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 Outlining Your Speech 35
Preparation Outline 35
Presentation Outline 36
Practicing Your Speech 36
Presenting Your Speech 38
Strategies for Overcoming Speech Anxiety 39
What Have You Learned? 41

Chapter 3 Presenting the Speech 44

Characteristics of Effective Presentation 46
The Voice in Presentation 47
Volume 47
Pitch 48
Rate 49
Pauses 50
Articulation and Enunciation 51
Pronunciation 53
Inflection 54
The Body in Presentation 54
Physical Appearance 54
Movement 56
Gesture 57
Facial Expression 58
Modes of Presentation 59
Impromptu Presentation 60
Memorized Presentation 60
Manuscript Presentation 61
Extemporaneous Presentation 62
Practicing for Speech Presentation 62
The Presentation Outline 63
Mental Rehearsal 63
Oral Practice 64
Simulation 65
What Have You Learned? 65

Chapter 4 Listening Critically 68

Are You Really Listening? 70
Why Listening Is Important 70
Why Listening Is Difficult 71
Strategies for Careful Listening 76
Mapping 76
Note Taking 79
Listening Critically 80
Critical Thinking 80
Applying Critical Thinking to the Speech Situation 82

Contents vii
 Evaluating Speeches Critically 85
Evaluation Standards 86
Evaluating Classroom Speeches 87
Evaluating Speeches Outside of the Classroom 88
Rhetorical Criticism 89
What Have You Learned? 90

PART II INVENTION AND DEVELOPMENT

OF THE SPEECH 92
Chapter 5 Analyzing Your Audience 92
Checking Audience Demographics 95
Size 95
Heterogeneity 95
Voluntary Versus Captive Audience 96
Composition 97
Physically Present Versus Mediated Audience 97
Respecting Audience Cultures 98
Cultural Diversity 99
Self-Interest 102
Personal Interests 102
Beliefs and Values 103
Prior Understanding 104
Common Knowledge and Experience 105
Roles and Reference Groups 105
Understanding Audience Psychology 106
Selective Exposure and Selective Attention 106
Perception 108
Strategies for Analyzing the Audience 110
Formal Methods 110
Informal Methods 110
Simplifying Devices 112
Critical Appraisal 114
Analyzing Your Own Ethos 115
Audience Perceptions of You 115
Modifying Audience Perceptions 116
What Have You Learned? 117

Chapter 6 Choosing a Topic and Developing

a Strategy 120
What Makes a Good Topic? 122
Importance to the Speaker 123
Interest to the Audience 124
Worthy of Listeners’ Time 125
Appropriateness of Scope 125

viii Contents
 Appropriateness for Oral Delivery 125
Appropriateness to the Rhetorical Situation 126
Clarity 126
How to Choose a Good Topic 127
Conduct a Personal Inventory 127
Brainstorm 128
Narrow the Topic 128
Developing a Strategic Plan 129
Identifying the Purpose 130
Identifying the Constraints 134
Identifying the Opportunities 136
Selecting the Means 138
Developing the Purpose Statement and the Thesis
Statement 138
The Purpose Statement 138
The Thesis Statement 139
Analyzing the Thesis Statement 140
Identifying the Issues 140
Why Identify the Issues? 142
What Have You Learned? 143

Chapter 7 Researching the Speech 146

Strategic Perspectives on Research 148
Types of Supporting Material 149
Personal Experience 149
Common Knowledge 150
Direct Observation 150
Examples 151
Documents 152
Statistics 153
Testimony 156
Tools for Locating Supporting Material 157
Search Engines 157
Electronic Databases 158
Catalogs 159
Indexes 159
Supplementing the Tools 160
Sources of Supporting Material 160
Periodicals 161
Newspapers 161
Books 162
Reference Works 162
Government Publications 163
Other Materials Found Online 163
Interviews 164

Contents ix
 Evaluating Evidence 166
Potential Deficiencies in Evidence 166
The Quality of Internet Evidence 167
A Plan for Research 168
Note Taking 172
What Have You Learned? 176

Chapter 8 Reasoning 178

Proof, Support, and Reasoning 180
Rhetorical Proof as Support 180
Proof and the Audience 181
Components of Proof 182
An Example of Rhetorical Proof 183
Using Rhetorical Proof in Your Speech 184
Example 185
Types of Inference from Example 186
Tests for Inference from Example 187
Guidelines for Reasoning Through Example 188
Analogy 189
Types of Inference from Analogy 189
Tests for Inference from Analogy 190
Guidelines for Reasoning Through Analogy 191
Signs 192
Types of Inference from Signs 193
Tests for Inference from Signs 194
Guidelines for Reasoning Through Signs 194
Cause 195
Types of Inference from Cause 196
Tests for Inference from Cause 197
Guidelines for Reasoning Through Cause 199
Testimony 199
Types of Inference from Testimony 200
Tests for Inference from Testimony 201
Guidelines for Reasoning Through Testimony 202
Narrative 203
Tests for Inference from Narrative 204
Avoiding Errors in Reasoning 205
Six General Tests of Inferences 205
Reasoning in Public Speaking 207
What Have You Learned? 209

x Contents
PART III ARRANGEMENT AND STYLE
IN THE SPEECH 212
Chapter 9 Organizing the Speech: The Body 212
Why Is Organization Important? 214
Selecting the Main Ideas 215
Identifying Your Main Ideas 215
Choosing Among Main Ideas 217
Criteria for Selecting the Main Ideas 217
Characteristics of the Main Ideas 218
Arranging the Main Ideas 220
Factors Affecting Arrangement 220
Patterns for Arranging Main Ideas 222
Choosing the Organizational Pattern 226
Selecting and Arranging Supporting Materials 228
Selection of Supporting Materials 229
Arrangement of Supporting Materials 231
What Have You Learned? 232

Chapter 10 Organizing the Speech: Introductions,

Conclusions, and Transitions 236
Introductions: Beginning the Speech 238
The Purposes of an Introduction 238
An Example of an Introduction 240
Types of Introductions 240
Strategies for Preparing an Introduction 247
Conclusions: Ending the Speech 249
The Purposes of a Conclusion 249
An Example of a Conclusion 251
Types of Conclusions 251
Strategies for Preparing a Conclusion 254
Transitions: Connecting the Elements of a Speech 255
The Purposes of Transitions 255
Elements of Effective Transitions 256
Strategies for Preparing Transitions 259
What Have You Learned? 259

Chapter 11 Outlining the Speech 262

From Ideas to Outline 264
The Preparation Outline 266
What Does a Good Outline Look Like? 266
Outlining the Body of the Speech 267
Outlining Introductions and Conclusions 269
Outlining Transitions 270
Citing Supporting Materials in the Outline 270

Contents xi
 Sample Preparation Outline 271
The Presentation Outline 274
Guidelines for the Presentation Outline 274
Use of Note Cards 275
Reference to Supporting Materials and Oral Citations 275
Use of Stage Directions 277
Using an Outline in Rehearsal 278
Sample Presentation Outline 278
What Have You Learned? 280

Chapter 12 Achieving Style Through Language 282

What Is Style? 284
Style in a Speech 284
Style and Language 285
Oral Style Versus Written Style 286
Performative Versus Conversational Style 288
Basic Requirements for Effective Style 289
Defining Terms Appropriately 292
Neutral Definitions 292
Denotation and Connotation in Definitions 293
Persuasive Definitions 293
Achieving Clarity, Rhythm, and Vividness 295
Clarity 295
How Clear Should You Be? 296
Rhythm 298
Vividness 300
Stylistic Choices in Combination 303
Style and the Entire Speech 304
Choosing the Right Level of Style 304
Finding the Right Pace and Proportion 304
Memorable Phrases 305
Congruence of Language and Delivery 306
Achieving Good Style 306
Erroneous Assumptions About Speeches 306
Suggestions for Developing and Improving Style 306
What Have You Learned? 308

PART IV USES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING 312

Chapter 13 Informing 312
Planning Your Strategy 314
Defining Your Specific Purpose 314
Informing Your Audience 315
Clarifying Your Informative Goal 316

xii Contents
 Informative Strategies 318
Defining 318
Reporting 320
Describing 321
Explaining 323
Demonstrating 323
Comparing 325
Encouraging Retention 326
What Have You Learned? 328

Chapter 14 Persuading 330

Purposes for Persuasive Strategies 332
Strengthening Commitment 333
Weakening Commitment 334
Conversion 334
Inducing a Specific Action 335
Plan Your Strategy 336
Determine Your Target Audience 336
Assess Your Audience’s Motivation 336
Determine Your Purpose 337
The Elaboration Likelihood Model 338
Components of the Model 338
Implications of the Model 338
Constraints on Effective Persuasive Speaking 339
Selective Listening 339
Selective Perception 340
Selective Influence 342
Strategic Resources for Specific Purposes 344
Strengthening Commitment 344
Weakening Commitment 345
Conversion 348
Inducing a Specific Action 351
General Strategic Resources 352
Select Appropriate Supporting Materials 352
Use Sound Reasoning 352
Follow Appropriate Organizational Patterns 353
Establish Positive Ethos 354
Encourage Retention Through Reinforcement 354
Achieve Identification 355
Organizing Persuasive Speeches 356
The Problem–Solution Speech 356
The Motivated Sequence 358
What Have You Learned? 360

Contents xiii
 Chapter 15 Speaking with Visual Aids 364
Benefits of Using Visual Aids 366
Interest 367
Credibility 367
Comprehension and Retention 368
Argument 368
Types of Visual Aids 369
Charts 369
Graphs 372
Representations 374
Objects and Models 376
People 377
Visual Aid Media 378
Computer-Generated Slides 378
Audiovisual Media 381
Multimedia 382
Transparencies 383
Flip Charts and Posters 383
Handouts 383
Preparing Visual Aids 384
Choosing Ideas for Visual Aids 384
Designing Visual Aids 384
Planning for Technical Difficulties 386
Using Visual Aids in the Speech 387
Avoid Distraction 387
Do Not Obstruct the Audience’s View 387
Speak to the Audience, Not to the Visual Aid 389
What Have You Learned? 389

Chapter 16 Occasions for Public Speaking 392

Fitting Your Speech to the Occasion 394
Influence of the Occasion 394
The Concept of Decorum 396
Identifying Your Purpose 397
Deliberative Speaking 397
The Nature of Deliberative Speaking 397
Community Service and Involvement 398
Oral Reports and Presentations 399
Group Presentations 400
Public Hearings and Debates 402
Responding to Questions 403
Ceremonial Speaking 405
The Nature of Ceremonial Speaking 405
Speeches of Greeting 406
Speeches of Tribute 406
Commemorative Celebrations 409
Speeches Marking Awards 409

xiv Contents
 Speeches Combining Deliberative and Ceremonial
Goals 411
Keynote Speeches 412
Pep Talks 413
After-Dinner Speeches 413
Commencement Speeches 413
Speeches Marking Candidacy and Election 414
What Have You Learned? 419

Appendix Speeches for Analysis and Discussion 423

The Internet and Intellectual Property 424
Charles Agbaje, Northwestern University
Immigration 427
Jaimie Sakumura, University of Kansas
Second Inaugural Address, 1865 429
Abraham Lincoln
Eulogy for the Challenger Astronauts, 1986 430
Ronald Reagan
Women’s Rights Are Human Rights, 1995 432
Hillary Rodham Clinton
A More Perfect Union, 2008 436
Barack Obama
For Further Study 444

Credits 447
Index 449

Contents xv
Special Features
CHOOSE A STRATEGY
Understanding the Rhetorical Situation 13
Introducing Yourself to Others 33
Presenting Your Speech 60
Listening Critically 85
Adapting to Your Audience 109
Identifying Constraints and Opportunities 137
Using Research to Support Your Speech 153
Using Examples Strategically 187
Organizing Your Speech 229
Weighing the Types of Introductions 244
Creating a Presentation Outline 276
Using Appropriate Language 290
Using Informative Strategies 321
Persuading 353
Using Visual Aids 379
Preparing an Oral Presentation 400

A Question of Ethics
Ethnocentric Assumptions 22
Evaluating the First Speech 40
Ethics in Delivery 64
Expectations and Critical Listening 89
Limits of Audience Analysis 114
Appropriate Topics 125
Ethics and Research 169
Ethical Issues in Reasoning 192
Ethics and Organization 224
Ethical Introductions and Conclusions 257
Ethics in Outlining 274
Ethics and Style 302
The Ethics of Informing 327
The Ethics of Persuading 341
Ethical Issues in Designing Visual Aids 388
Ethics in the Public Forum? 415

xvi
 Rhetorical Workout
Find the Public Forum in Your Neighborhood 18
Focus on Making Messages 39
Exercise Your Voice 52
Rate Your Listening Skills 72
Learn About Your Listeners 113
Estimate Audience Interest in Your Topic 124
Assess Types of Supporting Information 155
Reason Through Cause 197
Shape and Organize Main Ideas 225
Conclude Your Speech 252
Format a Preparation Outline 269
Write for the Ear 287
Keep Your Informative Goal in Mind 317
Practice Persuasive Strategies 350
Choose Images for Visual Aids 385
Give a Toast 408

Strategies for Speaking to Diverse Audiences

Recognizing Diversity 16
Respecting Diversity Through the Preparation of Your Speech 35
Respecting Diversity Through the Presentation of Your Speech 61
Respecting Diversity Through Critical Listening 83
Respecting Diversity Through Analyzing Your Audience 101
Respecting Diversity Through Your Topic Selection and Strategy Development 140
Respecting Diversity Through Research 157
Respecting Diversity Through Reasoning 208
Respecting Diversity Through the Organization of the Body of Your Speech 227
Respecting Diversity Through Introductions and Conclusions 256
Respecting Diversity Through Outlining the Speech 279
Respecting Diversity Through Style and Language 305
Respecting Diversity Through Informing 322
Respecting Diversity Through Persuading 358
Respecting Diversity Through Visual Aids 387
Respecting Diversity Through Occasions for Public Speaking 416

Special Features xvii

To the Student

I
was fortunate to have an excellent education in both high school and college.
I had many stimulating and useful courses, interesting and challenging teach-
ers, and rewarding and enjoyable experiences. But if I had to single out the most
important course I had, without a doubt it would be public speaking. I think my
experience was not unique and I hope yours will be similar.
You may be taking this course because you want to improve your voice or physi-
cal delivery, or to overcome speech anxiety, or to organize your thoughts better, or
to learn how to do good research. You may have picked this class because a friend
is in it, or because it meets at a convenient time, or even because it is required. I'm
willing to predict that if you take the course seriously and work at it, you not only
will achieve your goals but will go far beyond them. I know I did.
I wanted to become more comfortable in speaking before a group and to learn
how to use my voice effectively and how to control distracting mannerisms.
I accomplished those goals but also learned how to think analytically, how to orga-
nize ideas, how to do research, how to assess an audience, how to inform and
persuade. It was not long before I realized that these skills and habits were valuable
not just in public speaking, but in every other course and, indeed, in almost every
aspect of life. When my daughter and my son each took a public speaking course,
they experienced very similar results and, of course, I greatly enjoyed observing the
positive effect the course had on each of them.
For over 2,500 years, men and women have studied the art of public speaking,
both because it is valuable in its own right and because, in the best sense of the
term, it is a liberal art—one that frees and empowers people. It does so by pro-
viding the knowledge, cultivating the skills, and modeling the habits of effective
thought and expression that can be applied to any area of life. You are the latest
link in this chain and I hope that this book, and the course of which it is a part, will
help you to have a similar experience.
The title of this book is Public Speaking: Strategies for Success. That title has a
double meaning. First, this book is about strategies for success in public speaking.
Second, the premise of the book is that public speaking will provide you with strat-
egies for success in life. Certainly it does not promise fame or fortune, but it does
offer a blend of reflective judgment and carefully chosen action that should enable
you, whatever your experience, to enjoy a life well lived.
I have used the term strategy to emphasize that public speaking is about
choices. It is an art and not a science. When you speak, you will be faced with situ-
ations that offer both opportunities and constraints. You will want to decide how
to work within this situation to achieve your goals, and your plan for doing so is a
strategy. And even as you make choices in response to a situation, the pattern of
your choices actually helps to define what the situation is. It affects you, but you
also affect it.
Thinking strategically about public speaking means abandoning the belief that
there is an all-purpose magic formula that will always produce a good speech. You
will have to make judgments each time you speak about what your goals should
be and the best way to achieve them. With experience and practice, you should

xviii
find choices easier to make. Although, as you will see, there are some general
norms and expectations, a speech is good not because it follows some formula, but
because it deals effectively with a specific situation. A speech that is good in one
context may be weak in another. It is always necessary to get down to cases.
For that reason, you will find many examples and case studies in this book.
Some come from student speakers and some from speakers in the “real world.”
Some are actual situations and some are hypothetical ones that I have designed
to illustrate important principles. Some describe what speakers actually did, and
some ask you what you might do. Just as lawyers learn the law, in part, through the
case method, so you will cultivate and sharpen the skills of public speaking by try-
ing them out on specific cases.
Case material will be provided not only by this book, but also by your class. You
will have the opportunity not only to present speeches, but to listen to many as
well. Listening to speeches is important, not just a necessary evil to be endured
while you wait your turn to speak. You develop habits of analysis and memory, you
see a large array of choices other students make in specific situations, and you gain
skill in assessing whether strategies succeed or fail and in deciding whether or not
they are strategies that you might wish to use.
At the same time, Public Speaking does not study cases in a vacuum. It draws on
underlying theory to explain these situations. Theory does not refer to that which is
impractical; nor does it refer to a lot of fancy terms or ideas that seem isolated from
reality. Although sometimes the theory and practice of public speaking are stud-
ied in isolation, the premise of Public Speaking is that they need to be integrated
at every step. Theory informs our understanding of practice by enabling us to ex-
plain what is happening in particular situations. And practice applies and modifies
our understanding of theory. What you learn about theories of arrangement, for
instance, will help you to organize a speech, but your experience in organizing
speeches will also contribute to your thinking about theories of arrangement.
More than 50 years have passed since I first enrolled in a course in public speak-
ing. Now you are starting the same journey. This book, your own experience, and
the interaction with other students and your instructor are all vital parts of the
course. Participate fully and try to get as much from the course as you can. I hope
that, like me, you will find that you not only achieve your original goals, but actu-
ally transcend them and I hope that a course in public speaking contributes as
much to your life as it has to mine.

David Zarefsky

To the Student xix

To the Instructor

I
f you are using this textbook for the first time, welcome. If you are a previous
user, I am grateful for your support and enthusiasm and I hope you will like the
approach of this seventh edition.
Public Speaking: Strategies for Success is based on the premise that successful public
speaking is strategic. It involves understanding the circumstances in which one speaks,
making deliberate choices about how to deal with these circumstances, and planning in
order to achieve one’s speaking goals. The key elements in a strategic approach to pub-
lic speaking are critical thinking and strategic planning, skills emphasized throughout this
book. Equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills, students can learn to make
skillful and intelligent choices in public speaking situations throughout their lives.
A consequence of a strategic perspective is the recognition that public speaking is not
a science with universally applicable principles or a set of formulas that can be applied
mechanically or by rote. It is more complicated than that, involving subjective judgment
and human choice. We do our students a disservice if we pretend otherwise. Instead, by
equipping them with necessary knowledge and skills, we should help to prepare them
to make these choices skillfully and intelligently. That is a goal of this book.
To say that the subject matter is complex, though, is certainly not to say that the
textbook must be dull, tedious, or unreadable. I have tried to make the text readily
accessible to students without compromising the integrity of the subject matter.
The title of the book, Public Speaking: Strategies for Success, has a double mean-
ing. The book offers a strategic perspective that should lead students to become
more successful public speakers. And the art of public speaking provides many of
the strategies for students to succeed in many different walks of life. I hope that
this book will help you to empower your students to achieve those goals.

New to This Edition

In this new edition, Public Speaking: Strategies for Success maintains its solid foun-
dations of strategy, practical skills, rhetorical theory, diversity, ethics, and civic par-
ticipation, while revising and updating key areas to reflect the needs of today’s
beginning speakers. Some key areas revised in this edition include:
1. Further integration of Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives have been re-
fined and visually emphasized in the chapter-opening sections; numbered iden-
tifiers for each objective appear in the chapter margins near related discussions;
and the objectives now provide the framework for the end-
of-chapter summary sections,“What Have You Learned?”
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
2. Expanded oral citation coverage: More discus-
Objective 4.1 Distinguish between hearing and listening and explain why listen-
sion of how to create and use oral citations, including
ing skills are important to speakers. examples, gives students additional guidance on this
Objective 4.2 Identify obstacles to effective listening. often-challenging aspect of preparing a speech.
Objective 4.3 Listen carefully by mapping the central ideas of a speech and by
taking notes. 3. Updated coverage of technology: Updated discussions
Objective 4.4 Describe how critical thinking is applied in the speaking situation. of technology-related issues in public speaking include
Objective 4.5 Evaluate speeches as a result of critical listening. such areas as social media and the public forum, speak-
ing for the camera, mediated audiences, search engines,

xx
 databases and catalogs, and audiovisual media and multimedia presenta-
tions, including additional advice for creating slides.
4. Expanded material on creating speeches for diverse audiences: More
examples and practical tips are given for how students can respect diversity
in their speeches, including areas such as the use of volume and gestures,
strategies for building good will, language choices, and respectful uses of
reasoning.
5. The rhetorical situation: Discussion of the rhetorical situation appears ear-
lier in Chapter 1, linking it more closely to the process of communication,
and includes discussion of interference.
6. The public forum: Expanded discussions include effects of social media on
the public forum; when the public forum is present; and how informative
speeches fit within the public forum.
7. Examples: Along with a variety of updated and revised examples in the text,
new examples of complete preparation and presentation outlines from a
student speech are included and extensively annotated, and a new student
speech is in the appendix. Additionally, examples have been visually distin-
guished throughout the text to better highlight them for student learning.
8. Revised appendix of sample speeches: Featuring a more focused collection
of student and public speeches, the appendix includes the full text of a new
student speech—“The Internet and Intellectual Property,” utilizing a mix of
informative and persuasive strategies—and a new “For Further Study” sec-
tion recommending additional speeches for analysis and discussion, anno-
tated with notes on what students should look for when reading or listening
to the speeches.
9. New and updated research: Every chapter includes new or updated research
to keep the text current on topics from technology issues and speech anxiety
to gestures and language choice.

Public Speaking Teaches Strategic Planning

Far too often, students leave a public speaking class with nothing more than a
recipe for how to prepare and deliver a seven-minute speech in class. Certainly,
being able to prepare and deliver that class-
room speech well is a start. The goal of this
book, however, is to help students also
learn how to apply the skills required for
that seven-minute classroom speech to the
range of public speaking situations they
will encounter throughout their lives. Stu-
dents should recognize how often they will
find themselves participating in speaking
situations, whether as a public speaker or
as an audience member. They need to think
through and about the public speaking process and
to develop strategies to achieve their goals.
OBJECTIVE
13.1 Planning Your Strategy
Broadly speaking, speech goals are achieved through the strategies of informing,
persuading, and entertaining. These are sometimes mistaken as resulting in three
fundamentally different kinds of speeches. In fact, though, because successful shar-
ing of information also affects people’s attitudes, informing and persuading occur
together. Likewise, a successful persuasive speech is also entertaining and enjoy-
able to listen to, and an entertaining speech usually also conveys new information.
The broad strategies overlap, then, and they do not exclude each other. So if
your assignment is to present “an informative speech,” this does not mean that
you should avoid saying anything entertaining or persuasive. Rather, you should
achieve your purpose primarily through strategies of informing.
Defining Your Specific Purpose
CHOOSE WhatA STRATEGY:
happens Organizing
if the assignment does not specify a Your
purpose? Speech
Or what if you are
speaking outside the classroom setting? Then you must decide what you want to
The Situation 3. What kind of supporting material would be important
You and a number of other students are dismayed by your uni- to include—and where in the speech should you in-
versity’s decision to limit Internet access to certain sites on clude it?
campus. You’ve been attending rallies against the policy and
have been invited to speak at the next student government What If…
meeting about your objections. How would your organizational decisions change if the follow-
ing were true?
Making Choices 1. There was evidence of illegal Internet activity among the

Choose a Strategy. The Choose a Strategy
boxes in each chapter present students with a case
study allowing them to decide how the skills and
1. How should you decide what main points you want to relay to
your audience, and in what order should you present them?
student population.
2. The university had asked for student feedback before
2. What do you know about the school board’s position making the decision to limit Internet access.
that would affect your organizational choices?

To the Instructor xxi

 concepts discussed can be adapted to a concrete rhetorical situation. Although
these open-ended situations usually have no “correct” solutions, they train
students to size up a situation, understand its opportunities and constraints,
assess ideas, and reason with an audience in mind.

Public Speaking Teaches

Rhetorical Theory
CHAPTER
and Critical Thinking Skills
8 Reasoning
Grounded in the tradition of the art of rheto-
ric, this text provides students with a begin-
ning knowledge of rhetorical theory as they
learn how to speak in public. Theory and
practice are integrated as a seamless fabric,
explaining clearly what students should do
and why.
A full chapter focuses on reasoning in the
context of the entire speaking situation (not
limited to persuasive speeches).

Rhetorical Workout. The Rhetorical Workout feature
in each chapter offers students a focused, step-by-step
application of public speaking concepts. Each workout
strengthens the student’s public speaking skills just as a
physical workout strengthens the muscles.
Rhetorical Workout
Learn About Your Listeners
You have been asked by the head of the non-profit organiza-
tion where you volunteer once a week to give a presentation
to several people who want to start their own non-profit or-
ganization on how to use the Internet for publicity. Before you
prepare your speech, you want to understand more about
your audience in order to decide what to cover.
1. What clues about your listeners have you been given so
far, in the above description?
2. The head of your non-profit will be hosting the presenta-
tion. What are some questions you could ask her ahead
of time that would help you prepare?
3. Which of the following audience demographics, if known,
might affect how you approach your speech topic: audi-
ence size, diversity of views, age, gender, religion, eth-
nicity, native language, educational level, socioeconomic
5. You learn that all those who will be present receive a
monthly newsletter via e-mail, and you are able to find
the back issues online. How might this information help
you analyze your listeners?
6. You do some research to learn more about people in-
terested in starting a non-profit. How useful would each
of the following be for you: (1) a national statistic that
75 percent of people who wish to start a non-profit
have no experience with Internet publicity; (2) an ar-
ticle profiling people wishing to start non-profits in an-
other state who have limited budgets for promotional
activities; (3) the history of your own non-profit; (4)
a list of people interested in starting non-profits and
the businesses in which they previously have worked?
Explain why.
7. If you prepared for an audience of 10 people and 30
show up what are some ways you might have to adapt

ustify a tax cut may not square

hat there are significant needs
ation and health care that the
are intended to help you de-
what a speaker is asking you
do. They will help you to form
ment about whether to agree
critically does not mean that
o an inquisition before accept-
ather, it is a way to “trust, but
he speaker but not to depend
h h h k
CHECKLIST 4.2
Critical Thinking Skills. Practical applications
Critical Thinking About of critical thinking skills are emphasized throughout,
a Speech such as active listening skills, topic analysis, and
❒ Are the main ideas identifiable? reasoning. These and many other applied concepts
❒ Are the links among the ideas reasonable?
are recapped through the Checklists.
❒ Are the ideas supported where necessary?
❒ How does accepting or rejecting the thesis
affect my other beliefs?

xxii To the Instructor

Public Speaking Stresses The Quality of Internet Evidence
Analysis, Research, and There are additional concerns that relate to evidence obtained
from the Internet. The Internet has been described as the most
CHECKLIST 7.3
democratic means of publishing there is. Virtually anyone can Testing the Credibility
Evaluating Sources post virtually anything on the Web. As a consequence, there is al-
most no editorial or quality control except whatever is exercised of Supporting Material6
by the producer of the site. An online version of a printed pub- ❒ Is the evidence available for inspection?
The investigation and research process is covered lication—an electronic copy of a print journal article, for exam-
ple—can be assumed to reflect the same editorial judgment as
❒ Is the evidence accurate?
❒ Is the source credible?
in detail, with specific advice and guidance for the printed publication itself. At the other extreme, an individual’s
personal website may not have been checked at all. And some ❒ Is the source making statements within his

analyzing a thesis to discover new subtopics and organizations whose mission is to promote a particular viewpoint
can be deceptive, presenting propaganda as if it were scholarship.
or her expertise?
❒ Is the evidence internally consistent?

approaches. Emphasizing critical evaluation of Search engines attempt to distinguish between reliable
and unreliable websites, but they cannot do so perfectly. And
❒ Is the evidence contradicted by the best evi-
dence from other sources?
sources, the research chapter helps students learn whether the site looks “professional” is not a reliable indica-
tor either, because it is easier to design a sophisticated-looking
❒ Is the evidence recent enough?
❒ Is the evidence relevant to the point that it
how to choose effective supporting material, how site than it is to produce a book. In fact, sophisticated websites
that look like those of easily recognized organizations have
supports?

to judge if a source is credible, and how to cite been created for the purpose of coaxing individuals to reveal
their Social Security and credit card numbers in order to facilitate identity theft.
sources. Evaluation of Internet sources receives This, of course, is fraud.4 Extra vigilance is needed to be sure that you take only
reliable evidence from the Web. For these reasons, the responsibility to evaluate
special attention. Internet evidence rests with you. We need, therefore, to note some special pre-
cautions about supporting materials from electronic sources. The following ques-
In addition, Chapters 7 and 15 incorporate tions are especially pertinent:5
t
Does the site meet the basic standards of credibility? At a minimum, a
the information technology that students know credible website should contain the name of the sponsor, identification of
expert and believable author(s) or contributor(s), and information that is cur-
and use today, both for research and for pre-
sentation aids. With the distinction between
electronic and printed materials becoming more blurred, each chapter offers a
unified perspective, treating research sources and visual aids without regard to
their medium.
Table 7.3 Bibliographic Formats Table 7.3 Bibliographic formats

American Psychological Association (APA)—References American Psychological Association (APA)—References

Type of Source Sample Format Type of Source Sample Format

Book White, R. C., Jr. (2009). A. Lincoln: A biography. New York, NY: Random House. Book White, R. C., Jr. (2009). A. Lincoln: A biography. New York, NY: Random House.

Chapter from an Hauser, G. A. (2008). Rethinking deliberative democracy: Rhetoric, power, and civil society. In T. F. Chapter from an Hauser, G. A. (2008). Rethinking deliberative democracy: Rhetoric, power, and civil society. In T. F.
edited book McDorman and D. M. Timmerman (Eds.), Rhetoric and democracy: Pedagogical and political edited book McDorman & D. M. Timmerman (Eds.), Rhetoric and democracy: Pedagogical and political
practices (pp. 225–264). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. practices (pp. 225–264). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.

Magazine or newspa- Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges Magazine or Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges
per article (online) Congress. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com newspaper article Congress. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
(online)

Magazine or newspa- Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges
per article (print) Congress. New York Times, p. A1. Magazine or Stolberg, S. G., & Zeleny, J. (2009, September 10). Obama, armed with details, challenges
newspaper article Congress. The New York Times, p. A1.
(print)
Journal article (online) Howell, B. W. (2008). Reagan and Reykjavik: Arms control, SDI, and the argument from human
rights. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 11, 389–415. doi: 10.1353/rap.0.0045
Journal article (online) Howell, B. W. (2008). Reagan and Reykjavik: Arms control, SDI, and the argument from human
rights. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 11, 389–415. doi: 10.1353/rap.0.0045
Journal article (print) Bostdorff, D. M. (2009). Judgment, experience, and leadership: Candidate debates on the Iraq war
in the 2008 presidential primaries. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 12, 223–277.
Journal article (print) Bostdorff, D. M. (2009). Judgment, experience, and leadership: Candidate debates on the Iraq war
in the 2008 presidential primaries. Rhetoric & Public Affairs, 12, 223–277.
Web page Mehltretter, S. A. (2009). John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address,” 1961. Voices of Democracy.
Retrieved from http://www.voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/documents/Mehltretter-Kennedy.pdf
Web page Mehltretter, S. A. (2009). John F. Kennedy, “Inaugural Address,” 1961. Voices of Democracy.

Public Speaking Integrates Theory and Practice

An approach that views public speaking as a set of formulas or rules to be fol-
lowed is of limited value. Few actual speaking situations will match exactly those
for which the “rules” were written; students need instead to be able to adapt to
the particular situations in which they find themselves. In order to do that, they
must understand the theory behind the rules. Recognizing this fact, some books
try to “import” theory, including all the latest specialized terms and jargon. This
book instead integrates theory into the underlying discussions of practice, not by
highlighting obscure writers or technical terms, but by explaining clearly what stu-
dents should do and why. The book is solidly grounded in rhetorical theory, but no
prior knowledge of that field is either required or assumed. Theory and practice are
treated as a seamless fabric.

To the Instructor xxiii

 Public Speaking Features a Variety of
Challenging Examples and Applications
Because public speaking is situation-specific, this book includes a large number
of cases and examples encompassing a wide range of topics and issues. Some
examples come from actual speaking situations, and
others are hypothetical examples to illustrate points
CHOOSE A STRATEGY: Presenting Yo in the text. Also, some examples compare speeches in
the classroom with speeches in the field, and there are
The Situation 3. How will
both brief examples and some extended examples that
You are a teacher at a grade school and your principal has pare to a
can be followed throughout an entire chapter. The ex-
asked you to present the new curriculum plan to the parents
What If… amples emphasize a need to analyze and respond to
in your community and also to answer any questions they
may have regarding these changes. There have been several How would y audiences as an integral part of the strategic thinking
major additions to the curriculum, and you want to make sure lowing were t process. Both histori-
that each change is explained clearly to the parents. You will Would your pr
An Example1.ofYou Rhetorical Proof
cal and contemporary
be presenting in the school gymnasium where a microphone are
After introducing a speech about the effect of tax increases on a family's budget,
and podium will be set up the evening of your speech—which classroo examples are featured.
student Catherine Archer claimed
is two weeks from today. Taxes have taken a2bigger You have
bite out of the average paycheck each year. Just look at the
In keeping with the
record. Our state sales taxes have gone up faster than our income. Local property taxes
have gone through the roof. And now the federal government is proposing to raise gaso-
book’s emphasis on
line taxes again. Where does it all stop?
civic engagement,
After the speech, she invited questions from the floor. “What about Social Secu-
rity?” one woman asked. Catherine replied many of the examples
Thank you. That's still one more example of a tax that has gone up faster than income. In
fact, many people today pay more in Social Security tax than in their income tax. come from the realm
Then a man in the audience said, “Since you mentioned income taxes, I want to
remind you about the significant cuts in income tax rates that were passed by Con-
of public affairs.

Public Speaking Emphasizes Ethics and Respect

for Diverse Audiences
Every aspect of public speaking is affected by the need to be ethical and to under-
stand and respect diversity in audiences.
Some textbooks have a single chapter on ethics, as if it could be studied in isola-
tion. In contrast, this book reflects the view that ethical issues are involved in virtu-
ally every aspect of public speaking.

A Question of Ethics. Each chapter includes the feature A Question of Ethics to

highlight ethical issues students should consider as they prepare their own speeches or
listen to the speeches of others. While some ethical standards—such as avoidance of
plagiarism or racial
stereotyping—are
clear-cut, many involve A Question of Ethics
subjective and case-
Ethnocentric Assumptions
specific judgments. For
It is important for speakers to avoid making ethnocentric assumptions about the audi-
this reason, many of ence. However, sometimes you will know quite a bit about your audience that could help
the ethical issues are you to target a message to your listeners. For instance, your audience may be people
of the same age group, from the same community, or with the same religious beliefs. If
presented as problems you tailor your message to take advantage of this knowledge, is that ethnocentric? Is it
about which students pandering to the audience? Is it acceptable to be ethnocentric if your audience is in fact
homogeneous? How do you maintain a balance between appealing to your audience and
should think and being careful not to pander to their prejudices?
deliberate.

xxiv To the Instructor

Strategies for Speaking to Diverse Strategies for Speaking to Diverse Audiences
Audiences. Far from being a “buzzword” or
Respecting Diversity Through Persuading that children live with their parents until they are married,
an emblem of “political correctness,” diversity of Successful persuasion meets listeners where they are and whereas this is much less common in the United States.

audiences on virtually every dimension is a fact with
which speakers must be prepared to deal. It is a
condition that affects every aspect of public speaking.
Accordingly, throughout the book diversity is reflected
in precepts and examples, and every chapter includes
a feature entitled Strategies for Speaking to Diverse
Audiences that includes tips on how that chapter can
be applied in an increasingly diverse environment.
adapts to the opportunities and constraints of a situation.
These factors are all more complex when an audience is di-
3. Consider how different cultures may present you with dif-
ferent constraints or opportunities. If your emotional ap-
verse. Here are strategies for success in persuading diverse
audiences:
peal relies on a culturally specific value, then you may
need to plan ahead and think about other possible strate-
1. With diverse audiences, identification is both more
important (since it cannot be taken for granted) and
gies you might use.
4. Suggest actions that are appropriate and “do-able” for
more difficult (since you must acknowledge the variety
of your audience members’ beliefs and commitments).
your specific audience. Calling on an audience to solve the
Israel-Palestine conflict not only is asking for too much but
Identify with your listeners before moving them to a new
commitment.
may alienate certain audience members who think you are
trivializing the issue.
2. Consider the diversity of values and commitments. For in- 5. Establish a positive ethos that invites trust from members
stance, “family values” in Mexico include the expectation of a diverse audience.

Public Speaking Emphasizes the Public Forum

This book grounds public speaking in the concept
of the public forum and illustrates these speaking Rhetorical Workout
situations with both historical and contemporary ex-
Find the Public Forum in Your Neighborhood 3. In the public forum, a decision requires subjective judg-
amples. Beginning speakers will learn what makes a You and several of your neighbors would like to plan a neigh- ment, which means there is no one obvious solution
and the participants may all have different opinions.
healthy public forum and how to apply strategies to borhood rummage sale. You set up a meeting to talk about
when to have the sale and how to work together to promote How might this factor play out in your neighborhood
meeting?
situations outside of the classroom—on campuses, in it. Let's look at what makes this meeting a public forum.
1. What are the issues or problems affecting the group
4. Why is a decision needed in your meeting?

communities, and in other realms of public affairs. collectively? What kinds of issues might affect you and
each of your neighbors individually? Outside of your
5. Suppose you have recently moved in and don't know
your neighbors very well yet. How can your speaking and
group, who might be affected by what you decide? communication skills help you contribute to the meeting
and the group's decision?
2. Why is cooperative action needed in your meeting? Is
OBJECTIVE it important for every person to participate in the deci-
The Public Forum 1.4 sion? Why or why not?
The word public in “public speaking” is important in at least two respects. First,
it designates speaking that is open and accessible by others. A person who speaks
publicly is inviting others to listen carefully and to think about and appraise the
message. The speaker’s goal is that of informed choice, not forced compliance, on
the part of the audience.
Second, speaking is public when it affects people beyond the immediate audi-
ence. If you urge classmates to lobby for higher student activity fees, your remarks
will have consequences for people who are not even present to hear you. If you
explain how to examine the terms of a lease before signing it, listeners can follow
your directions in ways that will affect others as well.
public
From the speaker’s point of view giving a speech means entering into the public

I believe that public speaking is the single most important course in the curricu-
lum because of the immense contribution it can make to students’ lives. Good luck
as you work to make that happen. I hope that this book will help you.

David Zarefsky

Instructional Resources
A wide array of additional instructor and student resources are available with this
book, including
t
Instructor’s Resource Manual
t
Test Bank
t
MyTest Computerized Test Bank
t
PowerPoint Presentation Package
t
Pearson Public Speaking Video Library
For a current, complete list of accompanying student and instructor supplements,
visit www.pearsonhighered.com/communication. Select instructor supplements
are available at www.pearsonhighered.com/irc (instructor login required).

To the Instructor xxv

MyCommunicationLab is an online homework, tu-
torial, and assessment program that truly engages
students in learning. It helps students better prepare
for class, quizzes, and exams—resulting in better per-
formance in the course—and provides educators a
dynamic set of tools for gauging individual and class
progress. And, MyCommunicationLab comes from
Pearson, your partner in providing the best digital
learning experiences.

MyCommunicationLab
Highlights: www.mycommunicationlab.com
■ MediaShare: This comprehensive file upload tool allows students to post speeches, outlines, visual
aids, video assignments, role plays, group projects, and more in a variety of file formats. Uploaded files
are available for viewing, commenting, and grading by instructors and class members in face-to-face
and online course settings. Integrated video capture functionality allows students to record video di-
rectly from a webcam and allows instructors to record videos via webcam, in class or in a lab, and attach
them directly to a specific student and/or assignment. The MediaShare app is available via iTunes at no
additional charge for those who have purchased MediaShare or MyCommunicationLab access.
■ The Pearson eText: Identical in content and design to the printed text, the Pearson eText lets students ac-
cess their textbook anytime, anywhere, and any way they want—including downloading to an iPad. Students
can take notes and highlight, just like a traditional text.
■ Videos and Video Quizzes: Videos provide students with the opportunity to watch and evaluate chapter-
related multimedia. Many videos include automatically graded quiz questions.
■ PersonalityProfile: PersonalityProfile is Pearson’s online library for self-assessment and analysis. Online
resources provide students with opportunities to evaluate their own and others’ communication styles. In-
structors can use these tools to show learning and growth over the duration of the course.
■ Study Tools: A personalized study plan, chapter assessment, key term flashcards, an audio version of the
text, and more provide a robust range of study tools to focus students on what they need to know, helping
them succeed in the course and beyond.
■ Class Preparation Tool: Finding, organizing, and presenting your instructor resources is fast and easy with
Pearson’s class preparation tool. This fully searchable database contains hundreds of resources such as lec-
ture launchers, discussion topics, activities, assignments, and video clips. Instructors can search or browse
by topic and sort the results by type. Personalized folders can be created to organize and store content or
download resources, as well as upload your own content.

Instructional Resources xxvi

xxvi
Acknowledgments
Reviewers for the Seventh
Edition
Articulating this perspective on public speaking in a textbook
that is accessible to students has been a stimulating chal-
lenge. All or part of the manuscript was read by Marty Birkholt,
Creighton University; Jodi Gaete, SUNY Suffolk County Com-
munity College; Laura Keimig, Creighton University; James
L. Leighter, Creighton University; Daryle Nagano, El Camino
College; Lynette Sharp Penya, Abilene Christian Univer-
sity; Samuel Rindell, Three Rivers Community College; Brent
Sleasman, Gannon University.
Reviewers of Previous Editions
Elizabeth R. Alcock, Bristol Community College; Ellen
Arden-Ogle, Consumnes River College; Susan Baack, Montana
State University; Ernest Bartow, Bucks County Community Col-
lege; John Bee, Ohio State University; Sandra Berkowitz, Wayne
State University; Vincent Bloom, California State University–
Fresno; Barbara Blackstone, Slippery Rock University; Robert
Bookwalter, Marshall University; Kristine S. Bruss, University of
Kansas; Ferald J. Bryan, Northern Illinois University; C. Leilani
Carver, University of Kansas; Leah Ceccarelli, University of
Washington; Faye Clark, DeKalb College; Lisa Inzer Coleman,
Southwest Tennesee Community College; Melanie Conrad,
Berry College; Marion Couvillon, Mississippi State University;
Marilyn Cristiano, Paradise Valley Community College; Jim
Dittus, Highland Community College; Michael Howard Eaves,
Valdosta State University; Susan Redding Emel, Baker Uni-
versity; Patricia Faverty, Thomas More College; Mindy Fenske,
University of South Carolina; William Fusfeld, University of
Pittsburgh; Kathleen Galvin, Northwestern University; John
Giertz, Bakersfield State University; Joseph Giordana, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin–Eau Claire; William Goodbar, Old Domin-
ion University; Andrea Gregg, Penn State University; Mark A.
Gring, Texas Tech University; Rose Gruber, Gloucester County
College; Richard Halley, Weber State University; Kelby K. Ha-
lone, Clemson University; Katherine L. Hatfield, Creighton
University; Diane Hill, Providence College; Heather Hundley,
California State University—San Bernardino; Stephen K. Hunt,
Illinois State University; Carol Jablonski, University of South
Florida; Karla Kay Jensen, Texas Tech University; Richard Jen-
sen, University of Nevada–Las Vegas; Jack Johnson, University
of Wisconsin–Milwaukee; Nicole Johnson, Berry College; Wil-
liam Jordan, North Carolina State University; Douglas Kresse,
Fullerton College; Elizabeth Lamoureux, Buena Vista Uni-
versity; Amy London, Oxnard College; Thomas A. Marshall
II, Robert Morris College; Al Montanaro, SUNY Plattsburgh;
Craig Monroe, California State University, San Bernardino;
John M. Murphy, University of Georgia; Daryle Nagano-Krier,
El Camino College; Stephen Neilson, University of Nevada–Las
Vegas; Patrick O’Sullivan, Illinois State University; Cate Palc-
zewski, University of Northern Iowa; Jay Pence, University of
North Carolina–Chapel Hill; Bonnie Peterson, University of
Wisconsin-Parkside; Lee Polk, Baylor University; Benjamin Pon-
der, Ponder Media; Kenna J. Reeves, Emporia State University;
Kurt Ritter, Texas A&M University; Kellie Roberts, University of
Florida; Rebecca L. Roberts, University of Wyoming; Paul Sa-
belka, Iowa Wesleyan College; Noreen Schaefer-Faix, Kutztown
University; David Schneider. Saginaw Valley State University;
Deanna Sellnow, North Dakota State University; Ryan Shepard,
University of Kansas; Kenneth G. Sherwood, Los Angeles City
College; Calvin Smith, Eastern Illinois University; Cynthia Du-
quette Smith, Indiana University, Bloomington; Jessica Stowell,
Tulsa Junior College; Robert Terrill, Indiana University; Denise
Vrchota, Iowa State University; Beth Waggenspack, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute and State University; Rita Kirk Whillock,
Southern Methodist University; Roy Wood, University of
Denver; Quentin Wright, Mountain View College.
The comments and suggestions of the reviewers listed above
were quite helpful and often pointed the way for substantial im-
provement in the manuscript. The responsibility for what I have
written, of course, remains with me.
Additional Thanks
My debt to Leah Ceccarelli, now on the faculty at the University
of Washington, continues from the first edition. She helped in
the development and selection of examples and end-of-chapter
features and helped significantly to shape the tone of the book.
I also appreciate the work of those who prepared supplementary
materials for previous editions: Victoria Gallagher, North Caro-
lina State University; Glen Williams, University of Akron; Melissa
Beall, University of Northern Iowa; Robert Brookey, Northern
Illinois University; Robert Bookwalter, Marshall University;
Calvin Troup, Duquesne University; Terry Doyle, Northern Virginia
Community College; Sherilyn Marrow, University of North-
ern Colorado; Renee Brokaw, The University of North Carolina,
Charlotte; and Kristine Greenwood, Marshall University.
I am grateful to those who assisted in the preparation of
this seventh edition. Elliot Heilman, currently a Ph.D. candi-
date at Northwestern University, helped me with the revision
and updating of examples, the reorganization of key chapters,
the enhanced coverage of technology, and additions to the end-
of-chapter discussion questions and activities. Additionally,
I am grateful to Thomas Lessl of the University of Georgia, who
prepared the Instructor’s Resource Manual; Kristine Greenwood
of Marshall University, who prepared the Test Bank; and Bjorn
Stillion Southard of the University of Georgia, who prepared the
PowerPointTM presentation package for this edition.
At Pearson, Steve Hull and Joe Opiela first persuaded me to
undertake this project and Bill Barke placed his faith in my abil-
ity to complete the book in a reasonable period of time. For this
edition I again worked closely with Brenda Hadenfeldt, whose
keen insights and editorial suggestions strengthened the book
considerably. I have benefited from the editing of Karon Bowers,
Carol Alper, Shannon Morrow, Brian Wheel, and Cate Dodson.
I also am grateful for the diligent efforts of all the production
staff at Pearson, often working against short deadlines.
xxvii
PART I: FOUNDATIONS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

CHAPTER

1 Welcome to Public Speaking

2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Listen to the
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Audio Chapter at
MyCommunicationLab
Objective 1.1 Identify the principal things you will learn in this course and how
they will benefit you outside the classroom.

Objective 1.2 Describe public speaking as a communication process in which the

speaker and listeners jointly create meaning and understanding.

Objective 1.3 Name the elements of a rhetorical situation and explain the steps
by which a speech affects the situation.

Objective 1.4 Define the public forum and describe how studying public
speaking will prepare you to participate effectively in it.

Objective 1.5 Identify the principal ethical obligations of listeners and speakers.

OUTLINE
Why Study Public Speaking?
Develop Specific Communication Skills | Focus on Critical Thinking and Strategic
Planning | Apply What You Learn

Public Speaking and Communication

The Audience’s View | The Speaker’s View | The Interplay

The Rhetorical Situation

The Audience | The Occasion | The Speaker | The Speech | Constraints and
Opportunities

The Public Forum

Characteristics of the Public Forum | The Health of the Public Forum | Public
Speaking and the Public Forum

Ethics: Respect for Audience, Topic, and Occasion

Respect for Your Listeners | Respect for Your Topic | Responsibility for Your
Statements | Concern for the Consequences of Your Speech

3
 W
elcome to Public Speaking, one of the most important courses you will
ever take. If that sounds like too strong a claim, consider what these
students had to say after taking a public speaking course:
I used to be terrified of speaking in public. I’ve learned that solid preparation is the key to
overcoming my fears. I still get nervous, but now I know how to control my nervousness
and focus on communicating with my audience.
This class has taught me to be a better listener. I’m more aware of weak arguments, fuzzy
logic, and unsupported claims. I think critically about what I am being persuaded to do
and why.
Before taking this class, I used to be the most boring speaker! My speeches were well
researched, but my delivery was poor. Now I make eye contact with my audience members
and use my voice and pauses to set a tone and emphasize key points.
I’ve learned more about the structure of speeches, especially the importance of an atten-
tion-grabber at the beginning of my speech and a preview of my main points to give the
audience a “road map” of what I’m going to say.
These students noticed right away that a public speaking course helped them to
develop or to refine their communication skills. You will notice a difference by the
end of your course, too—and as you move beyond the classroom, you will find that
the knowledge and experience you gain from the course also help you to be a more
successful worker and a more effective citizen.

OBJECTIVE

1.1 Why Study Public Speaking?

You may have enrolled in this course because you expect to be making public pre-
sentations and you want to learn how to do that better and more easily. Maybe
your goal is to speak more forcefully or to be less nervous. Perhaps you want to
become better organized, to learn more about how to prepare a speech, or to
think more clearly and more critically. You may even have chosen the course be-
cause it meets at a convenient time, is a requirement for graduation, or has a good
instructor.

Develop Specific Communication Skills

Explore the Exercise Whatever your reasons for studying public speaking, this class will enable you to
“Personal Report develop or improve a variety of communication skills, such as how to:
of Communication
Apprehension” at t
Listen carefully and critically in order to understand and evaluate what oth-
MyCommunicationLab
ers say.
t
Decide what you want to speak about.
t
Select what to say.
t
Find the material for a speech by examining your own experience, consulting
with others, using the Internet, and visiting a library.
t
Think critically about what you read and observe so that you will reason
soundly when addressing an audience.
t
Organize a speech to make it clear, coherent, sensible, and effective.
t
Use language skillfully to convey both meaning and mood.

4 Chapter 1 Welcome to Public Speaking

 t
Use your voice and your body to present your-
self and your message in an effective, compelling
way.
t
Overcome speech anxiety and use any nervous-
ness to your advantage.
t
Use visual aids to enhance your message.
t
Adapt general principles to your speaking situ-
ation, with emphasis on the dimensions of in-
forming, persuading, and entertaining.
t
Understand and benefit from reactions to your
speeches so that the audience’s response helps
you improve your skills.
This set of skills has been studied and taught for As one in a group of speakers, this advocate must make his message
about 2,500 years (in different ways over the years, of distinctive and adapt it to the audience. These tasks require good
course), so you are taking part in a very old and valu- strategic planning.
able academic tradition.

Focus on Critical Thinking

and Strategic Planning
Besides improving these specific skills as a communicator, you also will be apply-
ing and refining two invaluable general skills that are emphasized throughout this
book: critical thinking and strategic planning.

Critical Thinking. Public speaking is in large measure an exercise in critical

thinking, the ability to form and defend your own judgments rather than blindly
accepting or instantly rejecting what you hear or read. Critical thinkers can
analyze and understand various points of view, and they can quickly recognize the
difference between fact and opinion.
Facts, as we will see in detail later, are statements that—at least in theory—can
be verified by someone else. If a speaker says that the world’s population has dou-
bled every 25 years, that statement can be tested by checking population statistics. critical thinking
In contrast, opinions are subjective statements that presumably are based on expe- The ability to form and defend your
rience or expertise. If a speaker asserts that the world’s population is growing too own judgments rather than blindly
accepting or instantly rejecting what
fast, that opinion cannot be verified externally; it stands or falls depending on the
you hear or read.
insight and judgment of the person who offers it.
As a listener, critical thinking will help you to recognize a speaker’s unstated facts
assumptions. As a speaker, it will help you to form precise statements that embody Statements that can be verified by
your thoughts. Overall, critical thinking will place ideas into a broader context, someone other than the speaker.
showing how they relate to other things that you already know or believe.
opinions
Strategic Planning. A speaker operates in a world of choices, including Subjective judgments based on
experience or expertise, not capable
whether to speak, when to speak, what to say, how to phrase a point and how to
of being verified by someone else.
explain or defend it, how to organize the message, what tone to give it, and exactly
how to relate a message to the audience. Some speakers make these choices
strategic planning
unconsciously, without real thought (and relying on luck). But effective speakers The process of identifying your goals
make their choices strategically; through strategic planning they identify their and then determining how best to
goals and then determine how best to achieve them. achieve them.

Why Study Public Speaking? 5


Explore the Exercise
“Principles of
Communication” at
MyCommunicationLab
OBJECTIVE
1.2
communication
Interaction that builds connections
between people that helps them
to understand each other and to
recognize common interests.
6 Chapter 1 Welcome to Public Speaking
Apply What You Learn
Public speaking combines theory and practice that you can apply to your daily life.
As you study creative and critical thinking, sensitivity to audiences, and effective
speech presentation, the skills you learn will:
t
Help you critically evaluate messages and appeals of all kinds.
t
Make you more sensitive to people and situations.
t
Enable you to recognize and adapt to diverse audiences and complex
occasions.
t
Increase your self-confidence and your willingness to engage in serious dia-
logue with others.1
Outside the classroom, these attributes will enhance your personal, profes-
sional, and civic life. Sensitivity to others and to their perspectives will help you in
personal relationships as well as when, for instance, you speak to neighborhood
groups, Scout troops, parent-teacher associations, or religious organizations. Em-
ployers and career counselors often put “good communication skills” at the top of
the list of qualities they seek in people.2 The reason is simple: Each year our econ-
omy becomes more dependent on information and the ability to communicate it.
Your study of public speaking also will help make you a more competent, more
active citizen. You will be better able to understand public issues and controver-
sies, to decide what you think about them, and to participate effectively in ad-
dressing them—whether on your campus, in your neighborhood, or in the larger
public forum.
Public Speaking and Communication
In one sense, we all know what public speaking is: a speaker transmits a message
orally to an audience. But this simple view does not explain just how the speaker
and listeners participate in communication, interacting in order to build connec-
tions whereby they can understand each other and recognize common interests.
Early theories of communication viewed public speaking as a series of one-way
messages sent from speaker to audience. In fact, however, the audience partici-
pates along with the speaker in creating shared meaning and understanding. The
speaker’s ideas and values are tested and refined through interaction with the
audience, and listeners’ knowledge and understanding are modified through in-
teraction with the speaker. Thus, public speaking is a continuous communication
process in which messages and signals circulate back and forth between speaker
and listeners.
The Audience’s View
From the audience’s point of view, each listener comes to the speech with a frame-
work of prior knowledge, beliefs, and values, and each listener “decodes,” or inter-
prets, the speaker’s message within this personal framework. In a large or culturally
diverse audience, the frameworks used by listeners may vary greatly.
To a particular listener, some ideas will be more important, or salient, than other
ideas. In a speech about carrying weapons on campus, for example, some listeners
will be focused on personal liberty, others on campus safety, and still others on
the dangers of gun violence. The speech may support, challenge, or modify any
of these frameworks, but each listener’s framework will shape how he or she in-
terprets and understands the speech. Audience members work actively to assess
what the speaker says against what they already know or believe, and they con-
stantly make judgments about the message and convey them back to the speaker
through facial responses and other nonverbal clues.

The Speaker’s View

From the speaker’s point of view, knowing about the audience is crucial in pre-
paring and delivering a speech. A speech about campus social life, for example,
would be different for an audience of prospective students than for an audience of
alumni, or even for an audience of current students. Even if the basic points of the
speech were the same, the nature of the audience would affect how they are de-
veloped and explained and what tone or attitude the speaker projects. In preparing
the speech, the speaker would analyze the audience and try to match listeners’
expectations appropriately. Moreover, as listeners respond during the speech (by
frowning, nodding approval, looking puzzled, etc.), the speaker would constantly
modify how key points are organized and phrased and would try to acknowledge
or respond to the audience’s concerns.

The Interplay
Figure 1.1 depicts this interplay between speaker and audience. Suppose that you
plan to speak about the benefits of a vegetarian diet. In preparing the speech,
you’ll remember that some listeners think vegetarianism is healthful; others think
it is a passing fad; others come from cultures in which eating meat is prohibited,
so that vegetarianism is not a matter of choice; and still others associate vegetari-
anism with eccentrics who don’t really understand nutrition. As you speak, you’ll
be watching for feedback, responses from the audience that signal how they are
reacting to what you say. Most responses will be nonverbal, such as frowns or

Spoken messages

[Message]
“A vegetarian diet Am I being
is the best one for pressured here?
[Audience views acknowledged] your health.”
“You may think vegetarians are Is she implying Vegetarians always
-really onto something, or that my burgers puzzled me. Why do
-just pursuing a fad, or are bad? they do it?
-oddballs who don't
understand nutrition.”

Source: Speaker Receivers: Audience feedback

Responses from the audience to
Audience response signals (feedback) the speaker, often in the form of
Figure 1.1 Public speaking as a communication process. nonverbal cues.

Public Speaking and Communication 7


Watch the Video
“Persuasive Speech:
Starbucks” at
MyCommunicationLab
nods of agreement. Feedback might prompt you to acknowledge that some people
doubt the merits of vegetarian diets; you might even admit that you had doubts
yourself but now are a committed vegetarian. Throughout the speech—from its
preparation through its presentation—you will be sensitive to how well your ideas
match your audience, and you’ll use feedback to improve the fit as you speak.
You may convince some audience members to change their beliefs; others may
interpret your message in ways consistent with their beliefs; and if the discrepancy
between their beliefs and your message is too great, some listeners will reject your
message. In any case, the audience will be actively involved as you speak, inter-
preting and testing what you say against their own beliefs and values, and letting
you know their reactions. In short, the speaker and listeners simultaneously par-
ticipate in creating the message.

OBJECTIVE

1.3 The Rhetorical Situation

Public speaking occurs in a specific situation. Unlike great dramatic or liter-
ary works, which “speak to the ages,” the principal test of a good speech is
whether it responds most effectively to the needs of the situation in which it is
presented.5
The situation is the specific context in which a speech is given. Compared with
poems and stories, which are read long after they were written, most speeches
have a short life span. For example, student Jeremy Johnson’s first speech to his
classmates concerned an important and timely issue:
Almost every week, there are new reports of genocidal violence in the Darfur region of
Sudan. Innocent civilians, women and children among them, are killed or raped every day
by marauding bands of Janjaweed militia whose goal is ethnic cleansing of the non-Arab
peoples in their region. The crisis of Darfur is one of the greatest human catastrophes of
our time—worse than Bosnia, Kosovo, Rwanda, or even Iraq. But our government and our
attention have been so preoccupied with other wars and conflicts around the world that
we have forgotten the people of Darfur and have abandoned our international human
rights ideals.
Although Jeremy’s speech probably could be appreciated long after the violence
in Sudan subsides, it was created in response to a particular event and was de-
signed primarily to be heard by a particular audience.
The study of how messages affect people has long been called rhetoric. This
ancient discipline is concerned with the role that messages play in:

situation t
Shaping, reaffirming, and modifying people’s values

The particular context in which a
speech takes place.
rhetoric
The study of how messages affect
people.
rhetorical situation
A situation in which people’s
understanding can be changed
through messages.
t
Binding people closer together or moving them farther apart
t
Celebrating significant events
t
Creating a sense of identity among people
t
Conveying information and helping people to learn
t
Nurturing, strengthening, or changing people’s beliefs
t
Leading people to take (or not to take) action
A rhetorical situation, then, is a situation in which people’s understanding can
be changed through messages.6 The following example shows how student Katie

8 Chapter 1 Welcome to Public Speaking

Another random document with
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 DANCE ON STILTS AT THE GIRLS’ UNYAGO, NIUCHI

Newala, too, suffers from the distance of its water-supply—at least

the Newala of to-day does; there was once another Newala in a lovely
valley at the foot of the plateau. I visited it and found scarcely a trace
of houses, only a Christian cemetery, with the graves of several
missionaries and their converts, remaining as a monument of its
former glories. But the surroundings are wonderfully beautiful. A
thick grove of splendid mango-trees closes in the weather-worn
crosses and headstones; behind them, combining the useful and the
agreeable, is a whole plantation of lemon-trees covered with ripe
fruit; not the small African kind, but a much larger and also juicier
imported variety, which drops into the hands of the passing traveller,
without calling for any exertion on his part. Old Newala is now under
the jurisdiction of the native pastor, Daudi, at Chingulungulu, who,
as I am on very friendly terms with him, allows me, as a matter of
course, the use of this lemon-grove during my stay at Newala.
 FEET MUTILATED BY THE RAVAGES OF THE “JIGGER”
(Sarcopsylla penetrans)

The water-supply of New Newala is in the bottom of the valley,

some 1,600 feet lower down. The way is not only long and fatiguing,
but the water, when we get it, is thoroughly bad. We are suffering not
only from this, but from the fact that the arrangements at Newala are
nothing short of luxurious. We have a separate kitchen—a hut built
against the boma palisade on the right of the baraza, the interior of
which is not visible from our usual position. Our two cooks were not
long in finding this out, and they consequently do—or rather neglect
to do—what they please. In any case they do not seem to be very
particular about the boiling of our drinking-water—at least I can
attribute to no other cause certain attacks of a dysenteric nature,
from which both Knudsen and I have suffered for some time. If a
man like Omari has to be left unwatched for a moment, he is capable
of anything. Besides this complaint, we are inconvenienced by the
state of our nails, which have become as hard as glass, and crack on
the slightest provocation, and I have the additional infliction of
pimples all over me. As if all this were not enough, we have also, for
the last week been waging war against the jigger, who has found his
Eldorado in the hot sand of the Makonde plateau. Our men are seen
all day long—whenever their chronic colds and the dysentery likewise
raging among them permit—occupied in removing this scourge of
Africa from their feet and trying to prevent the disastrous
consequences of its presence. It is quite common to see natives of
this place with one or two toes missing; many have lost all their toes,
or even the whole front part of the foot, so that a well-formed leg
ends in a shapeless stump. These ravages are caused by the female of
Sarcopsylla penetrans, which bores its way under the skin and there
develops an egg-sac the size of a pea. In all books on the subject, it is
stated that one’s attention is called to the presence of this parasite by
an intolerable itching. This agrees very well with my experience, so
far as the softer parts of the sole, the spaces between and under the
toes, and the side of the foot are concerned, but if the creature
penetrates through the harder parts of the heel or ball of the foot, it
may escape even the most careful search till it has reached maturity.
Then there is no time to be lost, if the horrible ulceration, of which
we see cases by the dozen every day, is to be prevented. It is much
easier, by the way, to discover the insect on the white skin of a
European than on that of a native, on which the dark speck scarcely
shows. The four or five jiggers which, in spite of the fact that I
constantly wore high laced boots, chose my feet to settle in, were
taken out for me by the all-accomplished Knudsen, after which I
thought it advisable to wash out the cavities with corrosive
sublimate. The natives have a different sort of disinfectant—they fill
the hole with scraped roots. In a tiny Makua village on the slope of
the plateau south of Newala, we saw an old woman who had filled all
the spaces under her toe-nails with powdered roots by way of
prophylactic treatment. What will be the result, if any, who can say?
The rest of the many trifling ills which trouble our existence are
really more comic than serious. In the absence of anything else to
smoke, Knudsen and I at last opened a box of cigars procured from
the Indian store-keeper at Lindi, and tried them, with the most
distressing results. Whether they contain opium or some other
narcotic, neither of us can say, but after the tenth puff we were both
“off,” three-quarters stupefied and unspeakably wretched. Slowly we
recovered—and what happened next? Half-an-hour later we were
once more smoking these poisonous concoctions—so insatiable is the
craving for tobacco in the tropics.
Even my present attacks of fever scarcely deserve to be taken
seriously. I have had no less than three here at Newala, all of which
have run their course in an incredibly short time. In the early
afternoon, I am busy with my old natives, asking questions and
making notes. The strong midday coffee has stimulated my spirits to
an extraordinary degree, the brain is active and vigorous, and work
progresses rapidly, while a pleasant warmth pervades the whole
body. Suddenly this gives place to a violent chill, forcing me to put on
my overcoat, though it is only half-past three and the afternoon sun
is at its hottest. Now the brain no longer works with such acuteness
and logical precision; more especially does it fail me in trying to
establish the syntax of the difficult Makua language on which I have
ventured, as if I had not enough to do without it. Under the
circumstances it seems advisable to take my temperature, and I do
so, to save trouble, without leaving my seat, and while going on with
my work. On examination, I find it to be 101·48°. My tutors are
abruptly dismissed and my bed set up in the baraza; a few minutes
later I am in it and treating myself internally with hot water and
lemon-juice.
Three hours later, the thermometer marks nearly 104°, and I make
them carry me back into the tent, bed and all, as I am now perspiring
heavily, and exposure to the cold wind just beginning to blow might
mean a fatal chill. I lie still for a little while, and then find, to my
great relief, that the temperature is not rising, but rather falling. This
is about 7.30 p.m. At 8 p.m. I find, to my unbounded astonishment,
that it has fallen below 98·6°, and I feel perfectly well. I read for an
hour or two, and could very well enjoy a smoke, if I had the
wherewithal—Indian cigars being out of the question.
Having no medical training, I am at a loss to account for this state
of things. It is impossible that these transitory attacks of high fever
should be malarial; it seems more probable that they are due to a
kind of sunstroke. On consulting my note-book, I become more and
more inclined to think this is the case, for these attacks regularly
follow extreme fatigue and long exposure to strong sunshine. They at
least have the advantage of being only short interruptions to my
work, as on the following morning I am always quite fresh and fit.
My treasure of a cook is suffering from an enormous hydrocele which
makes it difficult for him to get up, and Moritz is obliged to keep in
the dark on account of his inflamed eyes. Knudsen’s cook, a raw boy
from somewhere in the bush, knows still less of cooking than Omari;
consequently Nils Knudsen himself has been promoted to the vacant
post. Finding that we had come to the end of our supplies, he began
by sending to Chingulungulu for the four sucking-pigs which we had
bought from Matola and temporarily left in his charge; and when
they came up, neatly packed in a large crate, he callously slaughtered
the biggest of them. The first joint we were thoughtless enough to
entrust for roasting to Knudsen’s mshenzi cook, and it was
consequently uneatable; but we made the rest of the animal into a
jelly which we ate with great relish after weeks of underfeeding,
consuming incredible helpings of it at both midday and evening
meals. The only drawback is a certain want of variety in the tinned
vegetables. Dr. Jäger, to whom the Geographical Commission
entrusted the provisioning of the expeditions—mine as well as his
own—because he had more time on his hands than the rest of us,
seems to have laid in a huge stock of Teltow turnips,[46] an article of
food which is all very well for occasional use, but which quickly palls
when set before one every day; and we seem to have no other tins
left. There is no help for it—we must put up with the turnips; but I
am certain that, once I am home again, I shall not touch them for ten
years to come.
Amid all these minor evils, which, after all, go to make up the
genuine flavour of Africa, there is at least one cheering touch:
Knudsen has, with the dexterity of a skilled mechanic, repaired my 9
× 12 cm. camera, at least so far that I can use it with a little care.
How, in the absence of finger-nails, he was able to accomplish such a
ticklish piece of work, having no tool but a clumsy screw-driver for
taking to pieces and putting together again the complicated
mechanism of the instantaneous shutter, is still a mystery to me; but
he did it successfully. The loss of his finger-nails shows him in a light
contrasting curiously enough with the intelligence evinced by the
above operation; though, after all, it is scarcely surprising after his
ten years’ residence in the bush. One day, at Lindi, he had occasion
to wash a dog, which must have been in need of very thorough
cleansing, for the bottle handed to our friend for the purpose had an
extremely strong smell. Having performed his task in the most
conscientious manner, he perceived with some surprise that the dog
did not appear much the better for it, and was further surprised by
finding his own nails ulcerating away in the course of the next few
days. “How was I to know that carbolic acid has to be diluted?” he
mutters indignantly, from time to time, with a troubled gaze at his
mutilated finger-tips.
 Since we came to Newala we have been making excursions in all
directions through the surrounding country, in accordance with old
habit, and also because the akida Sefu did not get together the tribal
elders from whom I wanted information so speedily as he had
promised. There is, however, no harm done, as, even if seen only
from the outside, the country and people are interesting enough.
The Makonde plateau is like a large rectangular table rounded off
at the corners. Measured from the Indian Ocean to Newala, it is
about seventy-five miles long, and between the Rovuma and the
Lukuledi it averages fifty miles in breadth, so that its superficial area
is about two-thirds of that of the kingdom of Saxony. The surface,
however, is not level, but uniformly inclined from its south-western
edge to the ocean. From the upper edge, on which Newala lies, the
eye ranges for many miles east and north-east, without encountering
any obstacle, over the Makonde bush. It is a green sea, from which
here and there thick clouds of smoke rise, to show that it, too, is
inhabited by men who carry on their tillage like so many other
primitive peoples, by cutting down and burning the bush, and
manuring with the ashes. Even in the radiant light of a tropical day
such a fire is a grand sight.
Much less effective is the impression produced just now by the
great western plain as seen from the edge of the plateau. As often as
time permits, I stroll along this edge, sometimes in one direction,
sometimes in another, in the hope of finding the air clear enough to
let me enjoy the view; but I have always been disappointed.
Wherever one looks, clouds of smoke rise from the burning bush,
and the air is full of smoke and vapour. It is a pity, for under more
favourable circumstances the panorama of the whole country up to
the distant Majeje hills must be truly magnificent. It is of little use
taking photographs now, and an outline sketch gives a very poor idea
of the scenery. In one of these excursions I went out of my way to
make a personal attempt on the Makonde bush. The present edge of
the plateau is the result of a far-reaching process of destruction
through erosion and denudation. The Makonde strata are
everywhere cut into by ravines, which, though short, are hundreds of
yards in depth. In consequence of the loose stratification of these
beds, not only are the walls of these ravines nearly vertical, but their
upper end is closed by an equally steep escarpment, so that the
western edge of the Makonde plateau is hemmed in by a series of
deep, basin-like valleys. In order to get from one side of such a ravine
to the other, I cut my way through the bush with a dozen of my men.
It was a very open part, with more grass than scrub, but even so the
short stretch of less than two hundred yards was very hard work; at
the end of it the men’s calicoes were in rags and they themselves
bleeding from hundreds of scratches, while even our strong khaki
suits had not escaped scatheless.

NATIVE PATH THROUGH THE MAKONDE BUSH, NEAR

MAHUTA

I see increasing reason to believe that the view formed some time
back as to the origin of the Makonde bush is the correct one. I have
no doubt that it is not a natural product, but the result of human
occupation. Those parts of the high country where man—as a very
slight amount of practice enables the eye to perceive at once—has not
yet penetrated with axe and hoe, are still occupied by a splendid
timber forest quite able to sustain a comparison with our mixed
forests in Germany. But wherever man has once built his hut or tilled
his field, this horrible bush springs up. Every phase of this process
may be seen in the course of a couple of hours’ walk along the main
road. From the bush to right or left, one hears the sound of the axe—
not from one spot only, but from several directions at once. A few
steps further on, we can see what is taking place. The brush has been
cut down and piled up in heaps to the height of a yard or more,
between which the trunks of the large trees stand up like the last
pillars of a magnificent ruined building. These, too, present a
melancholy spectacle: the destructive Makonde have ringed them—
cut a broad strip of bark all round to ensure their dying off—and also
piled up pyramids of brush round them. Father and son, mother and
son-in-law, are chopping away perseveringly in the background—too
busy, almost, to look round at the white stranger, who usually excites
so much interest. If you pass by the same place a week later, the piles
of brushwood have disappeared and a thick layer of ashes has taken
the place of the green forest. The large trees stretch their
smouldering trunks and branches in dumb accusation to heaven—if
they have not already fallen and been more or less reduced to ashes,
perhaps only showing as a white stripe on the dark ground.
This work of destruction is carried out by the Makonde alike on the
virgin forest and on the bush which has sprung up on sites already
cultivated and deserted. In the second case they are saved the trouble
of burning the large trees, these being entirely absent in the
secondary bush.
After burning this piece of forest ground and loosening it with the
hoe, the native sows his corn and plants his vegetables. All over the
country, he goes in for bed-culture, which requires, and, in fact,
receives, the most careful attention. Weeds are nowhere tolerated in
the south of German East Africa. The crops may fail on the plains,
where droughts are frequent, but never on the plateau with its
abundant rains and heavy dews. Its fortunate inhabitants even have
the satisfaction of seeing the proud Wayao and Wamakua working
for them as labourers, driven by hunger to serve where they were
accustomed to rule.
But the light, sandy soil is soon exhausted, and would yield no
harvest the second year if cultivated twice running. This fact has
been familiar to the native for ages; consequently he provides in
time, and, while his crop is growing, prepares the next plot with axe
and firebrand. Next year he plants this with his various crops and
lets the first piece lie fallow. For a short time it remains waste and
desolate; then nature steps in to repair the destruction wrought by
man; a thousand new growths spring out of the exhausted soil, and
even the old stumps put forth fresh shoots. Next year the new growth
is up to one’s knees, and in a few years more it is that terrible,
impenetrable bush, which maintains its position till the black
occupier of the land has made the round of all the available sites and
come back to his starting point.
The Makonde are, body and soul, so to speak, one with this bush.
According to my Yao informants, indeed, their name means nothing
else but “bush people.” Their own tradition says that they have been
settled up here for a very long time, but to my surprise they laid great
stress on an original immigration. Their old homes were in the
south-east, near Mikindani and the mouth of the Rovuma, whence
their peaceful forefathers were driven by the continual raids of the
Sakalavas from Madagascar and the warlike Shirazis[47] of the coast,
to take refuge on the almost inaccessible plateau. I have studied
African ethnology for twenty years, but the fact that changes of
population in this apparently quiet and peaceable corner of the earth
could have been occasioned by outside enterprises taking place on
the high seas, was completely new to me. It is, no doubt, however,
correct.
The charming tribal legend of the Makonde—besides informing us
of other interesting matters—explains why they have to live in the
thickest of the bush and a long way from the edge of the plateau,
instead of making their permanent homes beside the purling brooks
and springs of the low country.
“The place where the tribe originated is Mahuta, on the southern
side of the plateau towards the Rovuma, where of old time there was
nothing but thick bush. Out of this bush came a man who never
washed himself or shaved his head, and who ate and drank but little.
He went out and made a human figure from the wood of a tree
growing in the open country, which he took home to his abode in the
bush and there set it upright. In the night this image came to life and
was a woman. The man and woman went down together to the
Rovuma to wash themselves. Here the woman gave birth to a still-
born child. They left that place and passed over the high land into the
valley of the Mbemkuru, where the woman had another child, which
was also born dead. Then they returned to the high bush country of
Mahuta, where the third child was born, which lived and grew up. In
course of time, the couple had many more children, and called
themselves Wamatanda. These were the ancestral stock of the
Makonde, also called Wamakonde,[48] i.e., aborigines. Their
forefather, the man from the bush, gave his children the command to
bury their dead upright, in memory of the mother of their race who
was cut out of wood and awoke to life when standing upright. He also
warned them against settling in the valleys and near large streams,
for sickness and death dwelt there. They were to make it a rule to
have their huts at least an hour’s walk from the nearest watering-
place; then their children would thrive and escape illness.”
The explanation of the name Makonde given by my informants is
somewhat different from that contained in the above legend, which I
extract from a little book (small, but packed with information), by
Pater Adams, entitled Lindi und sein Hinterland. Otherwise, my
results agree exactly with the statements of the legend. Washing?
Hapana—there is no such thing. Why should they do so? As it is, the
supply of water scarcely suffices for cooking and drinking; other
people do not wash, so why should the Makonde distinguish himself
by such needless eccentricity? As for shaving the head, the short,
woolly crop scarcely needs it,[49] so the second ancestral precept is
likewise easy enough to follow. Beyond this, however, there is
nothing ridiculous in the ancestor’s advice. I have obtained from
various local artists a fairly large number of figures carved in wood,
ranging from fifteen to twenty-three inches in height, and
representing women belonging to the great group of the Mavia,
Makonde, and Matambwe tribes. The carving is remarkably well
done and renders the female type with great accuracy, especially the
keloid ornamentation, to be described later on. As to the object and
meaning of their works the sculptors either could or (more probably)
would tell me nothing, and I was forced to content myself with the
scanty information vouchsafed by one man, who said that the figures
were merely intended to represent the nembo—the artificial
deformations of pelele, ear-discs, and keloids. The legend recorded
by Pater Adams places these figures in a new light. They must surely
be more than mere dolls; and we may even venture to assume that
they are—though the majority of present-day Makonde are probably
unaware of the fact—representations of the tribal ancestress.
 The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.

MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

 This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]

MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY

With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
 “We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
 Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
 BRAZIER

Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT

SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB

CUTTING THE EDGE

 FINISHING THE BOTTOM

LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING

FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

 LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE

TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL

NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
 Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK

DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG

REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

 BEATING THE BARK

WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT

MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN