DYNAMIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASUREMENT
SYSTEMS
 Learning outcomes from Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement Systems Module
• Mathematical Modelling of Zero order, first order and second order systems
• Laplace Transforms for solving Initial value problems
• Response characteristics of First order system for inputs like
• Step input
• Ramp input
• Sinusoidal input
• Impulse input
• Steady state response to a combination of sinusoidal inputs using method of superposition
applicable for linear systems
• Fourier Series
• Representation of square wave, triangular wave, saw tooth wave as combination of sine
and cos functions
• Utility of analogy of First order Hydraulic, Pneumatic, Electrical and thermal system
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Relation between an input and output in general can be represented as a differential equation
(linear)
𝒅𝒏 𝒒𝒐 𝒅𝒏−𝟏 𝒒𝒐 𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒅𝒎 𝒒𝒊 𝒅𝒎−𝟏 𝒒𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝒊
𝒂𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒐 𝒒𝒐 = 𝒃𝒎 𝒎 + 𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝒐 𝒒𝒊
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒂’s and 𝒃’s are assumed constant

𝒒𝒊 𝒕 Measurement 𝒒𝒐 𝒕
System
ZERO ORDER MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
𝒃𝒐 𝒃𝒐
𝒂𝒐 𝒒𝒐 = 𝒃𝒐 𝒒𝒊 ⇒ 𝒒𝒐 = 𝒒𝒊 - static Sensitivity
𝒂𝒐 𝒂𝒐
• The moment input is changed, output will follow
• Ideal or perfect dynamic system
 FIRST ORDER MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝒐 𝒒𝒐 = 𝒃𝒐 𝒒𝒊
𝒅𝒕
𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒃𝒐
+ 𝒒𝒐 = 𝒒𝒊
𝒂𝒐 𝒅𝒕 𝒂𝒐
𝒃𝒐
= 𝑲 Static sensitivity - has the dimensions of output divided by input
𝒂𝒐
𝑲 - amount of output per unit input when input is static – all derivatives are zero

𝒂𝟏
=𝝉 Time constant – has the dimensions of time
𝒂𝒐
𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊
𝒅𝒕
When  = 0; system reduces to zero order system
 MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETER
𝜷 - coefficient of volume expansion
𝜟𝑽 𝑽 – Volume of the bulb
= 𝜷𝜟𝑻
𝑽 𝑨𝒄 - Cross sectional area of the bulb
𝑨𝒄 𝚫𝒙 = 𝜷𝑽𝜟𝑻
𝜷𝑽 𝜷𝑽
𝚫𝒙 = 𝜟𝑻 ⇒ 𝒙 − 𝒙𝒐 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒊𝒏
𝑨𝒄 𝑨𝒄
𝜷𝑽 𝑨𝒄
𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒙𝒐 = 𝟎, 𝑻𝒊𝒏 =𝟎 ⇒𝒙= 𝑻 𝑻= 𝒙
𝑨𝒄 𝜷𝑽
𝑬ሶ 𝒊𝒏 − 𝑬ሶ 𝒐𝒖𝒕 + 𝑬ሶ 𝒈 = 𝑬ሶ 𝒔𝒕 𝑨𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒄
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻𝒇 = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒙 + 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒙
𝜷𝑽 𝒅𝒕 𝜷𝑽
𝒅𝑻
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻 = 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑻 𝒉 - Heat transfer coefficient
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻𝒇 = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻 + 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝑨𝒔 - Bathing area of the bulb
𝒅𝒕
 MERCURY IN GLASS THERMOMETER
𝑨𝒄 𝒅 𝑨𝒄
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻𝒇 = 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒙 + 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒙
𝜷𝑽 𝒅𝒕 𝜷𝑽
𝑨𝒄 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝑨𝒄 𝒅𝒙
𝑻𝒇 = 𝒙 +
𝜷𝑽 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝜷𝑽 𝒅𝒕

𝜷𝑽 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝒙
𝑻𝒇 = 𝒙 +
𝑨𝒄 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒕
𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝒙 𝜷𝑽
+𝒙= 𝑻𝒇
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒄

𝒅𝒙 𝝉=
𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝑲 – Static Sensitivity – has the
𝝉 + 𝒙 = 𝑲𝑻𝒇 𝒉𝑨𝒔 dimensions of output divided by input
𝒅𝒕 𝜷𝑽 𝒎 𝝉 – Time constant – has the dimensions
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝑲=
𝑨𝒄 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝑪 of time
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊
𝒅𝒕
 TYPES OF INPUTS
Step Input Ramp Input

Sinusoidal Input Impulse Input

STEP RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝒅𝒕
 𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝓛 = 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝝉 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 + 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 =
𝒔 𝓛 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔
𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 =
𝒔 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝑨 𝑩 𝓛 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 =
= =𝑲 + 𝒔
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔
= =𝑲
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝑲 = 𝑲 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 −𝝉
=𝑲 +
𝟏 = 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒔=𝟎 ⇒𝟏=𝑨 𝝉 𝟎 +𝟏 +𝑩 𝟎 ⇒𝑨=𝟏
𝒔 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝝉 𝟏 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝟏 ⇒ 𝟏 = 𝝉 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑩 = −𝝉
 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 −𝝉
=𝑲 +
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑲 −
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝟏
𝒔+
𝝉
𝟏 −𝟏 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
ℒ = ℒ 𝑲 − = ℒ −𝟏 −ℒ −𝟏
𝑲 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝑲 𝒔 𝟏 𝒔 𝟏
𝒔+ 𝒔+
𝝉 𝝉
𝟏 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 −
𝒕
=𝟏 −𝒆 𝝉
𝑲 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝓛 𝒆 =
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 −
𝒕 𝒔−𝒂
=𝑲 𝟏 −𝒆 𝝉 𝟏
𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝓛 𝟏 =
𝒔
 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 −
𝒕
=𝑲 𝟏 −𝒆 𝝉
𝒒𝒊𝒔
• Response speed depends only on the value of 
• Good measurements using first order instruments must minimize “”
• Usually, three time constants are acceptable
 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝒙 𝜷𝑽
+𝒙= 𝑻𝒇 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒄 𝝉= 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝒉𝑨𝒔
𝒅𝒙 𝜷𝑽 𝒎
𝝉 + 𝒙 = 𝑲𝑻𝒇 𝑲=
𝑨𝒄 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝑪
𝒅𝒕
Properties 𝑪𝒑 (J/kg.K) 𝝆 (kg/m3) 𝒉 𝟒 𝝉
𝑽 𝝅𝑹𝟑 𝑹
W/m.K =𝟑 𝟐 = s
𝑨𝒔 𝟒𝝅𝑹 𝟑
Mercury 137 13579 30 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 20
𝟑
Alcohol 2.47 790 30 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 0.02
𝟑
Time constant may be reduced by
1. Reduce 𝝆, 𝑽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒑
2. Increase 𝒉 and 𝑨𝒔
Thermometer in stirred oil -  = 5 seconds
Thermometer in stagnant air -  = 100 seconds
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
The Laplace transform method is a powerful method for solving linear ODEs and
corresponding initial value problems, as well as system of ODEs arising in
engineering.
The process of solution consists of three steps

Step 1: The given ODE is transformed into an algebraic equation ("subsidiary

equation").
Step 2: The subsidiary equation is solved by purely algebraic manipulations.
Step 3: The solution in Step 2 is transformed back, resulting in the solution of the
given problem.
 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
If f 𝒕 is a function defined for all t  0, its Laplace transform is the integral of
f 𝒕 times 𝒆−𝒔𝒕 from t = 0 to . It is a function of s, say, 𝑭 𝒔 , and is denoted by
𝓛 𝒇 ; thus
∞ −𝒔𝒕
𝑭 𝒔 =𝓛 𝒇 = ‫𝒆 𝟎׬‬ f 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The given function f 𝒕 in the above equation is called the inverse transform of
𝑭 𝒔 and is denoted by 𝓛−𝟏 𝑭 . That is, we shall write it as
f 𝒕 = 𝓛−𝟏 𝑭
Let f 𝒕 = 1 when t ≥ 𝟎. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝑭 𝒔
∞ −𝒔𝒕 𝟏 −𝒔𝒕 ∞ 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝓛 𝒇 =𝓛 𝟏 = ‫𝒆 𝟎׬‬ 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝒆 ቚ = − 𝒆−∞ − 𝒆𝟎 = − 𝟎−𝟏 =
𝒔 𝟎 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔
𝟏
𝓛 𝟏 =
𝒔
Let f 𝒕 = 𝒆𝒂𝒕 when t ≥ 𝟎. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝑭 𝒔
∞ −𝒔𝒕 ∞ − 𝒔−𝒂 𝒕 𝟏 ∞
𝓛 𝒇 = 𝓛 𝒆𝒂𝒕 = ‫𝒆 𝟎׬‬ 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = ‫𝒆 𝟎׬‬ 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝒆− 𝒔−𝒂 𝒕 ቚ
𝒔−𝒂 𝟎
𝟏 −∞ 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝓛 𝒇 =− 𝒆 −𝒆 =− 𝟎−𝟏 =
𝒔−𝒂 𝒔−𝒂 𝒔−𝒂

𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝓛 𝒆 =
𝒔−𝒂
Let f 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 when t ≥ 𝟎. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝑭 𝒔
∞
∞
𝒆−𝒔𝒕
𝓛 𝒇 = 𝓛 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 = න 𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒂𝒕 อ
𝟎 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
𝟎

𝒆−∞ 𝒆−𝟎
𝓛 𝒇 = −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏∞ − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔∞ − −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟎 − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝟎 𝟏
𝓛 𝒇 = −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏∞ − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔∞ − −𝒔 𝟎 − 𝒂 𝟏
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝟏
𝓛 𝒇 =𝟎 − 𝟎−𝒂
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝒂
𝓛 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐
𝒆 𝒂𝒙
න𝒆𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒃𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒃𝒙 + 𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒃𝒙 + 𝐂
𝒂 +𝒃
Let f 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 when t ≥ 𝟎. 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝑭 𝒔
∞
∞
𝒆−𝒔𝒕
𝓛 𝒇 = 𝓛 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 = න 𝒆−𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒂𝒕 อ
𝟎 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐
𝟎

𝒆−∞ 𝒆−𝟎
𝓛 𝒇 = −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏∞ − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔∞ − −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟎 − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝟎 𝟏
𝓛 𝒇 = −𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏∞ − 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔∞ − −𝒔 𝟎 − 𝒂 𝟏
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝟏
𝓛 𝒇 =𝟎 − 𝟎−𝒂
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

𝒂
𝓛 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝒂𝟐
 𝟏
Let 𝑭 𝒔 = 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 f 𝒕
𝒔−𝒂

f 𝒕 = 𝓛−𝟏 𝑭
𝟏
f 𝒕 =𝓛 −𝟏
𝒔−𝒂

f 𝒕 = 𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝒂
Let 𝑭 𝒔 = 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 f 𝒕
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐

f 𝒕 = 𝓛−𝟏 𝑭
𝒂
f 𝒕 =𝓛 −𝟏
𝒔𝟐 +𝒂𝟐
f 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕
 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

න 𝒇 𝒙 𝒈 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒇 𝒙 න 𝒈 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 − න 𝒇′ 𝒙 න 𝒈 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

The integral of (first function) × Integral of [(differential

the product of = (integral of the + coefficient of the first
two functions second function) function) × (integral of the
second function)]
 LINEARITY OF A LAPLACE TRANSFORM
𝓛 𝒂𝒇 𝒕 + 𝒃𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒂𝓛 𝒇 𝒕 + 𝒃𝓛 𝒈 𝒕
𝒆𝒂𝒕 + 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕 =
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝓛 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕 = 𝓛 𝒆 + 𝓛 𝒆−𝒂𝒕
𝒂𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝓛 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕 = +
𝟐 𝒔−𝒂 𝟐 𝒔+𝒂
𝟏 𝒔+𝒂 + 𝒔−𝒂
𝓛 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕 =
𝟐 𝒔+𝒂 𝒔−𝒂

𝒔 𝒔
𝓛 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐 𝒇 𝒕 = 𝓛−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕
𝒔 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒔 −𝒂
 SOME FUNCTIONS AND THEIR TRANSFORMS

SL 𝒇 𝒕 𝓛 𝒇 𝒕 SL 𝒇 𝒕 𝓛 𝒇 𝒕
No. No.
1 1 𝟏 7 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 𝒔
𝒔 𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐
2 t 𝟏 8 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝝎
𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐
9 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔
3 𝒕𝟐 𝟐!
𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐
𝒔𝟑 𝒂
𝒏! 10 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉𝒂𝒕
4 𝒕𝒏
𝒔𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐
(n = 0,1,2,…) 𝒔𝒏+𝟏 𝒔−𝒂
11 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕
5 𝒕𝒂 𝜞 𝒂+𝟏 𝒔 − 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐
(a is positive) 𝒔𝒂+𝟏 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝝎
12
6 𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝟏 𝒔 − 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐
𝒔−𝒂
 LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF DERIVATIVES
The transforms of the first and second derivatives of 𝒇 𝒕 satisfy

𝓛 𝒇′ = 𝒔𝓛 𝒇 − 𝒇 𝟎

𝓛 𝒇′′ = 𝒔𝟐 𝓛 𝒇 − 𝒔𝒇 𝟎 − 𝒇′ 𝟎
 INITIAL VALUE PROBLEM : THE BASIC LAPLACE STEPS

Step 1: The given ODE is transformed into an algebraic equation ("subsidiary equation").
𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝓛 = 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝝉 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 + 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 =
𝒔
𝓛 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔
𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 =
𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔
𝓛 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 =
𝒔
Step 2: The subsidiary equation is solved by purely algebraic manipulations.
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝑨 𝑩
= =𝑲 +
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔
= =𝑲
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝑲 = 𝑲 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔
𝟏 = 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔
𝒔=𝟎 ⇒𝟏=𝑨 𝝉 𝟎 +𝟏 +𝑩 𝟎 ⇒𝑨=𝟏

𝒔 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝝉 𝟏 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝟏 ⇒ 𝟏 = 𝝉 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 ⇒ 𝑩 = −𝝉

𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 −𝝉
=𝑲 +
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
Step 3: The solution in Step 2 is transformed back, resulting in the solution of the
given problem.
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 −𝝉 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
=𝑲 + ⇒ =𝑲 −
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝟏
𝒔+
𝝉
𝟏 −𝟏 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏 −𝟏
𝟏
ℒ = ℒ 𝑲 − =ℒ −ℒ
𝑲 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝑲 𝒔 𝟏 𝒔 𝟏
𝒔+ 𝒔+
𝝉 𝝉

𝟏 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝒕 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
=𝟏 −𝒆 −𝝉 𝓛 𝒆 =
𝑲 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔−𝒂
𝟏
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 −
𝒕 𝓛 𝟏 =
=𝑲 𝟏 −𝒆 𝝉 𝒔
𝒒𝒊𝒔
 LAPLACE TRANSFORM METHOD

t-space s-space
Given Problem Subsidiary equation

𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 =
𝒅𝒕 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏

Solution of the given problem Solution of the Subsidiary equation

𝒒𝒐 𝒕 −
𝒕 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 𝝉
=𝑲 𝟏 −𝒆 𝝉 =𝑲 −
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
 RAMP RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
𝒒𝒊 = 0 𝒕≤𝟎

𝒒𝒊 = 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒕 𝒕≥𝟎
𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝒅𝒒𝒊 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒕
𝒅𝒒𝒊 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒒𝒊𝒔 =
𝒅𝒕 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝝉 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 + 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 = 𝟐
𝒔
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝑨 𝑩 C
𝓛 = 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 = 𝟐 =𝑲 + 𝟐+
𝒅𝒕 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏

𝓛 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔

𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔
𝓛 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒕 = 𝟐
𝒔
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝑨 𝑩 C
= 𝟐 =𝑲 + 𝟐+
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝟏 𝑨 𝑩 C
𝟐
= + 𝟐+
𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝟏 = 𝑨𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝐂𝒔𝟐
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔𝟐 ; 𝟎 = 𝑨𝝉 + 𝐂 ⇒ 𝑪 = −𝑨𝝉 ⇒ 𝑪 = − −𝝉 𝝉 ⇒ 𝑪 = 𝝉𝟐

𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔; 𝟎 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝝉 ⇒ 𝑨 = −𝑩𝝉 ⇒ 𝑨 = 𝟏 −𝝉 ⇒ 𝑨 = −𝝉

𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔𝟎 ; 𝟏=𝑩

𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 −𝝉 𝟏 𝝉𝟐 𝝉 𝟏 𝝉𝟐
= 𝟐 =𝑲 + 𝟐+ =𝑲 − + 𝟐+
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝟏
𝝉 𝒔+
𝝉
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 −𝝉 𝟏 𝝉𝟐 𝝉 𝟏 𝝉𝟐
= 𝟐 =𝑲 + 𝟐+ =𝑲 − + 𝟐+
𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔 𝟏
𝝉 𝒔+
𝝉
𝒕
−
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 −𝝉 + 𝒕 + 𝝉𝒆 𝝉

𝒅𝒒𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝒊
𝒅𝒕 𝒒𝒊𝒔 =
𝒅𝒕
Even after steady state is reached, the output is always lesser compared to input except a case where time
constant is very less.

𝒅𝒒𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝒊
𝒒𝒊𝒔 =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒕
−
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉𝒆 𝝉 + 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒕 − 𝝉
𝑼𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒚 𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒚 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒕 𝒕
−𝝉 𝒕
𝒒 𝑲𝒒𝒊𝒔 −𝝉+𝒕+𝝉𝒆 −𝝉 −𝝉
𝒆𝒎𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒊 − 𝒐 = 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝒕 − = 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉 − 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉𝒆 𝒆𝒎𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉 − 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉𝒆
𝑲 𝑲
 𝒕
−𝝉
𝒆𝒎𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉 − 𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉𝒆

𝒕
−𝝉
𝒆𝒎𝒐 𝒕 = −𝒒𝒊𝒔 𝝉𝒆 + 𝒒ถ
𝒊𝒔 𝝉
𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒚 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
FREQUENCY, PERIOD AND CIRCULAR FREQUENCY
Frequency is related to the period and is defined as the
number of complete cycles of the motion per unit time.
This frequency, f, is measured in cycles per second (Hz; 1
cycle/s = 1 Hz).
The term  is also a frequency, but instead of having
units of cycles per second it has units of radians per
second.
This frequency, , is called the circular frequency since it
relates directly to cycles on the unit circle

𝟐𝝅 𝟏
𝑻= =
𝝎 𝒇
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM : RESPONSE TO SINUSOIDAL INPUT
𝒒𝒊 𝒕 𝒒𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒊 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝑨𝒊 𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝒅𝒕
−𝑨𝒊

𝝎
𝝉 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 + 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 = 𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟐
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐
𝓛 = 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝝎 1 𝑨𝒔 + 𝑩 C
= 𝟐 𝟐
= 𝟐 𝟐
+
𝓛 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝒔 + 𝝎 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 +𝝎 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏

𝝎 𝑨𝒔 + 𝑩 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑪 𝒔𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎
𝓛 𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟐
𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐
𝑨𝝉𝒔𝟐 + 𝑩𝝉𝒔 + 𝑨𝒔 + 𝑩 + 𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑪𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎
 𝑨𝝉𝒔𝟐 + 𝑩𝝉𝒔 + 𝑨𝒔 + 𝑩 + 𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑪𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔𝟐 ; 𝟎 = 𝑨𝝉 + 𝐂 ⇒ 𝑪 = −𝑨𝝉 ⇒ 𝑪 = − −𝑩𝝉 𝝉 ⇒ 𝑪 = 𝑩𝝉𝟐

𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔; 𝟎 = 𝑨 + 𝑩𝝉 ⇒ 𝑨 = −𝑩𝝉

𝝎
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔𝟎 ; 𝝎 = 𝑩 + 𝐂 𝝎𝟐 ⇒ 𝝎 = 𝑩 + 𝑩𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 ⇒ 𝑩 =
𝟏+𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐

𝝎𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝛕
𝑪 = 𝑩𝝉𝟐 = 𝟐 𝟐
; 𝑨 = −𝑩𝝉 = −
𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝝎𝛕 𝝎 𝝎𝝉𝟐
𝑨=− 𝟐 𝟐
; 𝑩= 𝟐 𝟐
;𝑪 = 𝟐 𝟐
;
𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑨𝒔 + 𝑩 C
= 𝟐 𝟐
+
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝒔 +𝝎 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏

𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝝎𝛕𝒔 𝟏 𝝎 𝟏 𝝎𝝉𝟐 𝟏
=− 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
+
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝒔 +𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝒔 +𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝝎𝛕𝒔 𝒔 𝝎 𝟏 𝝎𝝉𝟐 𝟏
=− 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
+
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝒔 +𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝒔 +𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝝎𝛕 𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝝎𝝉𝟐 𝟏 −𝒕
=− 𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟐 𝟐
𝒆 𝝉
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝝉
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝝎𝛕 𝟏 𝝎𝝉 −
𝒕
=− 𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒆 𝝉
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎

𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝝎𝝉 −
𝒕 𝝎𝛕 𝟏
= 𝟐 𝟐
𝒆 𝝉−
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
Consider only steady state portion
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝝎𝛕 𝟏
=− 𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝑲𝑨𝒊 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎
𝒒𝒐 𝒕
= 𝑩𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓 = 𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝝓 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓
𝑲𝑨𝒊
Comparing above equations
𝟏 𝝎𝛕
𝑩𝑪𝒐𝒔𝝓 = 𝟐 𝟐
; 𝑩𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝓 = −
𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝟏 + 𝝉 𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟏
𝑩𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝝓 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝝓 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
⇒𝑩=
𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐

𝑻𝒂𝒏𝝓 = −𝝎𝛕 ⇒ 𝝓 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝎𝛕

𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝑲 Positive 𝝓 - Angle by which the output leads the input

= ; 𝝓= 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝎𝛕 Negative 𝝓 - Angle by which the output lags the input
𝑨𝒊 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
 Amplitude attenuation and Phase Shift
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝟏
= ; 𝝓 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝎𝛕
𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐

Ideal Frequency response:

𝒒𝒐 𝒕
=𝟏 𝝓=𝟎
𝑲𝒒𝒊
 - small; For high ,  - small
 GENERAL TRANSFER FUNCTION OF A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕 𝓛 = 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝝉 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 + 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝓛 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔

𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝓛 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒔

𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲
=
𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏

𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝒒𝒐 𝒔
=
𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
 SIMPLE METHOD TO GET STEADY STATE FREQUENCY RESPONSE

𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 =
= 𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 Replace s by i
𝒒𝒐 𝒊𝝎 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝒊𝝉𝝎 𝟏 𝝉𝝎
= × = 𝟐 𝟐
−𝒊
𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒊𝝎 𝟏 + 𝒊𝝉𝝎 𝟏 − 𝒊𝝉𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒒𝒐 𝟏 𝝉𝝎 𝟏
= + =
𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝒒𝒐 𝒊𝝎 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝒊𝝉𝝎 𝟏 𝝉𝝎
= × = 𝟐 𝟐
−𝒊
𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒊𝝎 𝟏 + 𝒊𝝉𝝎 𝟏 − 𝒊𝝉𝝎 𝟏+𝝉 𝝎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝝉𝝎 𝒒𝒐 𝟏
− 𝟐 𝝎𝟐 =
𝑻𝒂𝒏𝝓 = 𝟏 + 𝝉 ⇒ 𝝓 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝉𝝎 𝑲𝒒𝒊
𝟏 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
𝝓 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝉𝝎
 STEADY STATE FREQUENCY RESPONSE
𝒒𝒐 𝟏
=
𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐
=
𝒒𝒊 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝝓 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝉𝝎

• Amplitude attenuation and phase shift - corrected for pure sine wave
• Actual practice, combination of several sine waves of different frequencies
 LINEAR SYSTEMS
A system is called linear if the principle of superposition applies.

The principle of superposition states that the response produced by the simultaneous
application of two different forcing functions is the sum of the two individual
responses.

For linear systems, the response to the several inputs can be calculated by treating one
input at a time and adding the results.

This principle allows one to build up complicated solutions to the linear differential
equation from simple solutions.

HOW DOES ONE KNOW THAT THE SYSTEM IS LINEAR ?

In an experimental investigation of a dynamic system, if the cause and effect are
proportional, thus implying that the principle of superposition holds, then the system
can be considered linear.
 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL AND NON-LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A differential equation is linear, if the coefficients are constants or only functions of the
independent variable.
𝒅𝒚
+𝒑 𝒕 𝒚=𝐫 𝒕
𝒅𝒕
This equation is linear in both the unknown function y and its derivative dy/dt.

A differential equation is linear if the unknown function y(t) and its derivatives dy/dt appear to
the power 1 (products of the unknown function and its derivatives are not allowed) and
nonlinear otherwise.
𝒅𝒚
− 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒
𝒅𝒕
𝟐
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
𝒚 + =𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
First order instrument with a time constant of 0.2 seconds
𝒒𝒊 = 𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟎𝒕
t - seconds
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
ቤ = = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓;
𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝝎 = 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝝓ȁ𝝎 =𝟐 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝎𝛕 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟐 = −𝟐𝟏. 𝟖°

𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
ቤ = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟓;
𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝝎 = 𝟐𝟎 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝟎 𝟐

𝝓ȁ𝝎 =𝟐𝟎 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝝎𝛕 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟐𝟎 = −𝟕𝟓. 𝟗𝟔°

By superposition principle
𝒒𝒐
= 𝟏 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟑 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟎𝒕 − 𝟕𝟓. 𝟗𝟔
𝑲
𝒒𝒐
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟎𝒕 − 𝟕𝟓. 𝟗𝟔
𝑲
 𝒒𝒐
𝒒𝒊 = 𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟎𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟐𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟕𝟓. 𝟗𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟎𝒕 − 𝟖𝟖. 𝟓𝟕
𝑲
2.0
1.5 Input

Output & Input

1.0
0.5
0.0  = 2.0 seconds
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Seconds)
𝒒𝒐
𝒒𝒊 = 𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟎𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟎𝒕 − 𝟕𝟓. 𝟗𝟔
𝑲
2.0
1.5
Output & Input

1.0
0.5 Input
0.0
-0.5
-1.0  = 0.2 seconds
-1.5
-2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Seconds)
 𝒒𝒐
𝒒𝒊 = 𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟎𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟓𝟓 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟎𝒕 − 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖
𝑲
2.0
1.5

Output & Input

1.0 Input
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5  = 0.02 seconds
-2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (seconds)
𝒒𝒐
𝒒𝒊 = 𝟏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟎𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟗𝟏𝟖 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟔 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝟎𝒕 − 𝟐. 𝟐𝟗
𝑲
2.0
1.5
Output & Input

1.0
0.5 Input
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0  = 0.002 sec
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (Seconds)
Output of the first order instrument with a time constant of 0.002 seconds faithfully follows the input
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS
Many signals that result from the measurement of dynamic variables
are nondeterministic in nature and have a continuously varying rate of
change.

Any complex signal can be thought of as made up of sines and cosines

of differing periods and amplitudes, which are added together in an
infinite trigonometric series. This representation of a signal as a series
of sines and cosines is called a Fourier series.

In theory, Fourier analysis allows essentially all mathematical functions

of practical interest to be represented by an infinite series of sines and
cosines.
 Classification of waveforms
I. Static 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐
II. Dynamic
Periodic Waveform
Simple periodic waveform 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + 𝑪𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓
∞

Complex periodic waveform 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑪𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓𝒏

Aperiodic waveforms 𝒏=𝟏
Stepa 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 𝑼 𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 ⋗ 𝟎

Ramp 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 𝒕 for 𝟎 ⋖ 𝒕 ⋖ 𝒕𝒇

Pulseb 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 𝑼 𝒕 − 𝑨𝒐 𝑼 𝒕 − 𝒕𝟏
∞

III. Nondeterministic waveform 𝒚 𝒕 ≈ 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑪𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓𝒏

a𝑼 𝒕 - unit step function, which is 0 for 𝒕 ⋖ 𝟎 and 1 for 𝒕 ⋗ 𝟎 𝒏=𝟏
b𝒕 − Pulse width
𝟏
 SIGNAL AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY

Separation of white light into its colour spectrum.

Colour corresponds to a particular frequency or wavelength
Light intensity corresponds to varying amplitudes.
 MODES OF VIBRATION FOR
A STRING PLUCKED AT ITS CENTER
 ∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕
COMPLEX
SIGNAL FOURIER 𝒏=𝟏

SERIES sines and cosines of differing periods

and amplitudes
A function 𝒚 𝒕 is a periodic function if there is some positive number T such that
𝒚 𝒕+𝑻 =𝒚 𝒕

The period of 𝒚 𝒕 is 𝑻. If both 𝒚𝟏 𝒕 and 𝒚𝟐 𝒕 have period 𝑻, then

𝒂𝒚𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃𝒚𝟐 𝒕

Also has a period of 𝑻 (a and b are constants)

𝒚 𝒕
𝑬𝒙: 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒕, 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕

𝒕
𝑻
A trigonometric series is given by

𝑨𝒐 + 𝑨𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 + 𝑩𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒕 + 𝑨𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 + 𝑩𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 + ⋯ .

Where 𝑨𝒏 and 𝑩𝒏 are the coefficients of the series

 FOURIER SERIES AND COEFFICIENTS
A periodic function 𝒚 𝒕 with a period 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 is to be represented by a trigonometric series,
such that for any 𝒕,
∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕
𝒏=𝟏
with 𝒚 𝒕 known, the coefficients 𝑨𝒏 and 𝑩𝒏 are to be determined.

Integrating the above equation between the limits -𝝅 to 𝝅,

𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅
𝝅
න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 𝝅 − −𝝅 = 𝟐𝝅𝑨𝒐 𝝅
𝟏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 −𝝅
𝟐𝝅
−𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅
𝑻𝒐 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 ‫׬‬−𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎; ‫׬‬−𝝅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
𝝅 𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = ቤ = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝒏 −𝝅 𝒏 𝒏 𝒏
−𝝅

𝝅 𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − ቤ = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝒏 −𝝅 𝒏 𝒏
−𝝅

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎

𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = −𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = +𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
 TO DETERMINE 𝑨𝒏
∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕
𝒏=𝟏
𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕
−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅

Multiply by 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕
𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕

−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅
𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 − To find න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎

−𝝅
−𝝅 −𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + න 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒕 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝒕
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = ቤ + ቤ
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒏−𝒎 −𝝅
−𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 −𝝅 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 𝟐 𝒏−𝒎
−𝝅

For 𝒎 = 𝒏
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 zero 𝝅
𝟏 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝟏
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒕+ อ = 𝝅 − −𝝅 =𝝅
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝟐
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + න 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒕 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝒕
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − ቤ − ቤ
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒏−𝒎 −𝝅
−𝝅

𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝒎 −𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 − 𝒎 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 𝟐 𝒏−𝒎
−𝝅
𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − −𝟏 − −𝟏 − −𝟏 − −𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 𝟐 𝒏−𝒎
−𝝅
𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅
𝟏 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = −𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝟏− 𝟏 + 𝟏− 𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = +𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 𝟐 𝒏−𝒎
−𝝅
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
For 𝒎 = 𝒏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = อ = −𝟏 − −𝟏 =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝟒𝒎
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕

−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅 For 𝒎 = 𝒏 For 𝒎 ≠ 𝒏
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 𝝅 𝝅

−𝝅 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝝅 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅 −𝝅

For 𝒎 = 𝒏 For 𝒎 ≠ 𝒏
𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅 −𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒏 𝝅 𝝅
−𝝅 𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝝅
−𝝅
 TO DETERMINE 𝑩𝒏
∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕
𝒏=𝟏
𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕
−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅

Multiply by 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕
𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕

−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 − To find න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒎 + 𝒏 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 + න 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒎 − 𝒏 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒎 + 𝒏 𝒕 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒎 − 𝒏 𝒕
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − ቤ − ቤ
𝟐 𝒎+𝒏 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒎−𝒏 −𝝅
−𝝅

𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒎 + 𝒏 𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒎 + 𝒏 −𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒎 − 𝒏 𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒎 − 𝒏 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒎+𝒏 𝟐 𝒎−𝒏
−𝝅
=
𝝅
𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − −𝟏 − −𝟏 + −𝟏 − −𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅
𝟐 𝒎+𝒏 𝟐 𝒎−𝒏
−𝝅
𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅
𝟏 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = −𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = − 𝟏− 𝟏 + 𝟏− 𝟏 = 𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = +𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
𝟐 𝒎+𝒏 𝟐 𝒎−𝒏
−𝝅
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
For 𝒎 = 𝒏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = อ = −𝟏 − −𝟏 =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝟒𝒎
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 − න 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝒕 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒕
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = ቤ − ቤ
𝟐 𝒏 −𝒎 −𝝅
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 −𝝅
−𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 − 𝒎 −𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 𝝅 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏 + 𝒎 −𝝅 =𝟎
𝟐 𝒏+𝒎 𝟐 𝒏−𝒎
−𝝅

For 𝒎 = 𝒏
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 zero 𝝅
𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒎𝒕 𝟏
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒅𝒕 = 𝒕− อ = 𝝅 − −𝝅 =𝝅
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝒎 𝟐
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅
 𝝅 𝝅 ∞ 𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕

−𝝅 −𝝅 𝒏=𝟏 −𝝅 −𝝅
𝝅 For 𝒎 = 𝒏 For 𝒎 ≠ 𝒏
𝝅 𝝅
න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎 න 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅
−𝝅 −𝝅

For 𝒎 = 𝒏 For 𝒎 ≠ 𝒏
𝝅 𝝅

න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝝅 න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
−𝝅 −𝝅

න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = 𝑩𝒏 𝝅 𝝅
−𝝅 𝟏
𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝝅
−𝝅
 Summary of these calculations: Fourier Series and Fourier coefficients
∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕
𝒏=𝟏
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕 𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟐𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
−𝝅 −𝝅 −𝝅

When n = 1, the corresponding terms in the Fourier series are called

fundamental and have the lowest frequency in the series. Frequencies
corresponding to n = 2, 3, 4, . . . are known as harmonics, with, for example, n = 2
representing the second harmonic.
Fourier Coefficients for Functions Having Arbitrary Period 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅
𝝎
∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝒏=𝟏

𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
−𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟐
 EVEN FUNCTIONS ODD FUNCTIONS
A function 𝒈 𝒕 is even if it is symmetric about A function 𝒉 𝒕 is odd if, for all 𝒕,
the origin, which may be stated, for all 𝒕, 𝒉 −𝒕 = −𝒉 𝒕
𝒈 −𝒕 = 𝒈 𝒕 Ex: 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕
Ex: 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕

𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
− − −
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑻 𝑻
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏
A particular function or waveform may be even, odd, or neither even nor odd.
 Fourier Cosine Series
If 𝒚 𝒕 is even, its Fourier series will contain only cosine terms:
∞ ∞
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕 = ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔
𝑻
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏

Fourier Sine Series

If 𝒚 𝒕 is odd, its Fourier series will contain only sine terms:
∞ ∞
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑻
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏

Functions that are neither even nor odd result in Fourier series that contain both sine and
cosine terms.
 𝑨𝒐 is zero only for odd function
A function 𝒈 𝒕 is even if it is symmetric about the origin, which may be stated, for all t,
𝒈 −𝒕 = 𝒈 𝒕
Ex: 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝒕
A function 𝒉 𝒕 is odd if, for all t,
𝒉 −𝒕 = −𝒉 𝒕
Ex: 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒕

𝑻
𝟐
𝟏
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝑻
−𝟐
Determine the Fourier series that represents the function shown in Figure
𝑻
𝟐
𝟏
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
𝑻
𝑻
−𝟐

𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

A function 𝒉 𝒕 is odd if, for all t, 𝒉 −𝒕 = −𝒉 𝒕

Since the function shown in Figure is odd, the Fourier series will contain only sine terms
∞ ∞ 𝑻
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝟐
𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝑻 𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕
𝒏=𝟏 𝒏=𝟏 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻
𝟎 𝟓 −𝟐
𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝑩𝒏 = න −𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕 + න 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
−𝟓 𝟎
 𝟎 𝟓
𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝑩𝒏 = න −𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕 + න 𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
−𝟓 𝟎
𝟎 𝟓
𝟐 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝟐 −𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝑩𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 อ + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 อ
𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝒏𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝒏𝝅 𝟏𝟎
−𝟓 𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝑩𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 + − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎
𝒏𝝅 𝒏𝝅

𝟏 𝟏
𝑩𝒏 = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 + 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅
𝒏𝝅 𝒏𝝅
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = −𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝟏
𝑩𝒏 = 𝟐 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏𝝅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = +𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧
𝒏𝝅
For even values of 𝒏, 𝑩𝒏 is identically zero and for odd values of 𝒏, 𝑩𝒏 exists ∞
𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝟏 𝟏 𝟒 𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑩𝒏 =
𝒏𝝅
𝟐 − −𝟏 − −𝟏 +
𝒏𝝅
𝟐 − +𝟏 − +𝟏 =
𝒏𝝅
𝟏𝟎
Odd values of n Even values of n 𝒏=𝟏

𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝝅
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+⋯
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝝅 𝟏𝟎
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝝅
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+⋯
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝝅 𝟏𝟎
𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎𝟏 = Fundamental frequency
𝟏𝟎 𝒔

𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎𝟑 = 𝟑 Third Harmonic
𝟏𝟎 𝒔

𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎𝟓 = 𝟓 Fifth Harmonic
𝟏𝟎 𝒔
 1.5
𝟒 𝟐𝝅
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
1 𝝅 𝟏𝟎
0.5

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-0.5

-1

1.5
-1.5
1

0.5

𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 -6 -4 -2
0
0 2 4 6
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 -0.5

-1

-1.5
 1.5

𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝝅
1 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝝅 𝟏𝟎
0.5

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-0.5

-1

1.5
-1.5

0.5

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-0.5

-1

𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟒𝝅 -1.5

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕++ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝝅 𝟏𝟎
 𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟒𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟖𝝅
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕++ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟗𝝅 𝟏𝟎
1.5

0.5

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-0.5
1.5

-1
1
-1.5

0.5

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-0.5

-1

𝟒 𝟐𝝅 𝟒 𝟔𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟎𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟒𝝅 𝟒 𝟏𝟖𝝅 𝟒 𝟐𝟐𝝅

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕+ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 -1.5
𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟓𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟕𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟗𝝅 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟏𝝅 𝟏𝟎
As an example of interpreting the frequency content of a given signal, consider the output
voltage from a rectifier. A rectifier functions to ‘‘flip’’ the negative half of an alternating
current (AC) into the positive half plane, resulting in a signal that appears as shown in Figure.
For the AC signal the voltage is given by 𝑬 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕

The period of the signal is 1/60 s, and the frequency is 60 Hz

The rectified signal can be

expressed as

𝑬 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
 𝑻
𝟐 𝑬 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
𝟏
𝑨𝒐 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑻
𝑻
−
𝟐
𝑻 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑨𝒐 = 𝟐 න 𝑬 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟐 න 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = −𝟐 × 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎 ቤ
𝑻 𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 𝟎
𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑨𝒐 = − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝅 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟎 = − −𝟏 − 𝟏 = 𝑨𝒐 =
𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
 𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟐 𝝎= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅
𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝒔
𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 𝟔𝟎
𝑻
𝑻 𝑬 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
−𝟐
𝑻 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟒
𝑨𝒏 = න 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = න 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝟎
−𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐×𝟔𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝟔𝟎 𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟎
𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟏
𝟔𝟎 𝟎
 𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑨𝒏 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟏
𝟔𝟎 𝟎
𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟒𝟎 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
𝑨𝒏 = − − อ
𝟐 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅
𝟎
𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
𝑨𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − − อ
𝟏+𝒏 𝝅 𝟏−𝒏 𝝅
𝟎
𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
𝑨𝒏 = − − อ
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝟎
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 + 𝟏 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 +𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = +
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 + 𝟏 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅 +𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝟏𝟐𝟎 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝝅 + 𝟏 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝝅 + 𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = +
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅
𝟏𝟐𝟎 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝝅 + 𝟏 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝝅 + 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = −𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝑨𝒏 = +
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = +𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧

𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 ⇒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝝅 = +𝟏

𝟏𝟐𝟎 − +𝟏 + 𝟏 − +𝟏 + 𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = + =𝟎
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 ⇒ 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝝅 = −𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟎 − −𝟏 + 𝟏 − −𝟏 + 𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = +
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅
𝟏𝟐𝟎 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒏 𝝅 + 𝟏 −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 𝝅 + 𝟏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = −𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝
𝑨𝒏 = +
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝅 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝒏𝝅 = +𝟏 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧

𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 ⇒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝝅 = +𝟏

𝟏𝟐𝟎 − +𝟏 + 𝟏 − +𝟏 + 𝟏
𝑨𝒏 = + =𝟎
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 ⇒ 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒅𝒅 ⇒ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒏 + 𝟏 𝝅 = −𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝟎 − −𝟏 + 𝟏 − −𝟏 + 𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
𝑨𝒏 = + = +
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏 𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏

𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
𝑨𝒏 = + 𝐨𝐧𝐥𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐟𝐫𝐨𝐦 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔. .
𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝝎= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅
𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒚 𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒕 𝑻 𝟏 𝒔
𝑻 𝑻 𝟔𝟎
𝑻
−
𝟐
𝑬 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝑻 𝑻
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟒
𝑩𝒏 = න 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕 = න 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 𝟎 𝟏
−𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑨 + 𝑩 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑨 − 𝑩
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐×𝟔𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑩𝒏 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒏𝒕𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝟏
𝟔𝟎 𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟎
Integration of cos terms results in sin terms and knowing that 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝅 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
implies that 𝑩𝒏 is zero
𝑬 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
∞

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒐 + ෍ 𝑨𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝝎𝒕 + 𝑩𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝒏=𝟏

𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
𝑨𝒐 = 𝑨𝒏 = +
𝝅 𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝐨𝐧𝐥𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐧 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔 …
𝑩𝒏 = 𝟎 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
∞ 𝝎= = = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅
𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 𝑻 𝟏 𝒔
𝒚 𝒕 = + ෍ + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒏𝒕 𝟔𝟎
𝝅 𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝒏=𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
∞
𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
𝒚 𝒕 = + ෍ + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒏𝒕
𝝅 𝝅 𝟏+𝒏 𝟏−𝒏
𝒏=𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟒 − 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟕𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕

 140

120

100
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟒 − 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅𝒕
80

60

40

20

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035

140

120

100

80

60
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟒 − 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝒕
40

20

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
140

120

100

80

60
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟒 − 𝟓𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝟒𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟒𝟖𝟎𝝅𝒕 − 𝟒. 𝟑𝟕𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟕𝟐𝟎𝝅𝒕
40

20

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
 IMPULSE FUNCTION
𝒑 𝒕
𝒒𝒊 𝑨
𝒈 𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟎 < 𝒕 < 𝑻
𝑻→𝟎 𝑻
𝑨
=0 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 < 𝟎, 𝑻 < 𝒕
𝑻
𝑻 𝒕t
𝑨
Height of the impulse function =
𝑻
Duration of the impulse function = 𝑻

Area under the impulse = 𝑨

𝑨
As the duration to approaches zero, the height approaches infinity, but the area under the
𝑻
impulse remains equal to 𝑨.

Note that the magnitude of the impulse is measured by its area.

 IMPULSE RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
𝒑 𝒕pt  𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝑨
q𝒒i 𝒊 𝒒𝒊 =
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕 𝑻
𝑨 𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝑲𝑨 A – a constant
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 =
𝑻 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑻
qo 𝑲𝑨 𝟏
qo 𝝉 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 + 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 =
𝑻 𝒔
𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
= = +
𝑲𝑨 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕
𝓛 = 𝒔𝒒𝒐 𝒔 − 𝒒𝒐 𝟎 𝑻
𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
= + ⇒ 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔 = 𝟏
𝓛 𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏

𝑨 𝑲𝑨 𝟏
𝓛 𝑲 =
𝑻 𝑻 𝒔
 𝟏 𝑨 𝑩
= + ⇒ 𝑨 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 + 𝑩𝒔 = 𝟏
𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔; 𝟎 = 𝑨𝝉 + 𝑩 ⇒ 𝟎 = 𝟏 𝝉 +𝑩 ⇒ 𝑩 = −𝝉

𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒔𝟎 ; 𝑨=𝟏

𝒒𝒐 𝒔 𝟏 𝟏 −𝝉 𝟏 𝟏
= = + = −
𝑲𝑨 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝝉𝒔 + 𝟏 𝒔 𝟏
𝑻 𝒔+
𝝉
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝒕
−𝝉
=𝟏−𝒆
𝑲𝑨
𝑻
𝑲𝑨 𝒕
−𝝉
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝟏−𝒆
𝑻
However, this solution is valid only upto time 𝑻.
At 𝐭 > 𝑻, .
𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒒𝒐 𝒕 𝑪𝟏 𝒕
−𝝉
𝝉න = − න 𝒅𝒕 ⇒ 𝝉𝒍𝒏𝒒𝒐 = −𝒕 + 𝑪𝟏 ⇒ 𝒍𝒏𝒒𝒐 = − + ⇒ 𝒒𝒐 = 𝐂𝒆
𝒒𝒐 𝝉 𝝉
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕 = 𝑻
𝑲𝑨 𝒕
−𝝉
𝒒𝒐 ቚ = 𝟏−𝒆
𝑻 𝑻
𝑲𝑨 𝑻
−
𝑲𝑨 𝑻 𝑻 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝝉
𝟏 − 𝒆− 𝝉 = 𝐂𝒆− 𝝉 ⇒ 𝑪 = 𝑻 𝑻
𝑻 −𝝉
𝒆
𝑲𝑨 𝑻
−
𝟏 − 𝒆 𝝉 −𝒕
𝒒𝒐 = 𝑻 𝑻 𝒆 𝝉
−𝝉
𝒆
 𝒑 p𝒕t  IMPULSE RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
q𝒒𝒊i
𝑨A
𝑻T

𝒒𝑶 for 𝑻t  T 𝒕
𝑲𝑨 −
𝑻
𝟏−𝒆 𝝉
𝑻

𝑲𝑨 −
𝒕
𝒒𝒐 𝒕 = 𝟏−𝒆 𝝉
𝑻
𝑲𝑨 𝑻
−
𝟏 − 𝒆 𝝉 −𝒕
𝒒𝒐 = 𝑻 𝑻 𝒆 𝝉
−𝝉
𝒆
 FIRST ORDER HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

𝑷𝒊𝒏 − 𝑷
𝑸ሶ = 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉𝑰𝑵 𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
𝑨𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝒅𝒉 𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝑹𝑭
+ 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝒅𝒉 𝝆𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑸ሶ = 𝑨𝑭 = 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒉
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑭
𝒅𝒉 𝑨𝑭 𝑹𝑭
𝝉 + 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝝉= ; 𝑲=𝟏
𝑨𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝒅𝒉 𝒅𝒕 𝝆𝒈
= 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒉
𝝆𝒈 𝒅𝒕
𝑨𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝒅𝒉
+ 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒊𝒏
𝝆𝒈 𝒅𝒕
 FIRST ORDER PNEUMATIC SYSTEM

C𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑪
Resistance R
Re sis tan ce R
𝒑𝒊 p−i 𝒑p𝒐o

ሶ
𝒎m
ഥ + 𝒑𝒐
𝑷

ഥP+𝒑p𝒊i
𝑷 m

𝒑𝒊 − 𝒑𝒐 𝒅𝒎 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒊𝒓 dpo

𝑹=
𝒎ሶ 𝑪=
𝒅𝒑𝒐
=
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
RC  po  pi
dt
𝑪𝒅𝒑𝒐 = 𝒅𝒎 𝑪𝒅𝒑𝒐 = 𝒅𝒎 𝒅𝒑𝒐
𝑹𝑪 + 𝒑𝒐 = 𝒑𝒊
ሶ
𝑪𝒅𝒑𝒐 = 𝒎𝒅𝒕 ሶ
𝑪𝒅𝒑𝒐 = 𝒎𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪; 𝑲 = 𝟏 𝝉 𝒅𝒒𝒐 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝒅𝒑𝒐 𝒅𝒑𝒐 𝒑𝒊 − 𝒑𝒐 𝒅𝒕
𝑪 = 𝒎ሶ 𝑪 =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝑹
 FIRST ORDER ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
KIRCHOFF’S LAWS

• The algebraic sum of all currents entering a junction

point is zero

• The algebraic sum of all voltage drops taken in a

given direction around a closed circuit is zero

𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝒒 = 𝑪𝑽 𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑰𝑵 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝑽𝑰𝑵 − 𝑽 = 𝒊𝑹 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝒒 𝒅𝑽 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪; 𝑲 = 𝟏
𝑽𝑰𝑵 − 𝑽 = 𝑪 𝑹 𝒊= =𝑪
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑽
𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑰𝑵
𝒅𝒕
 FIRST ORDER MECHANICAL SYSTEM
𝑵. 𝒔
𝑪 𝑪 − 𝑫𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒎
𝑭 𝒕 F t 
𝒅𝒙 dx 𝑵
𝑪
𝒅𝒕
C
dt
𝑲𝒔 − 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒎
𝑲𝒔
𝒅𝒙
𝑪 + 𝑲𝒔 𝒙 = 𝑭 𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝑪 𝒅𝒙 𝑭 𝒕 𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝒅𝒙 +𝒙= 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝑫𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑪 𝑲𝒔 𝒅𝒕 𝑲𝒔 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙
𝝉 + 𝒙 = 𝑲𝑭 𝒕
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑲𝒔 𝒙 𝒅𝒕
𝑪 𝑭 𝒕
𝑬𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑭 𝒕 𝝉= 𝑲=
𝑲𝒔 𝑲𝒔
UTILITY OF ANALOGY OF
VARIOUS TYPES OF FIRST
ORDER SYSTEMS
 THERMAL SYSTEM
Thermocouple 𝒅𝒒𝒐
𝒌𝒈 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝝆 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟑 𝒅𝒕
𝒎
𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝜽
𝑾 + 𝜽 = 𝜽∞
𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝒎𝟐
.𝑲 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒕
𝑻 − 𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝜽 𝒕
−𝝉
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝑱 = =𝟏−𝒆
𝒌𝒈. 𝑲 𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝜽∞
𝟏 𝟏
𝑫 = 𝟏 𝒎𝒎 𝑹= =
𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒉 𝟒𝝅𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝑲
R= −𝟑 𝟐
= 𝟕𝟗𝟓. 𝟕𝟕
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟒𝝅 𝟎.𝟓×𝟏𝟎 𝑾

𝟒 𝟒 𝟑
𝑪 = 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 = 𝝆 𝝅𝑹 𝑪𝒑 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑
𝟑 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑱
𝟑 𝟑
𝑲
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪 = 𝟕𝟗𝟓. 𝟕𝟕 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑱 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟕 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐬
𝑾
 Analogy between thermal and electrical system
Thermocouple 𝒅𝒒𝒐 Sl No Thermal Electrical
𝒌𝒈 𝝉 + 𝒒𝒐 = 𝑲𝒒𝒊 𝒕
𝝆 = 𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟑
𝒎
𝒅𝒕 Parameter parameter
𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 𝒅𝜽 1 𝟏 R
𝑾 + 𝜽 = 𝜽∞ 𝑹=
𝒉 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟐 . 𝑲
𝒎 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝒅𝒕 𝒉𝑨𝒔
𝑱
𝑻 − 𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝜽 𝒕
−𝝉 2 𝑪 = 𝝆𝑽𝑪𝒑 C
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = =𝟏−𝒆
𝒌𝒈. 𝑲 𝑻∞ − 𝑻𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝜽∞ 3  V
𝑫 = 𝟏 𝒎𝒎
𝝉 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

RC circuit
𝒅𝑽
𝑹𝑪 + 𝑽 = 𝑽𝑰𝑵
𝑹 = 𝟕𝟗𝟓. 𝟕𝟕𝛀 𝒅𝒕 Differential equations are similar
𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑭
Initial conditions are similar
Solution also needs to be similar
𝝉 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪; 𝑲 = 𝟏
 Questions to be answered after completing this module
1. Model the clinical thermometer as a first order system with appropriate assumptions
2. Draw the typical inputs (time varying) provided to first order measurement systems
3. Determine output characteristics of the first order instrument with the following input
a. Step Input
b. Ramp Input
c. Sinusoidal Input
d. Impulse input
4. What is a linear system ?
5. Show with an example, how method of superposition can be used to find the output of a
first order system provided with a combination of sinusoidal inputs
6. What is Fourier Series ?
7. What is a periodic function ?
8. What is the difference between complex periodic wave form and Non deterministic wave
form
9. What is the difference between odd function and an even function
10. Determine the Fourier coefficients between the limits −𝝅 𝒕𝒐 + 𝝅 (period = 𝟐𝝅)
11. Determine the Fourier coefficients between the limits −𝑻/𝟐 𝒕𝒐 + 𝑻/𝟐 (period = 𝑻)
 Questions to be answered after completing this module
13. From first principles, model first order
a. Hydraulic system
b. Pnuematic system
c. Electrical system
d. Thermal system

14. State the conditions under which the following systems can be considered as analogous
systems
a. Hydraulic system and Electrical system
b. Pnuematic system and Electrical system
c. Electrical system and Thermal system