerous branches are given off which pass into the fringe round the mouth, and
probably the chief function of the heart is by its contraction to force fluid into this
fringe, and so to extend it. The heart contains a corpusculated fluid. A similar but
shorter tube is found on the ventral surface of the anterior end of the alimentary
canal in the species in question; it also opens into the ring which surrounds the
mouth.

Respiratory System.—There are no special respiratory organs, and it has long

been a matter of dispute where the respiration of Gephyrea is carried on. The
oxygenation of the blood probably takes place to some extent through the walls of
the oral fringe, but the blood which receives its oxygen at this spot is limited in its
distribution, and could only supply the brain and head. It seems probable that the
remaining organs are supplied with oxygen by the fluid of the body-cavity, which
bathes them on all sides. This might obtain its oxygen from the blood in the heart, or
more probably, through the thin walls of the intestine, from the stream of water
which is maintained by the ciliated groove described above. Quite recently a form—
S. mundanus, var. branchiata—has been described[472] with thin-walled papillae
covering parts of the skin. These papillae are full of corpuscles, and are regarded by
their discoverer as branchiae.

Body-Cavity.—The pinkish fluid of the body-cavity contains numerous corpuscles,

the products of the reproductive organs (either ova or spermatozoa), and some
curious unicellular bodies known as "urns." The latter are shaped like a bowl with a
ciliated rim, and are formed from the budding of certain cells on the walls of the
dorsal blood-vessel.[473] Their function is unknown, but they resemble certain
multicellular bodies found in the body-cavity of Phascolosoma. The generative cells
found in the body-cavity are further considered below. The true corpuscles are
either biconcave round corpuscles coloured with a chemical substance, the
haemerythrin of Krukenberg, which apparently plays the same rôle as haemoglobin
in other animals; or amoeboid corpuscles, which, though rare in Sipunculus, are
very numerous in Phascolosoma.

Nervous System.—The nervous system of Sipunculus consists of a brain or

cerebral ganglion, a circumoesophageal ring surrounding the gullet, and a ventral
nerve-cord. The brain is a small bi-lobed nervous mass situated on the dorsal
surface of the oesophagus, in the angle between the right and left dorsal retractor
muscles close to their point of insertion. Numerous nerves arise from it, and pass to
the fringe surrounding the mouth and to neighbouring parts. At the sides, the brain
is continued into two stout nerve-cords which encircle the oesophagus, and
meeting, fuse together in the median ventral line to form the ventral nerve-cord (Fig.
211). The latter is of the same diameter throughout, and shows no signs of
segmentation; it is oval in section, and consists of small ganglion cells heaped up on
the ventral surface, i.e. next the skin, and of numerous fibres situated dorsally. The
cord gives off many nerves, which usually arise in pairs. These pass into the skin,
and forming rings, run round the body, and give off finer nerves as they go.

The nerve-cord is supported by numerous strands of muscle which pass to it from

the skin. These are especially long in the region where the introvert joins the trunk,
and thus allow free play to the nerve-cord when the former is being protruded or
retracted.

Sipunculus is not well provided with sense-organs, but in an animal which lives
buried in sand we should not expect to find these very highly developed. On the
introvert there are certain patches of epithelium bearing long stout cilia, which have
been regarded as tactile in function, and there is a tubular infolding reaching the
brain, which almost certainly has some sensory function. Ward[474] has termed this
"the cerebral organ." It consists of a duct lined with ciliated cells, which opens to the
exterior in the middle dorsal line outside the tentacular fringe. The duct leads down
to the brain, and expands at its lower end into a saucer-shaped space, covering that
portion of the brain where its substance is continuous with the external epithelium.
In Phymosoma this cavity is produced into two finger-shaped processes, which are
sunk into the brain and are lined by cells crowded with a dense black pigment.[475]
They are probably rudimentary eyes, perhaps distinguishing only between darkness
and light. The pits appear to be absent in Sipunculus nudus, but Andrews states
they are found, although without pigment, in S. gouldii.[476]

Excretory System.—The excretory organs or "brown tubes" are typical nephridia,

that is to say, they consist of tubes with glandular walls which open on the one side
to the exterior, and on the other by means of a ciliated funnel-shaped opening into
the body-cavity. In Gephyrea one wall of the tube is produced into a long
diverticulum or sac which hangs down into the body-cavity, and is usually supported
by muscle-fibres running to the body-wall. The lower end of the sac is broken up
into a number of crypts or pits, lined by large glandular cells crowded with brown
pigment. The pigment-granules are secreted into the cavity of the sac, and leave the
body through the external opening; they probably consist of the nitrogenous excreta
of the animal. The upper end of the sac, into which both the external and internal
orifices open, is usually enlarged, and its walls are very muscular. As in so many
other animals, the nephridia serve as ducts through which the reproductive cells
leave the body of the parent.
Reproductive System.—The Gephyrea are bisexual. In Sipunculus the testes and
ovaries are found in the same position in the two sexes, and are indistinguishable
without microscopic investigation. They each consist of small ridges situated at the
lower end of the ventral retractor muscles, just where the latter take their origin from
the longitudinal muscles of the skin. At this level the cells which line the body-cavity
on the inside of the skin are heaped up, and become modified in the one case into
ova or eggs, and in the other into the mother-cells of the spermatozoa. This method
of forming the reproductive organs from modified cells lining the body-cavity is very
common in the higher animals; but it is seen in its simplest and least modified form
in the Sipunculidae.

The eggs break away from the ovary in a very undeveloped condition, but whilst
floating about in the body-cavity they increase in size and secrete a thick membrane
around them. They have a well-marked nucleus, and are oval in outline.

The mother-cells of the spermatozoa also break away in an immature condition, and
complete their development in the nutritive fluid of the body-cavity. They divide into
a number of spermatozoa, usually eight or sixteen, which remain in contact. They
each develop a tail, which projects outwards, and aids the cluster in swimming
along. These clusters of spermatozoa are about the same size as the ova of the
female, and, like them, make their way into the "brown tubes." The exact way in
which this is accomplished is not very clear, but the cilia on the funnel-shaped
internal opening of the tube seem to have some power of selecting the generative
cells when they come within their reach, and of passing them on, whilst they reject
the much smaller corpuscles of the perivisceral fluid, which are never found in the
nephridia.[477] Once inside the internal opening, the clusters break up and the
spermatozoa escape singly into the sea. Here they meet with and fertilise the eggs
which have escaped from the body of the female.

Fig. 213.—Larva of Sipunculus nudus L. × 150. (After Hatschek.) a, Mouth; b, anus; c,

excretory organ; d, glandular appendage of oesophagus; e, wall of stomach over
which the retractor muscle runs; f, invaginated sense-organ at aboral pole.
Development.—Hatschek,[478] who investigated the development of Sipunculus
nudus at Pantano, an inlet of the sea near Messina, states that the spawning takes
place during the night, and ceases about July 10. The rate of development depends
upon the temperature, but the larvae usually free themselves from the egg-
membrane during the third day. When hatched the embryos lengthen out a good
deal, and take the form represented in Fig. 213. The larva swims actively by means
of a ring of stout cilia, which encircle the body just behind the mouth. Other shorter
cilia are found on the head, continuing into the lining of the mouth, and a little bunch
of them is situated at the extreme posterior end. The alimentary canal is already
formed, and is twisted, so that the anus lies dorsally, but not so far forward as it
does in the adult. A glandular structure opens into the mouth, and another body of
unknown function is connected with the oesophagus; both these disappear during
larval life. A pair of excretory tubules, the forerunners of the brown tubes, are found,
and the chief muscle tracts are already established. The nervous system is still in
close connexion with the skin, from the outer part of which it is derived; the cerebral
thickening bears two eye-spots.

The fluid of the body-cavity contains corpuscles, which are kept in active circulation
by the constant contractions of the body-wall, and by numerous tufts of cilia which
are borne on the inner surface of the skin. The dorsal blood-vessel is one of the
latest organs to arise.

The larva swims actively about for a month, during which time it increases greatly in
size; it then undergoes a somewhat sudden metamorphosis. The ciliated ring and
the structures related to the oesophagus begin to disappear, the distinction between
the head and the rest of the body is obliterated, and the head becomes relatively
small. The mouth changes its position, and becomes terminal instead of being
somewhat ventral, and the tentacular membrane begins to appear. At the same time
the larva relinquishes its free-swimming life, and sinks to the bottom; it begins
creeping amongst the sand by protruding and retracting the anterior part of its body,
and takes on all the characters and habits of the adult.

I. Order Sipunculoidea.

Besides the genus Sipunculus, the Order Sipunculoidea includes ten other genera.
A key to these, taken for the most part from Selenka's admirable monograph, is
given on page 424.

Phascolosoma contains, in comparison with Sipunculus, only small species, and it is

easily distinguished by the fact that the longitudinal muscles are fused into a
continuous sheath. As a rule the skin is smooth. A few species bear hooks, which
are generally scattered irregularly and not arranged in transverse rows, as in
Phymosoma (Fig. 214) and most of the other genera.
The fold which in S. nudus surrounds the mouth may be in the same species bent in
so as to take the form of a double horse-shoe, the opening of which is always
dorsal, just above the brain; in this case the mouth is crescentiform. In other genera
the fold is broken up into discrete tentacles, and these are variously arranged; in
Dendrostoma they are grouped together in four or six bundles round the mouth, but
the more usual arrangement is the horse-shoe-like row of tentacles which overhang
the crescentiform mouth, as in Phymosoma and some species of Aspidosiphon.

The ventral side of each tentacle is grooved and ciliated, and the grooves are
continued into the ciliated mouth. Their dorsal surface is pigmented, and in the
hollow of the horse-shoe lies a deeply pigmented epithelium covering the brain.

A blood-vessel courses up each tentacle, and usually two channels return the blood
to the vascular ring which surrounds the mouth. In those forms which possess
tentacles on the dorsal side of the mouth only, the ventral part of the vascular ring
lies in the lower lip, which is tumid and swollen. The brain supplies a nerve to each
tentacle.

When the introvert is retracted the tentacular ring is withdrawn and to some extent
collapsed; in this condition it would be almost touching the rough external surface of
the introvert. In some species of Phymosoma the delicate appendages of the head
are guarded from the hooks on the introvert by a thin membrane or collar,[479] which
completely ensheaths the retracted head.

Fig. 214.—A, Phymosoma granulatum F. S. Leuck. × 2. B, Head of the same. × 4. a,

Pigmented pit leading to brain. The crescentiform mouth on the lower side of the
figure is overhung by the tentacles.

When the introvert is fully extended the dorsal blood-vessel contracts and sends its
blood forward into the vascular ring, and thence into the tentacles or tentacular fold,
which are thus erected. In several species of Sipunculus, as S. nudus, S.
norvegicus, S. robustus, S. tesselatus, there is a ventral blind tube as well as a
dorsal, into which the blood is withdrawn when the head is retracted. In many other
species in various genera, such as Phymosoma weldonii and Ph. asser,
Dendrostoma signifer, S. vastus, the lumen of the dorsal vessel is increased by
numerous hollow blind processes which it bears, hanging freely into the body-cavity.
Three very small genera of Sipunculids—Onchnesoma, Petalostoma, and Tylosoma
—are devoid of all trace of vascular system and of tentacles; the mouth opens in the
centre of the anterior end of the introvert. In Onchnesoma the dorsal part of the lip is
somewhat produced, so that the head has somewhat the shape of a Doge's cap,
and in Petalostoma there are two leaf-like processes of the body-wall which guard
the mouth.

The extent to which the intestine is coiled varies very much even in the same
species; the axis of the coil is often supported by a spindle-muscle, but this is
sometimes absent. The caecum, which opens into the rectum of S. nudus, is again
a very variable structure, and when it is present varies remarkably in size.

The food of Sipunculids seems to consist almost entirely of sand, and their only
nourishment must be such small microscopic organisms or particles of animal and
vegetable débris as are to be found mixed with the sand. The alimentary canal is, as
a rule, quite full of sand, and yet in spite of the tenuity of its walls they never seem
to be ruptured. If the contents of the digestive tube be washed out with a pipette, it
will be found that it requires considerable force to dislodge many of the sand-
particles lying next the wall. These are more or less embedded in crypts or pockets
of the wall, and as the sand passes along the intestine they probably serve as more
or less fixed hard points, against which the sharp edges of the sand particles are
worn off. Amongst the sand are usually to be found pieces of shell, sometimes with
a diameter equal to that of the alimentary canal; these are usually rounded, but their
angles may have been removed by attrition before they entered the mouth of the
Sipunculid.

In S. tesselatus the sand is to some extent held together by a mucous deposit; in

those cases where there is no sand in the intestine, there is always a coagulum of
mucus, and the walls are contracted and thick; when full of sand the walls are
tensely stretched and very thin. This thinness of the wall of the alimentary canal
seems ill-adapted to a diet of sand, nevertheless it is also met with in other great
sand-eating groups of animals, such as the Echinids and the Holothurians.

The enormous amount of sand and mud which passes through the bodies of the
Sipunculids shows that they must take a considerable part in modifying the mineral
substances which form the bottom of the sea. Just as earthworms, as shown by
Darwin, play a considerable rôle in the formation of soil, so must these animals, in
conjunction with Echinids and Holothurians, effect considerable modifications in the
sand and mud which pass through their bodies. Mr. J. Y. Buchanan[480] is "led to
believe that the principal agent in the comminution of the mineral matter found at the
bottom of both deep and shallow seas and oceans, is the ground fauna of the sea,
which depends for its subsistence on the organic matter which it can extract from
the mud." The minerals at the bottom of the sea are exposed to a reducing process
in passing through the bodies of the animals which eat them, and subsequently to
an oxidising process due to the oxygen dissolved in the sea-water acting on the
minerals extruded from the animals' bodies.

The rate at which the sand passes through the body of Sipunculus is unfortunately
unknown, but that at any one moment a considerable quantity is contained in the
intestine is shown by the fact that the average weight of five specimens of S. nudus
from Naples, taken at random, was 19.08 grms., whilst the average weight of sand
washed out of their alimentary canal was 10.03 grms. The sand contained in five
other specimens of the same species measured respectively 6 c.c., 7 c.c., 6.5 c.c.,
7.5 c.c., and 7.5 c.c., giving an average of 6.9 c.c. for each individual.

Onchnesoma and Tylosoma have only one retractor muscle; Aspidosiphon and
Phascolion have, as a rule, two; Phymosoma and Sipunculus have four, and
perhaps this is the more usual number.

Phascolion, Tylosoma, and Onchnesoma have but one "brown tube"; in Phascolion
this is the right, in Onchnesoma it is sometimes the right and sometimes the left that
persists. Most other genera retain two, but there are many exceptions; for instance,
Phascolosoma squamatum has but one, and so has Aspidosiphon tortus, and in
both cases it is that of the left side. No Sipunculid has more than two. It has been
pointed out by Selenka that those species which have but one brown tube are, as a
rule, inhabitants of tubes or shells, and do not move actively about in the sand.

The eggs of all members of the family, with the exception of the genus Phymosoma,
are spherical, but those of the last-named genus are elliptical. They are always
surrounded by a thick membrane, the "zona radiata," pierced by numerous pores.

Aspidosiphon (Fig. 215) is easily recognised by the presence of two symmetrically-

arranged cuticular shields, one at each end of the trunk. These are formed by the
fusion of minute cuticular plates, such as exist in the skin of most Sipunculids. The
posterior shield is radially symmetrical, but the anterior is somewhat like the shell of
a Pecten, and symmetrical only about one plane. The introvert is protruded from the
acute angle of the anterior shield, and when extended lies almost at right angles to
the trunk, instead of being, as is usually the case, in the same straight line with it. In
many specimens, and these seem as a rule to be the older ones, a deposit of
calcium carbonate takes place over these shields, covering over and concealing
their external markings.
Cloeosiphon (Echinosiphon) has a calcareous ring, consisting of four or five rows of
lozenge-shaped calcareous bodies forming a close mosaic, arranged round the
base of the introvert, which when extended is in the same straight line as the trunk.
Each piece bears a brown spot, which is said to be the pore of a gland (Fig. 217).
Golfingia Lankester, has a cylindrical horny thickening at the anterior end of the
trunk and another at the posterior.

Fig. 215.—Aspidosiphon truncatus Kef. × 2. a, Introvert partially extended, but not

sufficiently to show the head.

Key to the Genera of Sipunculoidea.[481]

I. The longitudinal muscles in the body-wall divided into 17-41 distinct bundles.
Four retractor muscles.

A. Body covered with papillae. Numerous filiform tentacles which seldom (or
never?) surround the mouth, but stand above and dorsal to it in a horse-
shoe, with the opening dorsal. No rectal caecum. Hooks usually present.
Four retractors (in Ph. Rupellii only two?). Heart almost always without
caeca. Eye-spots always present. Eggs oval, flat, reddish. Almost entirely
small tropical species
1. Phymosoma

B. Body devoid of papillae. Tentacular membrane surrounds the mouth in a

circlet. Rectum with one or more caeca (except S. edulis?). Hooks absent
except in S. australis. Eggs spherical. The tentacular membrane contains a
vascular network. A ventral contractile vessel usually present in addition to
the heart. Mostly large forms. Found in all seas
2. Sipunculus

II. The longitudinal muscles in the body-wall form a continuous sheath, and are
not split up into bundles.

A. Two brown tubes. Numerous tentacles form a wreath round the mouth.
Alimentary canal forms a complete spiral, free behind except in Ph. Hanseni.
 Spindle-muscle usually present. One or more ligaments present, but only on
the anterior convolutions of the intestine. Adhesive papillae always absent.
Hooks very frequently absent. Eggs spherical. Found in all seas.
3. Phascolosoma

B. Two free brown tubes. Only four or six plumed tentacles. A complete
intestinal spiral, not attached behind. Spindle-muscle always present. One or
more ligaments present, but only on the anterior convolutions of the
intestine. Hooks are present, but sometimes fall off early in life. Heart usually
bears caeca. Found only in the tropics.
4. Dendrostoma

C. Only one brown tube, that of the right side, present; it is attached to the
body-wall throughout its entire length. Numerous tentacles form a circle
round the mouth. The alimentary canal forms no spiral, or an incomplete
one. No spindle-muscle, but the intestine is attached to the body-wall
throughout its length by numerous ligaments. Adhesive papillae often
present. Not more than two retractors. Spherical eggs. Inhabits Mollusc
shells or tubes. Found in all seas
5. Phascolion

III. At both ends of the trunk a distinct horny shield, or tube-like cornification, or
a calcareous ring at the anterior end of the trunk. Hooks sometimes present.
Longitudinal muscles continuous or split up into bundles.

A. A shield at both ends of the trunk. Introvert excentric, arising from the
ventral side of the anterior shield. Tentacles small and few in number,
arranged in a horse-shoe above the mouth. A spindle-muscle, which arises
from the posterior end of the body, traverses the intestinal coil. Two
retractors only, these are the ventral; they are frequently fused together from
their point of origin.
6. Aspidosiphon

B. A calcareous ring surrounds the anterior end of the trunk, from the middle
of which the introvert is extruded. Longitudinal muscles continuous. Hooks
bifid. Tropical.
7. Cloeosiphon

C. A corneous ring, from which the introvert issues, surrounds the anterior
end of the trunk, and the posterior end of the trunk is produced into a
corneous spike. Six pinnate tentacles encircle the mouth. Four retractors.
Hooks present on the introvert. Longitudinal muscles continuous. Intestine
 not coiled throughout in a spiral nor fastened posteriorly. Spindle muscle
present.
8. Golfingia

IV. No tentacles, but two leaf-like extensions of the body-wall guard the mouth.
Four retractors. Few intestinal loops, quite free. No vascular system.
9. Petalostoma

V. No tentacles, no vascular system. One retractor, and one segmental organ.

A. Introvert long. Body small, pear-shaped.

10. Onchnesoma

B. No introvert (?). Body cylindrical, thickly covered with papillae, which are
larger and more crowded at both ends of the trunk.
11. Tylosoma

Species of Sipunculoidea.—The genus Phymosoma (Fig. 214) contains more

species than any other genus of Sipunculoidea, and they are all of fair size. Twenty-
seven species are known, of which seventeen occur in the Malay Archipelago,
thirteen being found there alone. Phymosoma affects shallow water, the deepest
specimens being taken at a depth of about 50 fathoms; this may be due to the fact
that they flourish only in comparatively warm water. With very few exceptions, they
are found only in tropical seas, very often living in tubular excavations made in soft
coral rock.

The genus Sipunculus contains sixteen species. They are the largest and the most
conspicuous members of the group. They have a very wide distribution, some
species, as S. nudus (Fig. 212) and S. australis, being almost cosmopolitan. They
are most common in temperate and tropical seas, but S. norvegicus and S.
priapuloides are found far north, but always at considerable depths, 100 to 200
fathoms.

The following account of the habits of Sipunculus gouldii is taken from Mr.
Andrews'[482] paper on that species:—

"This Sipunculus is very abundant in certain small areas of compact, fine sand
darkened by organic matter and not laid bare at ordinary low tide. In such places,
only a few square metres in extent, they pierce the sand in all directions to a depth
of more than half a metre, making burrows with persistent lumen running from the
surface downward and then laterally, but with no regularity in direction.
"Kept in aquaria, the dependence of the animal upon the nature of the sand and its
method of locomotion may be readily observed. A vigorous individual buries itself in
a few moments in the following manner: Running out the introvert to nearly its full
extent, and applying it to the surface of the sand till some spot of less resistance is
found, the animal still further expands the introvert so that it penetrates the sand,
provided this is not too dense and firm, for then the body is merely shoved
backward. When the introvert is inserted, the contraction of the longitudinal muscles
of the body-wall brings the whole body forward somewhat, in case the introvert is
fixed in the sand. In case soft ooze was present, this fixation did not take place, and
the introvert was merely pulled out again, but when the sand was of the right
consistency the introvert was fixed by becoming much swollen at the tip, and then
constricted just posterior to this swollen area. This bulb-like area exerts lateral
pressure on the sand, as could be seen by movements of the grains. The swelling
of the anterior end of the introvert is brought about by the body-wall contracting
elsewhere, and forcing in liquid to distend that end. Owing to the curved form
assumed by the body in the normal contracted state when first removed from its
burrow, the entrance of the introvert may often be nearly vertical, and hence the
entire body is soon raised nearly upright in the water above the sand. If the body
has thus been warped forward sufficiently to become somewhat fixed in the sand,
the introvert is rolled in and again thrust forward from this new point of resistance,
and so on till the animal is entirely buried. This locomotion increases in speed as the
creature becomes more completely surrounded by sand, and is the only means of
moving from place to place.

"On a smooth surface, or on one not presenting the right degree of resistance, the
Sipunculus does not change its position, but remains till death finally occurs, rolling
its introvert in and out and contracting its body-wall to no purpose.

"The essential factors in the mechanism bringing about this hydrostatic locomotion
are an elongated contractile sac filled with liquid, and some means of definitely co-
ordinating the contractions of the sac.

"In natural environment the animals are found with sometimes one, sometimes the
other end nearer the surface of the sand: in the aquaria the same was observed, but
when the water became stagnant and impure the anterior end with expanded
branchiae was often protruded somewhat above the surface of the sand."

The genus Phascolosoma contains at least twenty-five species, for the most part
small. Ph. margaritaceum, however, measures[483] 10 cm. in length, and Ph.
flagriferum, 13 cm. The latter is produced at the hinder end of its trunk into a long
whip-like process, which recalls the horny spike of Golfingia. Most species live free,
but a few inhabit the shells of dead Gasteropods or of Dentalium, or the abandoned
tubes of worms. They occur in practically all seas.
 Fig. 216.—Specimens of the Coral Heteropsammia cochlea, with Aspidosiphon
heteropsammiarum or A. michelini living in a state of commensalism with them.
(From Bouvier.)

Dendrostoma contains but five species, which are all found within the tropics in the
Pacific or in the West Atlantic. They are shallow-water forms, and some are found
between tide-marks.

Phascolion is a smaller genus, containing but ten species, which may have been
derived independently from different species of Phascolosoma, and in this case the
genus should be broken up. The members of this genus live in Mollusc shells, such
as Dentalium, Turritella, Buccinum, Chenopus (Aporrhais), Nassa, Strombus, and
generally acquire the coiled shape of their host. They are usually attached to the
shell by means of certain adhesive papillae found on their posterior end. Ph. strombi
fills its shell with mud, which must be kept together by some secretion of the animal.
The body lies in a tube in this mud, and the introvert projects from the small round
opening at the end of the tube, and explores the ground in every direction. They are
found in all seas, but more especially in the colder waters.

Fig. 217.—Cloeosiphon aspergillum Quatr. × ½. a, Introvert covered with spines and

partially extended, but not sufficiently to show the head; b, calcareous plates
surrounding the point of origin of the introvert.

The genus Aspidosiphon includes nineteen species, which are, with few exceptions,
exclusively confined to the Indian Ocean and neighbouring seas, including the Red
Sea. The exceptions are A. armatus from the Norwegian coast, and A. mülleri from
the Mediterranean and Adriatic. A. truncatus is also stated to occur at Panama, the
Bahamas, and at Mauritius. The remaining species almost all occur in the Malay
Archipelago and neighbouring islands, and as was the case with Phymosoma, this
part of the world seems to be the headquarters of the genus. A. mülleri lives in the
interstices of rocks and stones, and occasionally in disused Mollusc shells.

Two species of Aspidosiphon have been described by Bouvier[484] living in a state

of commensalism with two species of Madreporarian corals, Stephanoceris
rousseaui and Heteropsammia cochlea, which live on and surrounding the shells of
certain Molluscs at Aden (Fig. 216). Apparently the Gephyrean takes up its abode
within its house at a tender age, and according to Bouvier, it provides for its
increasing bulk by secreting a coiled calcareous tube, the outer surface of which
affords space for the growth of the coral.

The genus Cloeosiphon, the Echinosiphon of Sluiter, includes three species: C.

aspergillum (Fig. 217), C. molle, and C. javanicum. The first named occurs at
Mauritius, the Malay Archipelago, and neighbouring islands; the others are confined
to the last-named area, which thus again forms the headquarters of a genus.

Golfingia, described by Lankester from a single specimen, was dredged in St.

Andrews Bay, at the depth of 10 fathoms.

Petalostoma comprises but one species, P. minutum, which is found in the English
Channel.

Onchnesoma comprises two species, O. steenstrupii and O. sarsii, both found off
the coast of Norway at considerable depths between 200 and 300 fathoms.

Tylosoma comprises one species, T. lütkenii, also from the Norwegian coast. It is
dredged from stony ground in 50 to 80 fathoms.

II. Order Priapuloidea.

Anatomy.—This Order consists of the two genera Priapulus and Halicryptus. Both
are cylindrical animals with the mouth at one end and the anus at the other. The
introvert is short, and is covered with rows of chitinous spines, which are continued
to some extent over the body.

The skin is folded in a series of rings, and the body is usually somewhat swollen
posteriorly. P. caudatus bears a curious caudal appendage, beset with a number of
hollow lobes somewhat grape-like in appearance. This is situated ventral to the
anus; its lumen is continuous with that of the body-cavity, but it can be separated
from it by the action of a sphincter muscle. Two such appendages exist in P.
bicaudatus.

There cannot be said to be any head in the Priapuloidea; they have no tentacles or
tentacular fringe, no proboscis, and no distinct brain; simply a round aperture, the
mouth, which is surrounded by a groove in the skin, at the bottom of which the
circumoesophageal nerve-cord lies. The mouth leads into a very muscular pharynx
lined with stout chitinous teeth; this passes into an intestine, which is as a rule
straight, but in P. glandifer it has a single loop.

The Priapuloidea possess no vascular system and no brown tubes. Their skin has in
the main the same structure as that of the Sipunculids, with spines, glandular
bodies, and papillae with sensory hairs which resemble similar structures on
Phymosoma varians. Retractor muscles arise from the longitudinal muscles of the
skin, and are inserted into the pharynx; they are short and not constant in number.

The nervous system has retained throughout its primitive connexion with the
epidermis. In almost all animals the nervous system is formed from the epiblast or
outermost cellular layer of the embryo; it usually, however, breaks away from this
and sinks into the body. Thus in Sipunculus it lies within the body-cavity, and has
retained its primitive connexion with the outer layers of the skin only in the region of
the brain; but in the Priapulids the nervous system, which consists of a ring round
the mouth and of a ventral cord, lies embedded in the skin, and the nerve cells are
directly continuous with the cells of the epidermis. The nerve-ring lies at the base of
a groove in the skin, which forms a kind of gutter round the mouth; the ventral
nerve-cord is visible exteriorly as a light line which marks the ventral surface of the
animal. In no place is the ring or cord differentiated in any way, and there cannot be
said to be any brain or special sense-organs. Numerous nerves are given off from
the ring to the pharynx and intestine, and from the cord to the body-wall.

Fig. 218.—Priapulus caudatus Lam. Nat. size. a, Mouth surrounded by spines.

The sexes are distinct, but they differ from the other Gephyrea in the nature of their
reproductive organs. In mature specimens the ovaries or testes are easily
recognisable, lying to the right and left of the alimentary canal. The reproductive
glands are continuous with ducts, which act as oviducts and vasa deferentia
respectively. Both glands and ducts are attached to the body-wall by a mesentery.

The excretory function is performed in the Priapuloidea by the ducts of the

generative organs. These are primarily connected with a number of branching
canals of small size which project into the body-cavity. According to Schauinsland,
[485] one or more pear-shaped cells are found at the end of each branch, and each
is continued into a long cilium which hangs down into the lumen of the canal, and by
its movement produces a flickering motion. Beyond the free end of the large cilium
the canal is lined with ciliated cells. The remarkable resemblance this form of
excretory organ presents to that of the Platyhelminthes (vide p. 25) and of certain
Chaetopods is worthy of attention. In the young Priapuloidea the duct with its
branching canals is not masked by the generative organs, but as the animals
become mature, diverticula from the duct arise, and the cells covering these
become modified into ova in the female, and into spermatozoa in the male. The
presence of these follicles masks the excretory part of the gland. The ova and
spermatozoa escape through the ciliated ducts which open to the exterior one on
each side of the anus, and, contrary to what is the case with other Gephyrea, leave
the body without having ever been in the body-cavity.

Nothing is known of the embryology of either member of this family, but both genera
appear to be sexually mature from the end of May until October.

Classification.—The two genera which make up the Order Priapuloidea are

characterised as follows:—

Priapulus.—The body is continued into one or two caudal appendages, beset with
hollow papillae; these are ventral to the anus. The introvert forms ¼ to ⅓ of the total
body-length; it is covered with spines in conspicuous longitudinal rows, the rest of
the body being ringed. The retractor muscles are numerous, and are attached to the
body-wall, some anteriorly and some posteriorly.

The genus includes the following five species:—

P. caudatus Lam. (Fig. 218). Hab. Coasts of Greenland, Norway, Great Britain,
the North Sea, and the Baltic.

P. bicaudatus Dan. Hab. North Sea and Arctic Ocean.

P. glandifer Ehlers. Hab. Coast of Greenland, North Sea.