INFLUENCE OF C L O D S ON HYDRAULIC

CONDUCTIVITY O F COMPACTED C L A Y

By Craig H. Benson1 and David E. Daniel,2 Members, ASCE

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ABSTRACT: The hydraulic conductivity of a highly plastic, compacted clay soil

is significantly influenced by the size of clods used in preparing the soil for com-
paction. For soil compacted dry of optimum, hydraulic conductivity is 1,000,000
times smaller when the soil is prepared from small (4.6-mm) rather than large (19-
mm) clods. For soil compacted wet of optimum, clod size is unimportant. Large
differences are seen in the hydraulic conductivity of soils compacted with standard
versus modified Proctor procedures. The conclusion reached is that the fate of
clods and interclod pores during soil processing and compaction controlled the
hydraulic conductivity of the compacted soil. To achieve low hydraulic conduc-
tivity, it is necessary to destroy the clods and to eliminate large interclod pores
either by wetting the soil to a high water content or using a large compactive effort.

INTRODUCTION

A common task that challenges the geotechnical engineer is extrapolating

soil properties measured at the laboratory scale to field scale. In particular,
the in situ hydraulic conductivity of compacted soil is often different from
the results of laboratory tests. One factor that contributes to this difference
is the structure of soil compacted in the laboratory compared to the structure
of soil compacted in the field. Unless soils in the field and laboratory are
in a similar state of compaction, the hydraulic conductivity may be signif-
icantly different. To create soil conditions that are similar, the variables that
influence the structure of compacted soil must be carefully controlled.
Mitchell, et al. (1965) reported hydraulic conductivity tests on soil com-
pacted in the laboratory. The experiments isolated some of the fundamental
variables that influence the hydraulic conductivity of compacted soil. The
critical variables identified by Mitchell, et al. include molding water content,
method of compaction, compactive effort, and degree of saturation.
Recently, several investigations of the in situ hydraulic conductivity of
compacted soils have been performed (Daniel 1984; Day and Daniel 1985;
Daniel and Trautwein 1986; Elsbury and Sraders 1989). An important find-
ing is that laboratory measurements of hydraulic conductivity sometimes un-
derestimate the in situ hydraulic conductivity by an order of magnitude or
more. Daniel (1984) suggested that discrepancies between the hydraulic con-
ductivity of laboratory and field compacted soil may be partly due to dif-
ferences in clod size between the field and laboratory. Daniel supported his
hypothesis with measurements, but too few tests were performed to form a
definite conclusion.
In this paper, a study is described in which the influence of clods on the
hydraulic conductivity of a compacted clay was investigated. Soils were pre-
pared with two maximum clod sizes by passing a natural soil through a 19-
'Asst. Prof, of Civ. and Envir. Engrg., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706.
2
Assoc. Prof, of Civ. Engrg., Univ. of Texas, Austin, TX 78712.
Note. Discussion open until January 1, 1991. To extend the closing date one month,
a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of Journals. The manuscript
for this paper was submitted for review and possible publication on March 21, 1990.
This paper is part of the Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 116, No. 8,
August, 1990. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9410/90/0008-1231/$1.00 + $.15 per page.
Paper No. 24946.

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 mm (3/4~in.) sieve or 4.8-mm (No. 4) sieve. The soils were compacted with
standard or modified Proctor effort at several water contents, and the hy-
draulic conductivity was measured in fixed- and flexible-wall permeameters.
The effect of clods upon hydraulic conductivity is evaluated from the ex-
perimental findings, and practical implications in terms of field quality con-
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trol are examined.

SOIL

The soil used in the experiments was a highly plastic clay obtained from
a site in Houston, Texas. Analyses of the stockpiled soil indicated the liquid
limit was 56%, the plasticity index was 41%, and 82% of the soil was fine-
grained material (soil passing the No. 200 sieve). Hydrometer analyses showed
that the amount of clay material (defined as material finer than 2 u,m) was
42%. The cation exchange capacity was 25 meq/100 g, and the dominant
clay mineral in the soil was smectite. The soil is classified as CH by the
Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487). The soil was excavated
from a stockpile with a shovel, placed in 20 sacks, each containing about
25 lb (11 kg) of soil, and transported to the University of Texas. Then, the
soil was removed from the sacks, carefully blended, and stored in a plastic-
lined drum.

PROCEDURES

Processing of Soil
The soil obtained in Houston was processed to form the two soil portions
used in the study. A soil with large clods was prepared by passing the orig-
inal soil through a sieve with 19-mm (3/4-in.) openings. Clods that re-
mained on the sieve were broken down by hand until they passed through
the sieve. A few rocks were retained on the sieve and were discarded. This
soil had a maximum clod size of 19 mm. A soil with small clods was formed
by passing the original soil through a 19-mm sieve in the manner described.
The sieved soil was broken down further by crushing it mechanically. The
crushed soil was then passed through a No. 4 sieve (4.8-mm or 0.19-in.
openings). The soils were then mixed carefully with water to achieve the
desired water content. The moistened soils were stored for about 1 week to
allow time for the soil particles to hydrate.
After the soils were moistened and given time to hydrate, no attempt was
made to alter the size of clods. Thus, the maximum "clod size" mentioned
in this paper refers to the maximum size of clods immediately after being
passed through the sieve. The soil with large clods had a maximum clod
size of 19 mm and the soil with small clods a maximum clod size of 4.8
mm.
Compaction Tests
Compaction tests were performed by the standard and modified Proctor
methods described in ASTM standards D698 and 1557, respectively. Method
A was used for both compactive energies. The only deviation from the stan-
dard was the method used to process the soil as described previously.
Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
Compacted soils were tested primarily in rigid-wall, compaction-mold per-
meameters. Some flexible-wall tests were performed to develop comparative
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 data and to ensure that sidewall leakage was not a problem. The procedures
employed are summarized next.

Test with Rigid-Wall Cells

Upon completion of compaction, the top surface of the specimen was
trimmed and both ends scarified to minimize effects of smear. The specimen
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was then placed between the end plates of a compaction mold permeameter
(Fig. 1). Upper end plates permitted the specimen to swell freely. The in-
fluent liquid was pressurized with a regulated air pressure; effluent liquid
was collected at atmospheric pressure. The hydraulic gradient for all tests
was in the range of 20-100. The permeant liquid was de-aired 0.005 N
CaS0 4 for all tests. All tests continued until the hydraulic conductivity (k)
was steady, and nearly all tests were continued until rates of inflow and
outflow were equal. Tests on soil with extremely low k (<10~ 1 0 cm/s) gen-
erally did not have equal inflow and outflow when the test was terminated;
for these tests, hydraulic conductivity was computed from the rate of inflow,
which exceeded the rate of outflow. The causes for less measured outflow
than inflow were probably continued absorption of water by the soil and
evaporation of water from fluid burets in the hydraulic system. Tests on soil
with k > 10~7 c m / s typically lasted for about 2 weeks; soils with k < 10~7
c m / s were permeated for several months. Soils with k > 10~4 c m / s were
also tested in double-ring, rigid-wall permeameters (Fig. 2) to determine
whether sidewall leakage was occurring. The rates of flow from the inner
and outer rings were essentially identical, which indicated that sidewall leak-
age was not the cause for high hydraulic conductivity in the tests with rigid-
wall cells. Additional details concerning the testing procedure are given by
Benson (1987).

Tests with Flexible-Wall Cells

Specimens to be tested in flexible-wall permeameters (Fig. 3) were ex-
truded from the compaction molds. Then, the ends of the specimens were
trimmed and scarified to minimize the effects of smear. The specimens were
then placed in the permeameters with porous stones and filter-paper disks
Oh each end. The stones and disks were soaked in permeant liquid (0.005
N calcium sulfate) prior to assembly. Latex membranes were placed over
the sample and two O-rings were placed over the membrane on each end
cap to provide a seal. The cells were filled with tap water and the drainage
lines were flushed until no more air bubbles were visible.
Cell pressure and hydraulic gradient were applied concurrently. Flow was
oriented vertically downward with a small initial hydraulic gradient (about
10) and maximum effective stress (2.5 psi or 17 kPa). Testing at the initial
gradient continued until steady k was reached. In some cases, the gradient
was increased to as much as 100 to achieve measurable flow. Tests were
falling head, but the head loss across the test specimen was not allowed to
fall below 75% of the initial head loss.
No back pressure was used in any of the hydraulic conductivity tests on
this project because it was desired to simulate a low head of water ponded
above a soil liner. Normally, one would expect the hydraulic conductivity
to be higher when back pressure is used because the degree of saturation of
the soil being permeated should be higher with back pressure (Olson and
Daniel 1981). To minimize the presence of air in the soil, de-aired water

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 /influent
Uf port

top -
plate
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clamping
rod

bottom -
plate

FIG. 1. Rigid-Wall, Compaction-Mold Permeameter

/influent
if port

swell
ring

clamping
rod

bottom
plate

\ /
effluent
ports

FIG. 2. Rigid-Wall, Double-Ring, Compaction-Mold Permeameter

was used and permeation was continued until the rates of inflow and outflow
were equal (except for test specimens with hydraulic conductivity on the
order of 10~10 cm/s, where the outflow rate was less than the inflow rate
even after many months of permeation). The calculated degree of saturation
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FIG. 3. Flexible-Wall Permeameter

of test specimens at the end of permeation was between 91% and 100%
(average was 96%). Experience with low-hydraulic-conductivity soils utiliz-
ing similar testing procedures (Boynton and Daniel 1985; Foreman and Dan-
iel 1986; Daniel et al. 1988) has shown differences in hydraulic conductivity
between tests with and without back pressure of no more than a factor of
2-3 (far less than the order-of-magnitude differences in hydraulic conduc-
tivity discussed in this article). The relatively good agreement between tests
with and without back pressure is probably due to long-term permeation
(until inflow and outflow rates were equal) with de-aired water in tests with-
out back pressure.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Influence of Clod Size on Compaction Curve

Two standard Proctor compaction curves are shown in Fig. 4 for soils
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13 15 17

Water Content (%)

FIG. 4. Standard and Modified Proctor Compaction Curves

10"'

XStd. Proc.-19mm-Fixed
10": a Std. Proc.-19mm-Flex.
A Std. Proc.-4.8mm-Rxed
0 Mod. Proa-19mm-Fixed

13 15 17 19

Water Content (%)

FIG. 5. Hydraulic Conductivity versus Molding Water Content (1 pcf = 1 kN/m 3 )

prepared with small and large clods. The compaction curves were signifi-
cantly influenced by clod size. The shape and optimum moisture content of
the two curves are different, but the maximum dry unit weights are almost
identical. The soil with initially smaller clods had a compaction curve with
a much flatter peak, suggesting less sensitivity to molding water content,
and produced an optimum water content that was 3% lower than for the soil
with initially larger clods.
For water contents dry of optimum, the soil with initially smaller clods
could be compacted more effectively than the soil with larger clods. This is
evidenced by the significantly higher dry unit weight of the material with
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 TABLE 1. First Documentation of Influence of Clod Size on Hydraulic Conduc-
tivity of Compacted Clay (Daniel 1984)
Average diameter of clods (in.) Hydraulic conductivity (cm/s)
(D (2)
3/8 3 x icr 7
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3/16 2 x 10~8
1/16 9 x 10"9
Note: 1 in. = 2.54 cm.

initially smaller clods. The clods in both soils were hard when the water
content was below optimum.

Influence of Clod Size on Hydraulic Conductivity

The first documentation of the influence of clod size on the hydraulic
conductivity of compacted clay was provided by Daniel (1984), who per-
formed tests on clayey soil compacted with clods of different sizes, presented
in Table 1. The soil that Daniel tested had a liquid limit of 39% and plasticity
index of 20%. Results are shown in Table 1. Daniel (1984) states: "Although
the data are too few to be conclusive, they do suggest that hydraulic con-
ductivity may be a function of the size of clay clods . . . One might expect
that there would be more opportunity for pervious zones to develop with
larger clods of clay as opposed to smaller ones."
In the current study, the influence of clod size on hydraulic conductivity
was strikingly important for soils compacted dry of optimum with standard
proctor effort (Fig. 5 and Table 2). At molding water contents of 12% and
16%, the hydraulic conductivities were four to six orders of magnitude lower
for the soil compacted from smaller clods.
At molding water contents of 18% and 20%, the clods were moist, soft,
and sticky. The size of clods had little influence on the hydraulic conduc-
tivity of specimens at these molding water contents. In fact, the test spec-
imens formed from soils with larger clods had a slightly lower hydraulic
conductivity than the specimens formed from soil with smaller clods. It ap-
peared that relatively high moisture content rendered clods soft and com-
pressible and that the size of the soft, wet clods was unimportant with regard
to hydraulic conductivity after compaction. This is because the soft, easily
remolded clods could be adequately deformed and compressed into a rela-
tively homogeneous mass of low-hydraulic-conductivity soil regardless of
the size of clods.

Particle Orientation versus Clod Structure

Background
Two theories, described by Boynton and Daniel (1985) and Herrmann and
Elsbury (1987), have been proposed to explain the influence of molding
water content on the hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay soils. In this
paper, the theories will be referred to as the particle-orientation theory and
the clod theory. The particle-orientation theory was proposed by Lambe (1958)
and relates the hydraulic conductivity of compacted soil to the orientation
of the soil particles. Lambe suggested that the soil particles are oriented in
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 TABLE 2. Results of Hydraulic Conductivity Tests
Initial Molding Dry
maximum water unit Hydraulic
Compactive clod size content weight conductivity
Permeameter effort (mm) (%) (pcf) (cm/s)
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(D (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Flexible wall Standard proctor 19 12.0 91.7 8.5 x 10~4
Flexible wall Standard proctor 19 16.0 92.1 8.5 x 10~4
Flexible wall Standard proctor 19 18.0 101.3 7.5 x 10"9
Flexible wall Standard proctor 19 20.0 107.9 5.5 x 10" ?
Fixed wall Standard proctor 19 12.0 91.4 4.1 x 10~4
Fixed wall Standard proctor 19 16.0 94.5 9.5 x 10" 4
Fixed wall Standard proctor 19 18.0 103.3 8.0 X KT 10
Fixed wall Standard proctor 19 20.0 107.5 6.5 x 10"10
Fixed wall Standard proctor 19 22.0 104.0 8.0 x 10~10
Fixed wall Standard proctor 4.8 12.0 103.9 1.5 x 10"8
Fixed wall Standard proctor 4.8 15.7 108.2 1.6 x 10" 9
Fixed wall Standard proctor 4.8 18.0 107.8 1.2 x 10~9
Fixed wall Standard proctor 4.8 20.0 105.0 1.6 x 10" 9
Fixed wall Modified proctor 19 7.9 103.7 1.1 x 10~8
Fixed wall Modified proctor 19 12.0 122.0 1.4 x 10"10
Fixed wall Modified proctor 19 16.0 118.8 1.0 x 10"10
Fixed wall Modified proctor 19 18.0 113.6 1.7 x 10"10
Fixed wall Modified proctor 19 20.0 107.8 3.5 x 10~10
Note: 1 pcf = 0.157 kN/m3.

a flocculated pattern when soil is compacted dry of optimum water content

and in a dispersed pattern when soil is compacted wet of optimum water
content. The relationship between particle orientation and water content is
depicted in Fig. 6. Lambe proposed that the hydraulic conductivity of soil
compacted wet of optimum is less than the hydraulic conductivity of soil
compacted dry of optimum because soil with a flocculated particle structure
has larger voids than soil with a dispersed structure. Thus, according to the
particle orientation theory, the arrangement of individual particles, which is
influenced by molding water content, controls the hydraulic conductivity.
The clod theory was proposed by Olsen (1962). He suggested that most
of the flow of water in compacted clay occurs in relatively large pore spaces
located between "peds," or clods of clay, rather than between the particles
of clay within the clods (Fig. 7). According to the clod theory, soft, wet
clods of soil are easier to remold than hard, dry clods. Thus, when a soil
is compacted wet of optimum, the soft, wet clods of soil are remolded,
which results in smaller interclod voids and lower hydraulic conductivity.

Scanning Electron Photomicrographs

The results described in this paper show a 1,000,000-fold difference be-
tween the driest and wettest soils. This difference in hydraulic conductivity
is discussed below with regard to the particle-orientation and clod theories.
In order to evaluate the merits of the theories, photographs were taken of
compacted specimens at full scale and at a magnification of up to 1,000
prior to permeation. The specimens that were photographed were formed

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Water Content

FIG. 6. Arrangement of Soil Particles Suggested by Lambe (1958)

Interclod Void

Large Interclod Voids Small Interclod Voids

FIG. 7. Flow of Water through Relatively Large Pores between Clods of Soil [af-
ter Olsen (1962)]

from the soil with large clods. The high-magnification photographs were
taken with a scanning electron microscope equipped with a camera. Speci-
mens were prepared for study with the scanning electron microscope in the
following manner: (1) A small piece of soil was removed from the large
compacted specimen with a sharp knife; (2) the small piece of soil was dried
in an oven at 105° C; and (3) the oven-dried soil was plated with gold in a
very low-pressure atmosphere of argon gas.
The scanning electron photomicrographs at a magnification of 1,000 are
shown in Figs. 8-10 for soils prepared with standard Proctor compaction at
water contents of 12%, 16%, and 20%, respectively. Evidence of a floc-
culated arrangement of particles for the dry soil (Fig. 8) tending to a dis-
persed arrangement of particles for the wet soil (Fig. 10) is not visible. There
are no differences that can be seen in the photomicrographs that would in-
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!'*•• :•!'•• ' ,,'•: -.«:Ji |i|.'M:i"'• I

FIG. 8. Scanning Electron Photomicrograph of Soil Compacted with Standard

Proctor Methods at Water Content of 12%

i <PI •*•:•: •
I'iii.i . i
Wk
FIG. 9. Scanning Electron Photomicrograph of Soil Compacted with Water Con-
tent of 16%

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FIG. 10. Scanning Electron Photomicrograph of Soil Compacted with Water

Content of 20%

12 %
STANDARD
PROCTOR

FIG. 11. Photograph of Soil Specimen Compacted with Standard Proctor Method
at Water Content of 12%

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^ -- • * o-

16 %
STANDARD
PROCTOR

FIG. 12. Photograph of Soil Specimen Compacted with Standard Proctor Method
at Water Content of 16%

20 %
STANDARD
PROCTOR

FIG. 13. Photograph of Soil Specimen Compacted with Standard Proctor Method
at Water Content of 20%

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12 %
MODIFIED
PROCTOR

FIG. 14. Photograph of Soil Specimen Compacted with Modified Proctor Method
at Water Content of 12%

•'&e$8r

16 %
MODIFIED
PROCTOR

FIG. 15. Photograph of Soil Specimen Compacted with Modified Proctor Method
at Water Content of 16%

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 dicate the 1,000,000-fold difference in hydraulic conductivity that existed
between the driest and wettest compacted soils. Hence, some other expla-
nation is sought for the tremendous differences in hydraulic conductivity.

Photographs of Compacted Specimens

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Photographs of specimens of soil compacted with standard Proctor pro-

cedures at water contents of 12%, 16%, and 20% are shown in Figs. I l -
l s , respectively. The soils were all prepared from material initially having
clods as large as 19 mm. The specimens compacted at water contents of
12% and 16% (Figs. 11 and 12) appear to have large remnant clods. The
photograph of a specimen prepared at 20% water content is shown in Fig.
13. This specimen was compacted wet of optimum water content and ap-
peared to be homogeneous and free of evidence that clods had previously
existed.
The samples with large clods compacted with modified Proctor effort had
low hydraulic conductivity even at a molding water content of 12% (Fig. 5
and Table 2). Photographs of specimens compacted at water contents of 12%
and 16% with modified Proctor effort are shown in Figs. 14 and 15. Ex-
amination of the soil compacted with modified Proctor effort showed that
the extra compactive effort was sufficient to deform the hard, dry clods and
eliminate large voids (Figs. 14 and 15).
Examination of the compacted soils indicated that the fate of clods and
interclod voids controlled the hydraulic conductivity. The driest specimens
(12% water content) compacted with standard Proctor effort looked more
like granular material than clay soil; standard Proctor effort was not suffi-
cient to press the dry, hard clods together and eliminate large interclod voids.
These specimens had large hydraulic conductivity. Compaction of soil at the
same water content but with modified Proctor effort, resulted in greater de-
formation of clods, reduction of large voids, and lower hydraulic conduc-
tivity. The energy imparted by modified Proctor effort was sufficient to press
the dry, hard clods together. Furthermore, soils compacted wet of optimum
(20% water content) by standard or modified Proctor effort showed no evi-
dence of remnant clods or interclod pores. The hydraulic conductivity of all
specimens compacted wet of optimum was very low. Clearly, the fate of
clods and interclod pores during the compaction process controlled the hy-
draulic conductivity of the compacted specimens.
Thought was given to quantification of pore-size distributions of the var-
ious soils, but the writers know of no technique that can be applied to suf-
ficiently large specimens of soil that would be useful for quantifying the
pore sizes between large, remnant clods. The writers would welcome any
suggestions of techniques that might be useful for this purpose. The distri-
bution of clod sizes prior to compaction probably also influences interclod
pores after compaction of the soil; no attempt was made to quantify the
distribution of clod sizes in part because the sticky nature of the soil would
have made this task difficult. Filling of large interclod voids with soil par-
ticles or smaller clods probably took place during and after compaction, but
this was not quantified and would require tests on a relatively large scale to
provide meaningful results. The soils were cured for about 1 week prior to
compaction; the curing time may also influence the ultimate fate of clods
and interclod pores, but the influence of curing time was not investigated.

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 CO

E 10 -3 j-_j—o, —1 1— 1 i | i
—!
:0\ o :
o Std. Proctor -19 mm Clods
-4
10 r \ D Std. Proctor - 4.8 mm Clods
l

10 -5 r \ & Mod. Proctor-19 mm Clods l

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o 10 -6 r \ i

c
o 10 -7 r •i

O
o
"5
10 -8
10"
r
•

r
H •^
CX)
0

<TV
1

i
•

: A :
10 10 • 1 • ^ > ^ t l A—i
>.
90 100 110 120 130
I
Dry Unit Weight (pcf)
FIG. 16. Hydraulic Conductivity versus Dry Unit Weight (1 pcf = 0.157 kN/m 3 )

Dry Unit Weight

The dry unit weight of the soil at the time of compaction provides an
indication of the presence of large interclod pores. Low dry unit weight was
associated with soils having large, visible voids between pores, while soils
that did not have large, visible interclod pores had much larger dry unit
weight.
The hydraulic conductivity of the test specimens is plotted as a function
of dry unit weight at the time of compaction in Fig. 16. Test specimens with
initial dry unit weights 2: 101.3 pcf (16.0 kN/m 3 ) had hydraulic conductiv-
ities <1 X 10"7 cm/s. A dry unit weight of 101.3 pcf (16.0 kN/m 3 ) cor-
responds to 93% of the maximum dry unit weight from standard Proctor
compaction and 82% of the maximum dry unit weight from modified Proctor
compaction.
Fig. 11 shows a test specimen with large, visible interclod voids; this test
specimen had a dry unit weight that was only 84% of the maximum dry unit
weight from standard Proctor compaction. For this test specimen, the voids
that contributed to a low dry unit weight were obviously concentrated in
large, interclod pores. Similarly, the highly permeable test specimen shown
in Fig. 12 had a dry unit weight that was only 87% of the maximum value
from standard Proctor compaction. In contrast, the relatively impermeable
specimens shown in Figs. 13, 14, and 15 had dry unit weights that were
97%, 112%, and 109%, respectively, of the maximum value from standard
Proctor compaction.
In order to achieve low hydraulic conductivity in highly plastic soils that
form clods, the clods must be destroyed and large interclod voids eliminated.
The dry unit weight of the compacted soil provides an indirect measure of
the degree to which large voids have been eliminated.

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 Analysis
There are probably merits to both the particle-orientation theory and the
clod theory. The two theories are not mutually exclusive. For the highly
plastic soil used in this study, however, dry-side versus wet-side compaction
produced six orders of magnitude of difference in hydraulic conductivity. It
was obvious that the size and continuity of interclod pores controlled the
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hydraulic conductivity of this soil. The key to achieving low hydraulic con-
ductivity in this soil was destruction of the large interclod pores by effec-
tively molding the clods together. At high water content, the clods were
easier to remold, and hence, low hydraulic conductivity was achieved. Sim-
ilarly, with a large compactive effort, clods (even dry ones) were remolded
and low hydraulic conductivity was achieved.

Implications for Laboratory Testing and Design

Laboratory Testing
An important question to be addressed is: How should soil be processed
in the laboratory? Should the soil be predried and crushed to pass the No.
4 sieve (which is excellent in terms of providing a standard, reproducible
technique of soil preparation), or should the soil be prepared at water con-
tents close to those expected in the field and with clods of a size more nearly
comparable to the size of clods anticipated in the field? The only logical
conclusion is that if the laboratory tests are intended to produce data rep-
resentative of field results, the clod sizes, drying conditions, and other de-
tails of compaction in the laboratory should match field conditions as closely
as possible.

Design of Field Compaction

Construction practices in the field should be designed to ensure that clods
of clay are thoroughly remolded and that large interclod voids are eliminated.
Daniel (1987) recommended that compaction be accomplished with heavy
equipment that remolds the soil during compaction. The data presented herein
are consistent with this concept but suggest that clods may be destroyed in
one of two ways:

1. The soil can be wetted to a high molding water content to produce soft,
weak clods that can be easily remolded into a mass that is free of large interclod
pores (provided that the soil is reasonably workable at high water content).
2. The soil can be compacted at a lower water content but with an extremely
heavy roller that crushes the clods and thereby eliminates large interclod pores.

It is crucial that the engineer match the water content of the soil with the
compactive energy used in field construction, or vice versa. If the soil is
relatively dry, extremely high compactive effort will likely be required to
achieve a low hydraulic conductivity. With relatively wet soil, less com-
pactive effort is required.
The best molding water content to use also depends on other factors, e.g.,
concern over long-term desiccation or swelling and shear strength consid-
erations. The engineer might decide to use a relatively low or high water-
content range based on considerations other than hydraulic conductivity.

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 CONCLUSIONS

The results presented in this paper demonstrate that clod size during soil
processing and compaction significantly influenced the compaction curve and
the hydraulic conductivity of a highly plastic, compacted clay soil. The com-
paction curves for soils with initially large (19-mm) and small (4.8-mm)
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clods compacted with standard Proctor effort were significantly different.

For smaller clods, the compaction curve was much flatter, suggesting less
sensitivity to molding water content.
Clod size had a large influence upon the hydraulic conductivity of the
compacted soils. Samples of soil with initially small clods that were com-
pacted dry of optimum had hydraulic conductivities that were up to six or-
ders of magnitude lower than samples compacted from material with initially
large clods. The hydraulic conductivity of specimens compacted wet of op-
timum, however, did not depend on clod size.
Examination of the samples showed the fate of clods and interclod pores
during soil processing and compaction controlled the hydraulic conductivity
of the compacted soil. Soils with large clods that were compacted dry of
optimum had large, visible interclod voids. Soils compacted wet of optimum
appeared to be a homogeneous mass and had low hydraulic conductivity.
The most important result of this study is to provide laboratory data show-
ing the importance of considering the fate of clod when attempting to com-
pact clayey soils to low hydraulic conductivity. To achieve low hydraulic
conductivity in soils that form clods, large interclod voids must be eliminated
during compaction. Large interclod pores can be minimized and the effects
of clods overcome in highly plastic soils by: (1) Compacting soil at a mois-
ture content that is large enough to soften the clods so that they can be
remolded by the compaction equipment; or (2) using a sufficiently large
compactive energy to destroy even relatively dry, hard clods. For the soil
used in this study, molding water content and dry unit weight were useful
indicators of the degree to which large interclod voids were eliminated. In
the field, careful control of molding water content, compactive energy, and
dry unit weight should likewise help to control the potential problems that
clods can cause. The findings from this study are consistent with those re-
ported in the classic work of Mitchell et al. (1965) but put new emphasis
on the importance of the fate of clods, rather than orientation of soil particles
on a microscopic scale, in determining the hydraulic conductivity of highly
plastic, compacted clay soils.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The investigation described herein was supported by the U.S. Environ-

mental Protection Agency's (EPA) Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory
in Cincinnati, Ohio (Contract No. 68-03-3250). Jonathan G. Herrmann was
the project officer for the EPA. This paper has not been subjected to EPA's
review, and no endorsement by EPA is implied. The research project was
administered by McClelland Engineers. Bill R. Elsbury was McClelland's
project manager, and Gregory A. Sraders was the project engineer. K. W.
Brown and Associates (KWBA) also was a member of the project team;
David C. Anderson was KWBA's principal investigator; and James A. Re-
hage was KWBA's project scientist. The input provided by Messrs. Herr-
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J. Geotech. Engrg. 1990.116:1231-1248.

 mann, Elsbury, and Anderson were especially helpful to the writers in for-
mulating the ideas presented in this paper.

APPENDIX. REFERENCES

Benson, C. H. (1987). "A comparison of in situ and laboratory measurements of

Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by University Of North Dakota on 09/06/14. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.

hydraulic conductivity," thesis presented to the University of Texas, at Austin,

Tex., in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science.
Boynton, S. S., and Daniel, D. E. (1985). "Hydraulic conductivity tests on com-
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