The American Promise, Value Edition,

Volume 2: A History of the United

States 7th Edition by James L. Roark
(eBook PDF)
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
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Arizona State University
Susan M. Hartmann
The Ohio State University

Boston | New York

8
FOR BEDFORD/ST. MARTIN’S
Vice President, Editorial, Macmillan Learning Humanities: Edwin Hill
Publisher for History: Michael Rosenberg
Senior Executive Editor for History: William J. Lombardo
Director of Development for History: Jane Knetzger
Developmental Editor: Robin Soule
Associate Editor: Tess Fletcher
Assistant Editor: Mary Posman
Editorial Assistant: Lexi DeConti
Senior Production Editor: Rosemary Jaffe
Media Producer: Michelle Camisa
Media Editor: Jennifer Jovin
Production Manager: Joe Ford
History Marketing Manager: Melissa Famiglietti
Copy Editor: Lisa Wehrle
Indexer: Mary White
Cartography: Mapping Specialists, Ltd.
Photo Editor: Cecilia Varas
Photo Researcher: Naomi Kornhauser
Permissions Editor: Eve Lehmann
Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik
Text Design: Cenveo Publisher Services
Cover Design: William Boardman
Cover Photo: Women at Work on the C-47 Douglas Cargo Transport, Douglas
Aircraft Company, Long Beach, California, October 1942. Library of
Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Reproduction number LC-DIG-
fsac-1a35359.
Composition: Cenveo Publisher Services
Printing and Binding: LSC Communications

Copyright © 2017, 2015, 2012, 2009 by Bedford/St. Martin’s.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by
the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher.

Manufactured in the United States of America.

1 0 9 8 7 6
f e d c b a
For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA
02116 (617-399-4000)

9
ISBN 978-1-319-06198-2 (Combined Edition)
ISBN 978-1-319-06199-9 (Volume 1)
ISBN 978-1-319-07010-6 (Loose-leaf Edition, Volume 1)
ISBN 978-1-319-06200-2 (Volume 2)
ISBN 978-1-319-07012-0 (Loose-leaf Edition, Volume 2)

Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments and copyrights appear on the same page as the text and art
selections they cover; these acknowledgments and copyrights constitute an
extension of the copyright page.

10
 Preface
Why This Book This Way

What is the best way to engage and teach students in their history survey
course? From the beginning, The American Promise has been shaped by
our firsthand knowledge that the survey course is one of the most difficult
to teach and, for many, also the most difficult to take. From the outset we
have met this challenge by providing a story students enjoy for its
readability, clear chronology, and lively voices of ordinary Americans, and
by providing a full-featured text that instructors prize for its full narrative
with political backbone and the overall support for teaching. We continue
to feature these qualities in the Value Edition of The American Promise in
which we provide the core of the high-quality material included in the
Seventh Edition — the full narrative and select images, maps, and
pedagogical tools — in a two-color, trade-sized format at a low price.
We know that many students today are on a budget and that instructors
want greater flexibility and more digital options in their choice of course
materials. We are proud to offer a low-cost text that presents the engaging
and readable narrative with a rich abundance of digital tools. Free when
packaged with the print text, LaunchPad makes meeting the challenges of
the survey course a great deal easier by providing an intuitive, interactive
e-Book and course space with a wealth of primary sources. Ready to
assign as is with key assessment resources built into each chapter,
LaunchPad can also be edited and customized as instructors’ imaginations
and innovations dictate. LaunchPad grants students and teachers access to
a wealth of online tools and resources built specifically for our text to
enhance reading comprehension and promote in-depth study. LaunchPad is
loaded with the full-color e-Book with all of the features, maps, and
illustrations of the full-sized edition, plus LearningCurve, an adaptive
learning tool; the popular Reading the American Past primary documents
collection; additional primary sources; special skills-based assessment
activities; videos; chapter summative quizzes; and more.

11
What Makes The American Promise Special
Our experience as teachers and our frustrations with available textbooks
inspired us to create a book that we could use effectively with our own
students. Our knowledge of classroom realities has informed every aspect
of each edition and version of The American Promise. We began with a
clear chronological, political framework, as we have found that students
need both the structure a political narrative provides and the insights
gained from examining social and cultural experience. To write a
comprehensive, balanced account of American history, we focus on the
public arena — the place where politics intersects social and cultural
developments — to show how Americans confronted the major issues of
their day and created far-reaching historical change.
The unique approach of our narrative is reflected in our title, The
American Promise. We emphasize human agency and demonstrate our
conviction that the essence of America has been its promise. For millions,
the nation has held out the promise of a better life, unfettered worship,
equality before the law, representative government, democratic politics,
and other freedoms seldom found elsewhere. But none of these promises
has come with guarantees. Throughout the narrative we demonstrate how
much of American history is a continuing struggle over the definition
and realization of the nation’s promise.
To engage students in this American story and to portray fully the
diversity of the American experience, we stitch into our narrative the
voices of hundreds of contemporaries. In LaunchPad, the Value Edition
is augmented with the comprehensive edition’s four-color art and map
program with visual and map activities that prompt students to think
critically about what they see. To help students of all levels understand
American history, LaunchPad offers the best in primary sources and
pedagogical aids. To help instructors teach important skills and evaluate
student learning, we provide a rich assortment of assignments and
assessments in the LaunchPad format. While this edition rests solidly on
our original goals and premises, it breaks new ground in addressing the
specific needs of today’s courses.

A New Skills Focus for the Special Features

Those using LaunchPad will have access to The American Promise’s
acclaimed feature program. The program has been revised to include more
useful, skills-oriented assignments. The features offer primary sources,
visuals, essays, and discussion questions, as well as short-answer and

12
multiple-choice questions that test students’ critical reading skills. Making
Historical Arguments (formerly Historical Question) now offers active,
skills-based activities that demonstrate to students how historians make
and support historical arguments. Analyzing Historical Evidence
(formerly Documenting the American Promise) then gives students the
opportunity to practice the skills introduced in Making Historical
Arguments through analysis of text and visual sources. Experiencing the
American Promise (formerly Seeking the American Promise) offers
essays that illuminate the stories of individuals who sought their dream in
America, helping students evaluate to what extent individuals make
history. Finally, an enhanced Beyond America’s Borders continues to
offer students a global perspective on the narrative’s themes with essays
that connect U.S. history to developments around the globe.
Collectively these features provide a range of new topics and content
that includes increased attention to white servant women and slave men in
the seventeenth-century Chesapeake; a new focus on the weak opposition
to the African slave trade in the eighteenth century; a nuanced look at
urban workers’ standard of living in the Gilded Age; a spotlight on
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s use of New Deal programs to rebuild the navy
during the 1930s; an exploration of the federal government’s influence on
the economy in the post–World War II years; a study of the impact of the
Voting Rights Act; an in-depth look at the use of air power in Vietnam; an
investigation of the loss of American manufacturing jobs in the twenty-
first century; and much more.

Evaluation of Primary Sources

Primary sources form the heart of historical study and we are pleased to
offer LaunchPad users the new Analyzing Historical Evidence feature,
which asks students to use historical thinking skills to consider a range of
documents. Each feature juxtaposes two to four primary documents to
reveal varying perspectives on a topic or issue and to provide students with
opportunities to build and practice their skills of historical interpretation.
Because students are so attuned to visuals and instructors deeply value
their usefulness as primary sources, we have included both text and visual
sources in this new feature. Images, including artifacts of daily life in
Chaco Canyon, paintings of the Battle of the Little Big Horn, a 1920s
mouthwash advertisement, political cartoons, and more, show students
how to mine visual documents for evidence about the past.
In Analyzing Historical Evidence, feature introductions and

13
document headnotes contextualize the sources, and short-answer questions
at the end of the feature promote critical thinking about primary sources.
New topics have been added that are rich with human drama and include
“Enslavement by Marriage” and “The Nation’s First Formal Declaration of
War.” These features are available both in print and online and are easily
assigned in LaunchPad, along with multiple-choice quizzes that measure
student comprehension.
In addition, more than 150 documents in the accompanying collection
Reading the American Past are available free to users who package the
reader with the main print text, and they are automatically included in the
LaunchPad e-Book. Multiple-choice questions are also available for
assignment to measure comprehension and hold students accountable for
their reading.
LaunchPad for The American Promise also comes with a collection of
more than 135 additional primary sources that instructors can choose to
assign. These sources include letters, memoirs, court records, government
documents, and more, and they include items by or about such people as
John Smith, William Penn, Anne Hutchinson, Jonathan Edwards, Mary
Jemison, Black Hawk, Rebecca Neugin, John C. Calhoun, Frederick
Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, Mary Elizabeth Lease, William Jennings
Bryan, Rose Pastor Stokes, Theodore Roosevelt, Nicola Sacco and
Bartolomeo Vanzetti, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Paul
Robeson, Ronald Reagan, and more.
To give students ample opportunity to practice thinking critically about
primary source images, LaunchPad includes four visual activity captions
per chapter. One set of questions in these activities prompts analysis of
the image, while a second set of questions helps students connect the
images to main points in the narrative.

Distinctive Essay Features Practice Historical

Thinking Skills
To demonstrate and engage students in various methods of historical
thinking, LaunchPad’s Making Historical Arguments feature essays,
which occur in every chapter, pose and interpret specific questions of
continuing interest. We pair perennial favorites such as “Was the New
United States a Christian Country?,” “How Often Were Slaves
Whipped?,” “Was There a Sexual Revolution in the 1920s?,” and “Why
Did the Allies Win World War II?,” with brand-new entries including
“How Did Seventeenth-Century Colonists View Nature?” and “What Did

14
African Americans Want from World War I, and What Did They Get?”
Short-answer questions at the end of the features prompt students to
consider things such as evidence, beliefs and values, and cause and effect
as they relate to the historical question at hand. These features are
available both in print and online and can be easily assigned in LaunchPad,
along with multiple-choice quizzes that measure student comprehension.

Helping Students Understand the Narrative

Every instructor knows it can be a challenge to get students to complete
assigned readings, and then to fully understand what is important once
they do the reading. The American Promise addresses these problems
head-on with a suite of tools in LaunchPad that instructors can choose
from.
To help students come to class prepared, instructors who adopt
LaunchPad for The American Promise can assign the LearningCurve
formative assessment activities. This online learning tool is popular with
students because it helps them rehearse content at their own pace in a
nonthreatening, game-like environment. LearningCurve is also popular
with instructors because the reporting features allow them to track overall
class trends and spot topics that are giving their students trouble so they
can adjust their lectures and class activities.
Encouraging active reading is another means for making content
memorable and highlighting what is truly important. To help students read
actively and understand the central idea of the chapter, instructors who use
LaunchPad can also assign Guided Reading Exercises. These excercises
appear at the start of each chapter, prompting students to collect
information to be used to answer a broad analytic question central to the
chapter as a whole.
To further encourage students to read and fully assimilate the text as
well as measure how well they do this, instructors can assign the multiple-
choice summative quizzes in LaunchPad, where they are automatically
graded. These secure tests not only encourage students to study the book,
they can be assigned at specific intervals as higher-stakes testing and thus
provide another means for analyzing class performance.
Another big challenge for survey instructors is meeting the needs of a
range of students, particularly the students who need the most support. In
addition to the formative assessment of LearningCurve, which adapts to
the needs of students at any level, The American Promise offers a number
of print and digital tools for the underprepared. Each chapter opener

15
includes Content Learning Objectives to prepare students to read the
chapter with purpose. Once into the heart of the chapter, students are
reminded to think about main ideas through Review Questions placed at
the end of every major section. Some students have trouble connecting
events and ideas, particularly with special boxed features. To address this,
we have added a set of Questions for Analysis to the end of each feature
in LaunchPad to help students understand the significance of the featured
topic, its context, and how it might be viewed from different angles.
With this edition we also bring back two popular sets of end-of-chapter
questions that help widen students’ focus as they consider what they have
read. Making Connections questions ask students to think about broad
developments within the chapter, while Linking to the Past questions
cross-reference developments in earlier chapters, encouraging students to
make comparisons, see causality, and understand change over longer
periods of time.

Helping Instructors Teach with Digital Resources

With requests for clear and transparent learning outcomes coming from all
quarters and with students who bring increasingly diverse levels of skills
to class, even veteran teachers can find preparing for today’s courses a
trying matter. With LaunchPad we have reconceived the textbook as a
suite of tools in multiple formats that allows each format to do what it does
best to capture students’ interest and help instructors create meaningful
lessons.
But one of the best benefits is that instructors using LaunchPad will
find they have a number of assessment tools that allow them to see what it
is their students do and don’t know and measure student achievement all in
one convenient space. For example, LaunchPad comes with
LearningCurve, an adaptive learning tool that garners more than a 90
percent student satisfaction rate and helps students master book content.
When LearningCurve is assigned, the grade book results show instructors
where the entire class or individual students may be struggling, and this
information in turn allows instructors to adjust lectures and course
activities accordingly — a benefit not only for traditional classes but
invaluable for hybrid, online, and newer “flipped” classes as well. In
addition, not only can instructors assign all of the questions that appear in
the print book and view the responses in the grade book, they have the
option to assign automatically graded multiple-choice questions for all of
the book features.

16
 With LaunchPad for The American Promise we make the tough job of
teaching simpler by providing everything instructors need in one
convenient space so they can set and achieve the learning outcomes they
desire. To learn more about the benefits of LearningCurve and LaunchPad,
see the “Versions and Supplements” section on page xiv.

Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge all of the helpful suggestions from those who
have read and taught from previous editions of The American Promise, and
we hope that our many classroom collaborators will be pleased to see their
influence in the seventh edition. In particular, we wish to thank the
talented scholars and teachers who gave generously of their time and
knowledge to review the previous edition in preparation for its revision:
LeNie Adolphson, Sauk Valley Community College; Daniel Anderson,
Cincinnati State Technical and Community College; Ian Baldwin,
University of Nevada, Las Vegas; Veronica Bale, MiraCosta College;
Karen Cook Bell, Bowie State University; Dustin Black, El Camino
College; Nawana Britenriker, Pikes Peak Community College; Elizabeth
Broen, South Florida State College; Robert Browning, University of
Texas, San Antonio; Robert Bush, Front Range Community College; Brian
David Collins, El Centro College; Alexandra Cornelius, Florida
International University; Sondra Cosgrove, College of Southern Nevada;
Rodney E. Dillon, Jr., Palm Beach State College; Wayne Drews, Georgia
Institute of Technology; Edward J. Dudlo, Brookhaven College; E. J.
Fabyan, Vincennes University; Randy Finley, Georgia Perimeter College;
Cecilia Gowdy-Wygant, Front Range Community College; Elizabeth
Green, University of South Alabama; William Grose, Wytheville
Community College; Steven Heise, Holyoke Community College; Jeff
Janowick, Lansing Community College; Juneann Klees, Bay College;
Leonard V. Larsen, Des Moines Area Community College; Charles Levine,
Mesa Community College; Kerima Lewis, Bridgewater State University;
Mary Linehan, University of Texas at Tyler; Annie Liss, South Texas
College; Patricia Loughlin, University of Central Oklahoma; Veronica
McComb, Lenoir-Rhyne University; Walter Miszczenko, College of
Western Idaho; Rick Murray, Los Angeles Valley College; Richard
Owens, West Liberty University; Stacey Pendleton, University of Colorado
Denver; Michael J. Pfeifer, John Jay College of Criminal Justice; Robert
Lynn Rainard, Tidewater Community College; Chris Rasmussen, Fairleigh
Dickinson University; George D. Salaita, Eastern Tennessee University;
Robert Sawvel, University of Northern Colorado; Benjamin G. Scharff,

17
West Virginia University; Mark Simon, Queens College of the City of New
York; Christopher Sleeper, MiraCosta College; Janet P. Smith, East
Tennessee State University; John Howard Smith, Texas A&M University–
Commerce; William Z. Tannenbaum, Missouri Southern State University;
Ramon C. Veloso, Palomar College; Kenneth A. Watras, Paradise Valley
Community College; and Eric Weinberg, Viterbo University.
A project as complex as this requires the talents of many individuals.
First, we would like to acknowledge our families for their support,
forbearance, and toleration of our textbook responsibilities. Naomi
Kornhauser contributed her vast knowledge, tireless energy, and diligent
research to make possible the useful and attractive illustration program.
We would also like to thank the many people at Bedford/St. Martin’s and
Macmillan Learning who have been crucial to this project. Thanks are due
to Robin Soule, developmental editor; Edwin Hill, vice president; Michael
Rosenberg, publisher; William J. Lombardo, senior executive editor for
history; and Jane Knetzger, director of development for history for their
support and guidance. Thanks are also due to Heidi Hood, senior editor;
Jennifer Jovin, media editor; Tess Fletcher, associate editor; Mary Posman,
assistant editor; and Lexi DeConti, editorial assistant. For their imaginative
and tireless efforts to promote the book, we want to thank executive
marketing manager Melissa Famiglietti, and marketing assistant Morgan
Ratner. With great skill and professionalism, senior production editor
Rosemary Jaffe pulled together the many pieces related to copyediting,
design, and composition. Production manager Joe Ford oversaw the
manufacturing of the book. Designer Jerilyn Bockorick, copy editor Lisa
Wehrle, and proofreaders Roberta Sobotka and Linda McLatchie attended
to the myriad details that help make the book shine. Mary White provided
an outstanding index. The covers for the book’s many versions were
researched and designed by William Boardman. Media producer Michelle
Camisa oversaw the timely and complex production of digital components
of The American Promise.

18
 Versions and Supplements

Adopters of The American Promise, Value Edition and their students have
access to abundant print and digital resources and tools, the acclaimed
Bedford Series in History and Culture volumes, and much more. The
LaunchPad course space for The American Promise provides access to the
narrative as well as a wealth of primary sources and other features, along
with assignment and assessment opportunities. See below for more
information, visit the book’s catalog site at macmillanlearning.com, or
contact your local Bedford/St. Martin’s sales representative.

Get the Right Version for Your Class

The American Promise franchise offers a variety of versions to best suit
your course needs. The comprehensive The American Promise features a
full-color art program and a robust set of features. Understanding the
American Promise, with a more modest feature program, enhances the full
narrative with a question-driven approach and innovative active learning
pedagogy. The American Promise: A Concise History also provides the
full narrative, with a streamlined art and feature program, at a lower price.
The American Promise, Value Edition offers a trade-sized two-color option
with the full narrative and selected art and maps at a steeper discount. The
Value Edition is also offered at the lowest price point in loose-leaf, and all
versions are available as low-priced PDF e-Books. For the best value of
all, package a new print book with LaunchPad at no additional charge to
get the best each format offers — a print version for easy portability with a
LaunchPad interactive e-Book and course space with LearningCurve and
loads of additional assignment and assessment options.
Combined Volume (Chapters 1–31): available in the comprehensive,
Understanding, Concise, Value, loose-leaf, and e-Book formats and in
LaunchPad
Volume 1, To 1877 (Chapters 1–16): available in the comprehensive,

19
 Understanding, Concise, Value, loose-leaf, and e-Book formats and in
LaunchPad
Volume 2, From 1865 (chapters 16–31): available in the
comprehensive, Understanding, Concise, Value, loose-leaf, and e-
Book formats and in LaunchPad
As noted below, any of these volumes can be packaged with additional
titles for a discount. To get ISBNs for discount packages, visit
macmillanlearning.com or contact your Bedford/St. Martin’s
representative.

Assign LaunchPad — an Assessment-

Ready Interactive e-Book and
Course Space
Available for discount purchase on its own or for packaging with new
books at no additional charge, LaunchPad is a breakthrough solution for
history courses. Intuitive and easy-to-use for students and instructors alike,
LaunchPad is ready to use as is, and can be edited, customized with your
own material, and assigned quickly. LaunchPad for The American Promise
includes Bedford/St. Martin’s high-quality content all in one place,
including the full interactive e-Book with all of the full-color maps and
images and features of the comprehensive edition and the companion
reader Reading the American Past, plus LearningCurve formative
quizzing, guided reading activities designed to help students read actively
for key concepts, autograded quizzes for each primary source, and chapter
summative quizzes.
Through a wealth of formative and summative assessments, including
the adaptive learning program of LearningCurve (see the full description
ahead), students gain confidence and get into their reading before class.
These features, plus additional primary-source documents, video sources
and tools for making video assignments, map activities, flashcards, and
customizable test banks, make LaunchPad an invaluable asset for any
instructor. For more information, visit launchpadworks.com or to arrange
a demo, contact us at history@macmillan.com.

Assign LearningCurve So Your Students Come

to Class Prepared

20
Students using LaunchPad receive access to LearningCurve for The
American Promise. Assigning LearningCurve in place of reading quizzes
is easy for instructors, and the reporting features help instructors track
overall class trends and spot topics that are giving students trouble so they
can adjust their lectures and class activities. This online learning tool is
popular with students because it was designed to help them comprehend
content at their own pace in a nonthreatening, game-like environment. The
feedback for wrong answers provides instructional coaching and sends
students back to the book for review. Students answer as many questions
as necessary to reach a target score, with repeated chances to revisit
material they haven’t mastered. When LearningCurve is assigned, students
come to class better prepared.

Take Advantage of Instructor Resources

Bedford/St. Martin’s has developed a rich array of teaching resources for
this book and for this course. They range from lecture and presentation
materials and assessment tools to course management options. Most can be
found in LaunchPad or can be downloaded or ordered from the Instructor
Resources tab of the book’s catalog site at macmillanlearning.com.
Bedford Coursepack for Blackboard, Canvas, Brightspace by D2L, or
Moodle. We can help you integrate our rich content into your course
management system. Registered instructors can download coursepacks that
include our popular free resources and book-specific content for The
American Promise.
Instructor’s Resource Manual. The instructor’s manual offers both
experienced and first-time instructors tools for presenting textbook
materials in engaging ways. It includes chapter content learning objectives,
annotated chapter outlines, and strategies for teaching with the textbook,
plus suggestions on how to get the most out of LearningCurve, and a
survival guide for first-time teaching assistants.
Guide to Changing Editions. Designed to facilitate an instructor’s
transition from the previous edition of The American Promise, Value
Edition to this new edition, this guide presents an overview of major
changes as well as of changes in each chapter.
Online Test Bank. The test bank includes a mix of fresh, carefully crafted
multiple-choice, matching, short-answer, and essay questions for each
chapter. Many of the multiple-choice questions feature a map, an image, or
a primary-source excerpt as the prompt. All questions appear in easy-to-

21
use test bank software that allows instructors to add, edit, resequence, filter
by question type or learning objective, and print questions and answers.
Instructors can also export questions into a variety of course management
systems.
The Bedford Lecture Kit: Lecture Outlines, Maps, and Images. Look
good and save time with The Bedford Lecture Kit. These presentation
materials include fully customizable multimedia presentations built around
chapter outlines that are embedded with maps, figures, and images from
the textbook and are supplemented by more detailed instructor notes on
key points and concepts.
America in Motion: Video Clips for U.S. History. Set history in motion
with America in Motion, an instructor DVD containing dozens of short
digital movie files of events in twentieth-century American history. From
the wreckage of the battleship Maine to FDR’s fireside chats to Ronald
Reagan speaking before the Brandenburg Gate, America in Motion
engages students with dynamic scenes from key events and challenges
them to think critically. All files are classroom-ready, edited for brevity,
and easily integrated with presentation slides or other software for
electronic lectures or assignments. An accompanying guide provides each
clip’s historical context, ideas for use, and suggested questions.

Print, Digital, and Custom Options for More Choice

and Value
For information on free packages and discounts up to 50 percent, visit
macmillanlearning.com or contact your local Bedford/St. Martin’s sales
representative.
Reading the American Past, Fifth Edition. Edited by Michael P. Johnson,
one of the authors of The American Promise, and designed to complement
the textbook, Reading the American Past provides a broad selection of
more than 150 primary-source documents, as well as editorial apparatus to
help students understand the sources. Available free when packaged with
the print text and included in the LaunchPad e-Book. Also available on its
own as a downloadable PDF e-Book.
NEW Bedford Custom Tutorials for History. Designed to customize
textbooks with resources relevant to individual courses, this collection of
brief units, each sixteen pages long and loaded with examples, guides
students through basic skills such as using historical evidence effectively,

22
working with primary sources, taking effective notes, avoiding plagiarism
and citing sources, and more. Up to two tutorials can be added to a
Bedford/St. Martin’s history survey title at no additional charge, freeing
you to spend your class time focusing on content and interpretation. For
more information, visit macmillanlearning.com/historytutorials.
NEW Bedford Digital Collections for U.S. History. This source
collection provides a flexible and affordable online repository of
discovery-oriented primary-source projects ready to assign. Each curated
project — written by a historian about a favorite topic — poses a historical
question and guides students step by step through analysis of primary
sources. Examples include “What Caused the Civil War?”; “The California
Gold Rush: A Trans-Pacific Phenomenon”; and “War Stories: Black
Soldiers and the Long Civil Rights Movement.” For more information,
visit macmillanlearning.com/bdc/ushistory/catalog. Available free when
packaged.
NEW Bedford Digital Collections Custom Print Modules. Choose
one or two document projects from the collection (see above) and add
them in print to a Bedford/St. Martin’s title, or select several to be bound
together in a custom reader created specifically for your course. Either
way, the modules are affordably priced. For more information visit
macmillanlearning.com/custombdc/ushistory or contact your
Bedford/St. Martin’s representative.
The Bedford Series in History and Culture. More than 100 titles in this
highly praised series combine first-rate scholarship, historical narrative,
and important primary documents for undergraduate courses. Each book is
brief, inexpensive, and focused on a specific topic or period. Revisions of
several best-selling titles, such as The Cherokee Removal: A Brief History
with Documents by Theda Perdue; Narrative of the Life of Frederick
Douglass, edited by David Blight; and The Triangle Fire: A Brief History
with Documents by Jo Ann Argersinger, are now available. For a complete
list of titles, visit macmillanlearning.com. Package discounts are
available.
Rand McNally Atlas of American History. This collection of more than
eighty full-color maps illustrates key events and eras from early
exploration, settlement, expansion, and immigration to U.S. involvement
in wars abroad and on U.S. soil. Introductory pages for each section
include a brief overview, timelines, graphs, and photos to quickly establish
a historical context. Free when packaged.
The Bedford Glossary for U.S. History. This handy supplement for the

23
survey course gives students historically contextualized definitions for
hundreds of terms — from abolitionism to zoot suit — that they will
encounter in lectures, reading, and exams. Free when packaged.
Trade Books. Titles published by sister companies Hill and Wang; Farrar,
Straus and Giroux; Henry Holt and Company; St. Martin’s Press; Picador;
and Palgrave Macmillan are available at a 50 percent discount when
packaged with Bedford/St. Martin’s textbooks. For more information, visit
macmillanlearning.com/tradeup.
A Pocket Guide to Writing in History. This portable and affordable
reference tool by Mary Lynn Rampolla provides reading, writing, and
research advice useful to students in all history courses. Concise yet
comprehensive advice on approaching typical history assignments,
developing critical reading skills, writing effective history papers,
conducting research, using and documenting sources, and avoiding
plagiarism — enhanced with practical tips and examples throughout —
have made this slim reference a best seller. Package discounts are
available.
A Student’s Guide to History. This complete guide to success in any
history course provides the practical help students need to be successful. In
addition to introducing students to the nature of the discipline, author Jules
Benjamin teaches a wide range of skills from preparing for exams to
approaching common writing assignments, and explains the research and
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 FIRST ORDER: CHONDROPTERYGII.
Skeleton cartilaginous. Body with medial and paired fins, the
hinder pair abdominal. Vertebral column generally heterocercal, the
upper lobe of the caudal fin produced. Gills attached to the skin by
the outer margin, with several intervening gill-openings: rarely one
external gill-opening only. No gill-cover. No air-bladder. Two, three,
or more series of valves in the conus arteriosus. Ova large and few
in number,[33] impregnated and, in some species, developed within a
uterine cavity. Embryo with deciduous external gills.[34] Males with
intromittent organs attached to the ventral fins.[35]
This order, for which, also, the name Elasmobranchii has been
proposed (by Bonaparte), comprises the Sharks and Rays and
Chimæras, and is divided into two suborders: Plagiostomata and
Holocephala.

FIRST SUB-ORDER: PLAGIOSTOMATA.

From five to seven gill-openings. Skull with a suspensorium and
the palatal apparatus detached. Teeth numerous.
The Plagiostomes differ greatly among each other with regard to
the general form of their body: in the Sharks or Selachoidei the body
is elongate, more or less cylindrical, gradually passing into the tail;
their gill-openings are lateral. In the Rays, or Batoidei, the gill-
openings are always placed on the abdominal aspect of the fish; the
body is depressed, and the trunk, which is surrounded by the
immensely developed pectoral fins, forms a broad flat disk, of which
the tail appears as a thin and slender appendage. Spiracles are
always present; the number of gill-openings is constantly five; no
anal fin; dorsal fins, if present, situated on the tail. However, some of
the Rays approach the Sharks in having the caudal portion less
abruptly contracted behind the trunk.
Fossil Plagiostomes are very numerous in all formations. Some
of the earliest determinable fish remains are believed to be, or are,
derived from Plagiostomes. Those which can be referred to any of
the following families will be mentioned subsequently: but there are
others, especially fin-spines, which leave us in doubt to which group
of Plagiostomes their owners had any affinity, thus Onchus from the
upper Silurian, continuing to carboniferous formations;
Dimeracanthus, Homocanthus, from the Devonian; Oracanthus,
Gyracanthus, Tristychius, Astroptychius, Ptychacanthus,
Sphenacanthus, etc., from carboniferous formations; Leptacanthus,
from the coal to the Oolite; Cladacanthus, Cricacanthus, Gyropristis,
and Lepracanthus, from the coal measures; Nemacanthus,
Liacanthus, from the Trias; Astracanthus, Myriacanthus,
Pristacanthus, from the Jurassic group.

A. Selachoidei: Sharks.
The elongate cylindrical body, generally terminating in a more or
less pointed snout, and passing into a powerful and flexible tail,
blade-like at its extremity, gives to the Sharks a most extraordinary
power of swimming, with regard to endurance as well as rapidity of
motion. Many, especially the larger kinds, inhabit the open ocean,
following ships for weeks, or pursuing shoals of fishes in their
periodical migrations. Other large-sized sharks frequent such parts
of the coast as offer them abundance of food; whilst the majority of
the smaller kinds are shore fishes, rarely leaving the bottom, and
sometimes congregating in immense numbers. The movements of
sharks resemble in some measure those of snakes, their flexible
body being bent in more than one curve when moving.
Sharks are most numerous in the seas between the Tropics, and
become scarcer beyond, a few only reaching the Arctic circle; it is
not known how far they advance southwards towards the Antarctic
region. Some species enter fresh waters, and ascend large rivers,
like the Tigris or Ganges, to a considerable distance. The pelagic as
well as the shore species have a wide geographical range. Very few
descend to a considerable depth, probably not exceeding 500
fathoms. There are about 140 different species known.
Sharks have no scales like those of other fishes; their
integuments are covered with calcified papillæ which, under the
microscope, show a structure similar to that of teeth. If the papillæ
are small, pointed, and close set, the skin is called “shagreen;” rarely
they are larger, appearing as bucklers or spines, of various sizes.
These fishes are exclusively carnivorous, and those armed with
powerful cutting teeth are the most formidable tyrants of the ocean.
They have been known to divide the body of a man in two at one
bite, as if by the sweep of a sword. Some of the largest sharks,
however, which are provided with very small teeth, are almost
harmless, feeding on small fishes only or marine invertebrates.
Others, particularly of the smaller kinds, commonly called “Dog-
fishes,” have short or obtuse teeth, and feed on shells or any other
animal substance. Sharks scent their food from a distance, being
readily attracted by the smell of blood or decomposing bodies.
In China and Japan, and many other eastern countries, the
smaller kinds of sharks are eaten. Sharks’ fins form in India and
China a very important article of trade, the Chinese preparing from
them gelatine, and using the better sorts for culinary purposes. The
fins are obtained not exclusively from Sharks but also from Rays,
and assorted in two kinds, viz. “white and black.” The white consist
exclusively of the dorsal fins, which are on both sides of the same
uniform light colour, and reputed to yield more gelatine than the other
fins. The pectoral, ventral, and anal fins pass under the
denomination of black fins; the caudal fin is not used. One of the
principal places where shark fishery is practised as a profession is
Kurrachee. Dr. Buist, writing in 1850 (“Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1850, p.
100), states that there are thirteen large boats, with crews of twelve
men each, constantly employed in this pursuit; that the value of the
fins sent to the market varies from 15,000 to 18,000 rupees; that one
boat will sometimes capture at a draught as many as one hundred
sharks of various sizes; and that the number total of sharks captured
during the year amounts probably to not less than 40,000. Large
quantities are imported from the African coast and the Arabian Gulf,
and various ports on the coast of India. In the year 1845–46, 8770
cwt. of sharks’ fins were exported from Bombay to China.

First Family—Carchariidæ.
 Eye with a nictitating membrane. Mouth crescent-shaped, inferior.
Anal fin present. Two dorsal fins, the first opposite to the space
between pectoral and ventral fins, without spine in front.
Carcharias.—Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body;
mouth armed with a series of large flat triangular teeth, which have a
smooth cutting or serrated edge. Spiracles absent. A transverse pit on
the back of the tail, at the root of the caudal fin.
This genus comprises the true Sharks, common in the tropical,
but less so in the temperate seas. Between thirty and forty different
species have been distinguished, of which one of the most common
is the “Blue Shark” (Carcharias glaucus). Individuals of from twelve
to fifteen feet are of very common occurrence, but some of the
species attain a much larger size, and a length of 25 and more feet.
Fishes of this genus or of closely allied genera (Corax, Hemipristis)
are not uncommon in the chalk and tertiary formations.
Galeocerdo.—Teeth large, flat, triangular, oblique, serrated on
both edges, with a deep notch on the outer margin. Spiracles small. A
pit on the tail, above and below, at the root of the caudal fin. Two
notches on the under caudal border, one of them at the end of the
spine.
 Fig. 112.—Dentition of the Blue Shark
(Carcharias glaucus); the single teeth are of the
natural size.
Three species, of which one (G. arcticus) is confined to the arctic
and sub-arctic oceans. The others inhabit temperate and tropical
seas, and all attain to a very large size.
Galeus.—Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body;
teeth equal in both jaws, rather small, flat, triangular, oblique, serrated
and with a notch. Spiracles small. No pit at the commencement of the
caudal fin, which has a single notch on its lower margin.
These are small sharks, commonly called “Tope.” The species
found on the British coast is spread over nearly all the temperate and
tropical seas, and is common in California and Tasmania. It lives on
the bottom, and is very troublesome to fishermen by constantly
taking away bait or driving away the fishes which they desire to
catch.
Zygæna.—The anterior part of the head is broad, flattened, and
produced into a lobe on each side, the extremity of which is occupied
 by the eye. Caudal fin with a single notch at its lower margin. A pit at
the root of the caudal fin. Spiracles none. Nostrils situated on the front
edge of the head.
The “Hammerheads,” or Hammerheaded Sharks, have a
dentition very similar to that of Carcharias, and although they do not
attain to the same large size, they belong to the most formidable
fishes of the ocean. The peculiar form of their head is quite unique
among fishes; young examples have the lateral extension of the skull
much less developed than adults. Five species are known, which are
most abundant in the tropics. By far the most common is Zygæna
malleus, which occurs in nearly all tropical and sub-tropical seas.
Specimens of this species may be often seen ascending from the
clear blue depths of the ocean like a great cloud. Cantor found in a
female, nearly 11 feet long, thirty-seven embryons.—Hammerheads
have lived from the cretaceous epoch.
Mustelus.—The second dorsal fin is not much smaller than the
first. No pit at the root of the caudal, which is without distinct lower
lobe. Snout produced in the longitudinal axis of the body. Spiracles
small, behind the eyes. Teeth small, numerous, similar in both jaws,
obtuse, or with very indistinct cusps, arranged like pavement.
The “Hounds” are small Sharks, abundant on the coasts of all the
temperate and tropical seas; two of the five species known occur on
the coasts of Europe, viz. M. lævis and M. vulgaris. Closely allied as
these two species are, they yet show a most singular difference, viz.
that a placenta is developed in the uterus for the attachment of the
embryo in M. lævis (the Γαλεὁς λεȋος of Aristotle, to whom this fact
was already known); whilst the embryons of M. vulgaris are
developed without such placenta (see J. Müller, “Abhandl. Ak. Wiss.”
Berl. 1840). The Hounds are bottom fish, which feed principally on
shells, crustaceans, and decomposing animal substances.

Several other genera belong to the family Carchariidæ, but it will

be sufficient to mention their names:—Hemigaleus, Loxodon,
Thalassorhinus, Triænodon, Leptocarcharias, and Triacis.
 Second Family—Lamnidæ.
Eye without nictitating membrane. Anal fin present. Two dorsal
fins; the first opposite to the space between pectoral and ventral fins,
without spine in front. Nostrils not confluent with the mouth which is
inferior. Spiracles absent or minute.
All the fishes of this family attain to a very large size, and are
pelagic. But little is known of their reproduction. The first appearance
of this family is indicated by Carcharopsis, a genus from
carboniferous formations, the teeth of which differ from those of
Carcharodon only by having a broad fold at the base. In the chalk
and tertiary formations almost all the existing genera are
represented; and, besides, Oxytes, Sphenodus, Gomphodus, and
Ancistrodon, which are known from teeth only, have been considered
generically distinct from the living Porbeagles.
Lamna (Oxyrhina).—The second dorsal and anal are very small.
A pit at the root of the caudal, which has the lower lobe much
developed. Side of the tail with a prominent longitudinal keel. Mouth
wide. Teeth large, lanceolate, not serrated, sometimes with additional
basal cusps. On each side of the upper jaw, at some distance from the
symphysis, there is one or two teeth conspicuously smaller than the
others. Gill-openings very wide. Spiracles minute.

Fig. 113.—Upper and lower

tooth of Lamna.

Of the “Porbeagles,” three species have been described, of which

the one occurring in the North Atlantic, and frequently straying to the
British coasts (L. cornubica), is best known. It attains to a length of
ten feet, and feeds chiefly on fishes; its lanceolate teeth are not
adapted for cutting, but rather for seizing and holding its prey, which
it appears to swallow whole. According to Pennant it is viviparous;
only two embryoes were found in the female which came under his
observation. Haast has found this species also off the coast of New
Zealand.
Carcharodon.—The second dorsal and anal are very small. Pit
at the root of the caudal, which has the lower lobe well developed.
Side of the tail with a prominent longitudinal keel. Mouth wide. Teeth
large, flat, erect, regularly triangular, serrated. On each side of the
upper jaw, at some distance from the symphysis, there is one or two
teeth conspicuously smaller than the others. Gill-openings wide.
One species only is known (C. rondeletii), which is the most
formidable of all Sharks. It is strictly pelagic; and appears to occur in
all tropical and sub-tropical seas. It is known to attain to a length of
40 feet. The tooth figured here, of the natural size, is taken from a
jaw 20 inches wide in its transverse diameter (inside measure), each
half of the mandible measuring 22 inches.[36] The whole length of
the fish was 36½ feet.
Carcharodon teeth are of very common occurrence in various
tertiary strata, and have been referred to several species, affording
ample evidence that this type was much more numerously
represented in that geological epoch than in the recent fauna. Some
individuals attained to an immense size, as we may judge from teeth
found in the Crag, which are 4 inches wide at the base, and 5 inches
long, measured along their lateral margin. The naturalists of the
“Challenger” expedition have made the highly interesting discovery
that teeth of similar size are of common occurrence in the ooze of
the Pacific, between Polynesia and the west coast of America. As we
have no record of living individuals of that bulk having been
observed, the gigantic species to which these teeth belonged must
have become extinct within a comparatively recent period. Nothing is
known of the anatomy, habits, and reproduction of the surviving
species, and no opportunity should be lost of obtaining information
on this Shark.
 Fig. 114.—Tooth of
Carcharodon rondeletii.
Odontaspis.—The second dorsal and anal are not much smaller
than the first dorsal. No pit at the root of the caudal. Side of the tail
without keel. Mouth wide. Teeth large, awl-shaped, with one or two
small cusps at the base. Gill-openings of moderate width.

Large Sharks from tropical and temperate seas; two species.

Alopecias.—The second dorsal and anal very small. Caudal fin of
extraordinary length, with a pit at its root. No keel on the side of the
tail. Mouth and gill-openings of moderate width. Teeth equal in both
jaws, of moderate size, flat, triangular, not serrated.
This genus consists of one species only, which is known by the
name of “Fox-shark” or “Thresher.” It is the most common of the
larger kinds of Sharks which occur on the British coasts; and seems
to be equally common in other parts of the Atlantic and
Mediterranean, as well as on the coasts of California and New
Zealand. It attains to a length of fifteen feet, of which the tail takes
more than one half; and is quite harmless to man. It follows the
shoals of Herrings, Pilchards, and Sprats in their migrations,
destroying incredible numbers. When feeding it uses the long tail in
splashing the surface of the water, whilst it swims in gradually
decreasing circles round a shoal of fishes, which are thus kept
crowded together, falling an easy prey to their enemy. Statements
that it has been seen to attack Whales and other large Cetaceans,
rest upon erroneous observations.
Selache.—The second dorsal and anal very small. A pit at the
root of the caudal fin, which is provided with a lower lobe. Side of the
tail with a keel. Gill-openings extremely wide. Teeth very small,
numerous, conical, without serrature or lateral cusps.
 Also this genus consists of one species only, the “Basking Shark”
(Pélerin of the French). It is the largest Shark of the North Atlantic,
growing to a length of more than thirty feet. It is quite harmless if not
attacked; its food consisting of small fishes, and other small marine
animals swimming in shoals. On the west coast of Ireland it is
chased for the sake of the oil which is extracted from the liver, one
fish yielding from a ton to a ton and a-half. Its capture is not
unattended with danger, as one blow from the enormously strong tail
is sufficient to stave in the sides of a large boat. At certain seasons it
is gregarious, and many specimens may be seen in calm weather
lying together motionless, with the upper part of the back raised
above the surface of the water; a habit from which this Shark has
derived its name. The buccal and branchial cavities are of
extraordinary width, and, in consequence of the flabby condition of
those parts, the head presents a variable and singular appearance in
specimens lying dead on the ground. This peculiarity, as well as the
circumstance that young specimens have a much longer and more
pointed snout than adult ones, has led to the erroneous opinion that
several different genera and species of Basking Shark occur in the
European seas. The branchial arches of Selache are provided with a
very broad fringe of long (five to six inches) and thin gill-rakers,
possessing the same microscopical structure as the teeth and
dermal productions of Sharks. Similar gill-rakers have been found in
a fossil state in the Crag of Anvers in Belgium, proving the existence
of this Selachian type in the tertiary epoch. Nothing is known of the
reproduction of this fish. The latest contributions to its history are by
Steenstrup in “Overs. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk., Forhandl.” 1873, and
by Pavesi in “Annal. Mus. Civ. Geneva,” 1874 and 1878.

Third Family—Rhinodontidæ.
No nictitating membrane. Anal fin present. Two dorsal fins, the
first nearly opposite to the ventrals, without spine in front. Mouth and
nostril near the extremity of the snout.
This small family comprises one species only, Rhinodon typicus,
a gigantic Shark, which is known to exceed a length of fifty feet, but
is stated to attain that of seventy. It does not appear to be rare in the
western parts of the Indian Ocean, and possibly occurs also in the
Pacific. It is one of the most interesting forms, not unlike the Basking
Shark of the Northern Seas, having gill-rakers like that species; but
very little is known of its structure and mode of life. It is perfectly
harmless, its teeth being extremely small and numerous, placed in
broad bands; it has been stated to feed on tang, an observation
which requires confirmation. The snout is very broad, short, and flat;
the eyes are very small. A pit at the root of the caudal fin which has
the lower lobe well developed; side of the tail with a keel. A
characteristic figure of this fish has been given by A. Smith in his
“Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa,” Plate 26, from a
specimen which came ashore at the Cape of Good Hope.

Fig. 115.—Dentition of Notidanus indicus. a,

teeth in function; b, teeth in reserve; u, upper, and l,
lower, tooth, of natural size.

Fourth Family—Notidanidæ.
 No nictitating membrane. One dorsal fin only, without spine,
opposite to the anal.
Notidanus.—Dentition unequal in the jaws: in the upper jaw one
or two pairs of awl-shaped teeth, the following six being broader, and
provided with several cusps, one of which is much the strongest.
Lower jaw with six large comb-like teeth on each side, beside the
smaller posterior teeth. Spiracles small, on the side of the neck. No pit
at the root of the caudal fin. Gill-openings wide, six in number in
Hexanchus, seven in Heptanchus.
Four species are known, distributed over nearly all the tropical
and sub-tropical seas; they attain to a length of about fifteen feet.
Fossil teeth belonging to this type have been found in Jurassic and
later formations (Notidanus and Aellopos).

Fifth Family—Scylliidæ.
Two dorsal fins, without spine: the first above or behind the
ventrals; anal fin present. No nictitating membrane. Spiracle always
distinct. Mouth inferior. Teeth small, several series generally being in
function.
Scyllium.—The origin of the anal fin is always in advance of that
of the second dorsal. Nasal cavity separate from the mouth. Teeth
small, with a middle longer cusp, and generally one or two small
lateral cusps arranged in numerous series. Eggs similar to those of
the Rays (Fig. 79, p. 167).
The fishes of this genus are of small size, and commonly called
“Dog-fishes.” They are coast fishes, living on the bottom, and feeding
on Crustaceans, dead fishes, etc. None of the eight species known
have a very wide distribution, but where they occur they are
generally sufficiently abundant to prove troublesome to fishermen.
They inhabit most parts of the temperate and tropical seas. On the
British coasts two species are found, the “Larger” and “Lesser
spotted Dog-fish,” Scyllium canicula and Scyllium catulus, which are
said to be more plentiful among the Orkney Islands than elsewhere.
They are scarcely ever brought to market; but the fishermen of some
localities do not disdain to eat them. Their flesh is remarkably white,
a little fibrous, and dry. In the Orkneys they are skinned, split up,
cleaned, and then spread out on the rocks to dry for home
consumption. The skins are used for smoothing down cabinet-work.
It would be worth while to apply the fins of these and other Sharks,
which are so extensively used in China for making gelatine soups, to
the same purpose in this country, or to dry them for exportation to
the East. Most of the species of Dog-fishes are spotted, and those of
the allied genera, Parascyllium and Chiloscyllium, very handsomely
ornamented.
Closely allied to Scyllium is Pristiurus, from the coasts of Europe,
which is provided with a series of small flat spines on each side of
the upper edge of the caudal fin.
Fossil forms of Dog-fishes are not scarce in the Lias and Chalk:
Scylliodus, Palæoscyllium, Thyellina, Pristiurus.
Ginglymostoma.—The second dorsal fin opposite to, and
somewhat in advance of, the anal. Eyes very small; spiracle minute
and behind the eye. Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. The nasal
valves of both sides form one quadrangular flap in front of the mouth,
each being provided with a free cylindrical cirrhus. The fourth and fifth
gill-openings are close together. The teeth stand either in many series,
each having a strong median cusp and one or two smaller ones on
each side (Ginglymostoma), or they stand in a few (three) series only,
the foremost only being in function, and each tooth having a convex,
finely and equally serrated margin (Nebrius).
Four species from the tropical parts of the Atlantic and Indian
Oceans, attaining to a length of some 12 feet. Pelagic.
Stegostoma.—The first dorsal above the ventrals, the second in
advance of the anal, which is very close to the caudal. Tail, with the
caudal fin, exceedingly long, measuring one-half of the total length.
Eyes very small, spiracle as wide as, and situated behind, the orbit.
Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. Snout very obtuse; upper lip very
thick, like a pad, bent downwards over the mouth, with a free
cylindrical cirrhus on each side. Teeth small, trilobed, in many series,
occupying in both jaws a transverse flat subquadrangular patch. The
fourth and fifth gill-openings are close together.
The single species (St. tigrinum) for which this genus has been
formed, is one of the commonest and handsomest sharks of the
Indian Ocean. Young individuals keep generally close to the coasts,
whilst the adult, which are from 10 to 15 feet long, are not rarely met
in the open ocean. The colour is a brownish yellow, ornamented with
black or brown transverse bands, or with snuff-coloured rounded
spots; hence this shark is frequently mentioned by the names of
“Zebra-Shark” or “Tiger-Shark.”

Fig. 116.—Chiloscyllium trispeculare, from North-western Australia.

Chiloscyllium.—The first dorsal fin above or behind the ventrals.
Anal fin placed far behind the second dorsal, and very close to the
caudal. Spiracle very distinct, below the eye. Nasal and buccal
cavities confluent. Nasal valve folded, with a cirrhus. Teeth small,
triangular, with or without lateral cusps. The two last gill-openings
close together.

“Dog-fishes,” from the Indian Ocean, of small size. Four species

are known, of which one, Ch. indicum, is one of the commonest
shore-fishes on the coasts of this region, extending from the
southern extremity of the African Continent to Japan.
 Fig. 117.—Confluent nasal and buccal cavities of the
same fish.
Crossorhinus.—The first dorsal behind the ventrals, the second
in advance of the anal, which is very close to the caudal. Tail rather
short. Eyes small. Spiracle a wide oblique slit, behind and below the
eye. Nasal and buccal cavities confluent. Head broad, flat, with the
snout very obtuse; mouth wide, nearly anterior. A free nasal cirrhus;
sides of the head with skinny appendages. Anterior teeth rather large,
long and slender, without lateral lobes, the lateral tricuspid, smaller,
forming a few series only. The fourth and fifth gill-openings close
together.
Three species are known from the Australian and Japanese
coasts. They are evidently ground-sharks, which lie concealed on
the bottom watching for their prey. In accordance with this habit their
colour closely assimilates that of a rock or stone covered with short
vegetable and coralline growth—a resemblance increased by the
frond-like tentacles on the side of the head. This peculiarity of the
integuments, which is developed in a yet higher degree in Pediculati
and Lophobranchs, is not met with in any other Selachian. These
Sharks grow to a length of 10 feet.

Sixth Family—Hybodontidæ.
Two dorsal fins, each with a serrated spine. Teeth rounded,
longitudinally striated, with one larger, and from two to four smaller
lateral cusps. Skin covered with shagreen.
Extinct. From carboniferous, liassic, and triassic formations.
Several genera have been distinguished; and if Cladodus belongs to
this family, it would have been represented even in the Devonian.

Fig. 118.—Spine of Hybodus

subcarinatus.

Seventh Family—Cestraciontidæ.
 No nictitating membrane. Two dorsal fins, the first opposite to the
space between pectoral and ventral fins; anal fin present. Nasal and
buccal cavities confluent. Teeth obtuse, several series being in
function.

Fig. 119.—Jaws of Port Jackson Shark,

Cestracion philippi.
 Fig. 120.—Upper jaw of the same, half natural
size.
This family is one of particular interest, because representatives
of it occur in numerous modifications in primary and secondary
strata. Their dentition is uniformly adapted for the prehension and
mastication of crustaceous and hard-shelled animals. The fossil
forms far exceeded in size the species of the only surviving genus;
they make, their appearance with Ctenoptychius in the Devonian;
this is succeeded in the coal-measures by Psammodus,
Chomatodus, Petrodus, Cochliodus, Polyrhizodus, etc.; in the Trias
and Chalk by Strophodus, Acrodus, Thectodus, and Ptychodus. Of
the 25 genera known, 22 have lived in the periods preceding the
Oolitic.
Cestracion (Heterodontus).—Each dorsal fin armed with a
spine in front; the second in advance of the anal. Mouth rather narrow.
Spiracles small, below the posterior part of the eye. Gill-openings
rather narrow. Dentition similar in both jaws, viz. small obtuse teeth in
front, which in young individuals are pointed and provided with from
three to five cusps. The lateral teeth are large, padlike, twice as broad
as long, arranged in oblique series, one series being formed by much
larger teeth than those in the other series.
 Fig. 121.—Cochliodus contortus.

Fig. 122.—Cestracion galeatus, Australia.

Four species are known from Japan, Amboyna, Australia, the
Galapagoes Islands, and California; none exceed a length of 5 feet.
The egg has been figured on p. 168 (Fig. 80).

Eighth Family—Spinacidæ.
No membrana nictitans. Two dorsal fins; no anal. Mouth but
slightly arched; a long, deep, straight, oblique groove on each side of
the mouth. Spiracles present; gill-openings narrow. Pectoral fins not
notched at their origin.
The oldest representative of this family (Palæospinax) occurs at
Lyme Regis; its skin is granular; each dorsal fin possesses a spine;
the teeth in the jaws are dissimilar—the upper being multicuspid,
longitudinally ribbed as in Hybodus, the lower smooth and tricuspid.
Drepanophorus and Spinax primævus occur in Cretaceous
formations of England and the Lebanon.
Centrina.—Each dorsal fin with a strong spine. Trunk rather
elevated, trihedral, with a fold of the skin running along each side of
the belly. Teeth of the lower jaw erect, triangular, finely serrated; those
of the upper slender, conical, forming a group in front of the jaw.
Spiracles wide, behind the eye.
One species, Centrina salviani, from the Mediterranean and
neighbouring parts of the Atlantic; of small size.
Acanthias.—Each dorsal fin with a spine. Teeth equal in both
jaws, rather small; their point is so much turned aside that the inner
margin of the tooth forms the cutting edge. Spiracles rather wide,
immediately behind the eye.
The two species of “Spiny Dog-fishes,” A. vulgaris and A.
blainvillii, have a very remarkable distribution, being found in the
temperate seas of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, but not
in the intermediate tropical zone. They are of small size, but occur at
times in incredible numbers, 20,000 having been taken in one scene
on the Cornish coast. They do much injury to the fishermen by
cutting their lines and carrying off their hooks.
Centrophorus.—Each dorsal fin with a spine which, however, is
sometimes so small as to be hidden below the skin. Mouth wide.
Teeth of the lower jaw with the point more or less inclined backwards
and outwards. Upper teeth erect, triangular, or narrow, lanceolate, with
a single cusp. Spiracles wide, behind the eye.
Eight species are known from the southern parts of the European
seas, and one from the Moluccas; they do not appear to exceed a
length of five feet. According to the observations of E. P. Wright,
some of the species at least live at a considerable depth, perhaps at
a greater depth than any of the other known Sharks. The Portuguese