First order instrument

dqo  Cp V dx V
  qo  K qi x T - Thermometer
f
dt h AS dt AC
Step response Ramp response
qo t     
t t
 
 K 1  e  
 qo t   Kqis     t   e  

qis    
Frequency response Impulse function
KA  
t
qo 1 
 qo t   1  e   for t  T
Kqi 1   2 2 T  

  Tan 1     
T

KA1  e  
 t
qo    e  for t  T
T


Te
Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Period T = 2/
T T

yt   A0    An cos n t  Bn sin n t  ; A0     yt  cos nt dt ;
1 2 2 2
 y t dt ; An 
n 1 T T T T
2 2
T

 yt sin nt dt

2 2
Bn 
T T
2

  2 n t
If function is even, y t    An cos n t   An cos
n 1 n 1 T
  2 n t
If function is odd, y t    Bn sin n t   Bn sin
n 1 n 1 T

1
Second order instrument

1 d 2 x 2 dx C Ks 1
  x  KF (t )  ; n  ;K -
n2 dt 2 n dt 2 mK s m Ks
1 d 2Vo 2 dVo Sping mass damper
  Vo  KV (t )
n2 dt n dt R C 1
 n  K 1
2 L LC
Step response
e  nt   1  2 
Sin d t  Tan 1    for underdamped system
qo (t )
 1
  
Kqis 1   
2
 
 1  e nt 1   n t  for critically damped system
qo (t )
Kqis

qo ( s ) 1     1  t

2
1     1  t
2

   
1  
 
n n
e e
   
for
Kqis 2  2 1   2
1 2  2 1   2
1
overdamped system

Frequency response
2
  2   2 
2     
1  2       2    
qo  n   n  1   Tan 1 n   Tan 1  2 
   2   n   
 1  2
2
Kqi   2  2  2  2    2   2 
2
   n 
1  2      1  2      n 
 n   n    n   n 

𝑓(𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡)

𝑣 𝑖 𝑣 𝑒

𝑑𝑣 𝑀 𝐿 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑣 𝑀 𝐶 𝑑𝑒
𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐵𝑣 𝐵 𝑅 𝑖𝑅 𝐵𝑣 𝐵 1 𝑒
𝑅 𝑅
𝐾 1 1
𝐾 ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 𝐾 1 1
𝐶 𝐶 𝐾 ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑒𝑑𝑡
𝐿 𝐿