Fo r m u l a e Sh e e t f or W ave s w w w .c o n c e p t s - o f -p h y s i c s . c om | pg.

q
3 T
1 Waves Motion 5. 2nd overtone/3rd harmonics: ν2 = 2L µ

General equation of wave: ∂2y

=
2
1 ∂ y 6. All harmonics are present.
∂x2 v 2 ∂t2 .

Notation: Amplitude A, Frequency ν, Wavelength λ, Pe-

riod T , Angular Frequency ω, Wave Number k, L

1 2π 2π String fixed at one end: N A

T = = , v = νλ, k= A N
ν ω λ
λ/2
Progressive wave travelling with speed v:
1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0
y = f (t − x/v), +x; y = f (t + x/v), −x q
2. Allowed Freq.: L = (2n + 1) λ4 , ν = 2n+1
4L
T
µ, n =
y
0, 1, 2, . . ..
q
A 1 T
x 3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 4L µ
λ λ
Progressive sine wave: 2
q
3 T
4. 1st overtone/3rd harmonics: ν1 = 4L µ
y = A sin(kx − ωt) = A sin(2π (x/λ − t/T )) q
5 T
5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 = 4L µ

2 Waves on a String 6. Only odd harmonics are present.

Speed of waves on a string
p with mass per unit length µ
and tension T : v = T /µ √ q
1 √1 . n T
Sonometer: ν ∝ L, ν∝ T, ν ∝ µ ν= 2L µ
Transmitted power: Pav = 2π 2 µvA2 ν 2

Interference: 3 Sound Waves

y1 = A1 sin(kx − ωt), y2 = A2 sin(kx − ωt + δ) Displacement wave: s = s0 sin ω(t − x/v)
y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx − ωt + ) Pressure wave: p = p0 cos ω(t − x/v), p0 = (Bω/v)s0
q
A = A1 2 + A2 2 + 2A1 A2 cos δ Speed of sound waves:
A2 sin δ s s s
tan  = B Y γP
A1 + A2 cos δ vliquid = , vsolid = , vgas =
ρ ρ ρ

2nπ, constructive;
δ=
(2n + 1)π, destructive.
2π 2 B 2 2 p0 2 v p0 2
Intensity: I = v s0 ν = 2B = 2ρv
2A cos kx

x
Standing Waves: A N A N A
Standing longitudinal waves:
λ/4

p1 = p0 sin ω(t − x/v), p2 = p0 sin ω(t + x/v)

y1 = A1 sin(kx − ωt), y2 = A2 sin(kx + ωt)
p = p1 + p2 = 2p0 cos kx sin ωt
y = y1 + y2 = (2A cos kx) sin ωt
n + 21 λ2 , nodes; n = 0, 1, 2, . . .


x=
n λ2 , antinodes. n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
L
L
Closed organ pipe:

String fixed at both ends: N N

A N A

λ/2 1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0

1. Boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and at x = L 2. Allowed freq.: L = (2n + 1) λ4 , ν = (2n + 1) 4L
v
, n=
q 0, 1, 2, . . .
2. Allowed Freq.: L = n λ2 , ν = 2L
n T
µ , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .. v
3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 4L
q
1 T
3. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = 2L µ 4. 1st overtone/3rd harmonics: ν1 = 3ν0 = 3v
4L
q
2 T 5v
4. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics: ν1 = 2L µ 5. 2nd overtone/5th harmonics: ν2 = 5ν0 = 4L

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Fo r m u l a e Sh e e t f or W ave s w w w .c o n c e p t s - o f -p h y s i c s . c om | pg. 2

6. Only odd harmonics are present. S1 P

dy y
Path difference: ∆x = D d θ

S2 D
A
2π
N Phase difference: δ = λ ∆x
Open organ pipe: L A
Interference Conditions: for integer n,
N

A 2nπ, constructive;
δ=
(2n + 1)π, destructive,
1. Boundary condition: y = 0 at x = 0
v
Allowed freq.: L = n λ2 , ν = n 4L , n = 1, 2, . . .

2. Fundamental/1st harmonics: ν0 = v nλ,
constructive;
2L ∆x =
n + 21 λ, destructive
2v
3. 1st overtone/2nd harmonics: ν1 = 2ν0 = 2L
3v Intensity:
4. 2nd overtone/3rd harmonics: ν2 = 3ν0 = 2L p
5. All harmonics are present. I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos δ,
p p 2 p p 2
Imax = I1 + I2 , Imin = I1 − I2
I1 = I2 : I = 4I0 cos2 2δ , Imax = 4I0 , Imin = 0
l1 + d
l2 + d

λD
Resonance column: Fringe width: w = d

Optical path: ∆x0 = µ∆x

l1 + d = λ2 , l2 + d = 3λ
4 , v = 2(l2 − l1 )ν Interference of waves transmitted through thin film:

Beats: two waves of almost equal frequencies ω1 ≈ ω2 

nλ,
constructive;
∆x = 2µd =
p1 = p0 sin ω1 (t − x/v), p2 = p0 sin ω2 (t − x/v) n + 21 λ, destructive.
p = p1 + p2 = 2p0 cos ∆ω(t − x/v) sin ω(t − x/v)
ω = (ω1 + ω2 )/2, ∆ω = ω1 − ω2 (beats freq.) y
Diffraction from a single slit: b θ
y
Doppler Effect: D
For Minima: nλ = b sin θ ≈ b(y/D)
v + uo
ν= ν0 1.22λ
v − us Resolution: sin θ = b

where, v is the speed of sound in the medium, u0 is θ

the speed of the observer w.r.t. the medium, consid- Law of Malus: I = I0 cos2 θ I0 I
ered positive when it moves towards the source and
negative when it moves away from the source, and us
is the speed of the source w.r.t. the medium, consid-
ered positive when it moves towards the observer and
negative when it moves away from the observer.

4 Light Waves

Plane Wave: E = E0 sin ω(t − xv ), I = I0

Spherical Wave: E =
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aE0
sin ω(t − vr ), I = I0 and our other books. Written by IITians, Foreword
r r2
by Dr. HC Verma, Appreciated by Students.

Young’s double slit experiment

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