A N e w Approach to Metal-Forming

Problems
Experimental Stress Analysis for a Tubular Extrusion
BY E. G. T H O M S E N , 1 B E R K E L E Y , C A L I F .

An incremental inverted extrusion process was used to particular physical phenomenon either become too formidable to
obtain magnitude and direction of particle velocities in a solve, or not enough independent relationships can be found to

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billet during the pressing of a tubular product. The m a - satisfy all the unknowns. Problems of this kind are classified as
terial chosen was commercially pure lead which can be hot- indeterminate and may be found in all branches of engineering,
worked at room temperature and is believed to be a repre- fluid mechanics, heat transfer, structure analysis and forming of
sentative species of hot-worked metals. The reported metals, to name just a few. Hence in these cases the engineer,
graphical technique using experimental data is applied to seeking answers to specific problems, is obliged to invoke known
a problem presently insolvable by analytical methods. It or new experimental techniques to fill in the missing information
was found that both axial stresses and mean pressures in not obtainable by mathematical analysis alone.
the region of the die were higher on the extrusion axis and "Visioplasticity" is a newly developed technique for obtaining
near the cylinder wall than in the central region of the bil- a complete solution b y experimental means of a certain class of
let. This stress distribution is appreciably different from mathematically insolvable metal-forming problems. The method
that of a solid extrusion for the same reduction in area. consists of making the motion of a plastic metal mass visual and
The present solution is a distinct advance in the direction determining particle velocity and direction. Under steady-state
of understanding three-dimensional metal-forming prob- conditions this information suffices to solve by graphical integra-
lems. tion the stress and strain-rate distribution within this plastically
moving metal. The present paper briefly describes the method
NOMENCLATURE and gives the stress and strain-rate distribution within a billet
during an inverted extrusion process of a tube using commercially
The following nomenclature is used in the paper:
pure lead. The reader is referred to an article in three parts 2 in
er2, <Tg, a r = normal true stresses at a point in cylindrical co- which the step-by-step analysis of visioplasticity has been de-
ordinates, psi scribed for the extrusion of a solid lead bar.
e2, eg, iT = normal plastic strain-rate components associated The method of analysis to be described is quite general and can
with normal stresses be used for a number of metal-forming processes such as drawing
T„, Tro, Tg, = shearing stresses perpendicular to co-ordinate and rolling and for work-hardening and non-work-hardening
direction of first subscript and in direction of metals, i.e., cold and hot forming of metals.
second subscript, psi
y.n iro, 70* = plastic shearing-strain-rate components associated PARTICLE MOTION DURING M E T A L FORMING
with shearing stresses
In order to determine the flow pattern of a plastically moving
<r = effective stress, psi
metallic mass it is necessary to tag particles within the metal and
£ = effective plastic-strain rate
to follow them during the deformation process. This was done
X = plasticity modulus
for the case of a solid cylindrical billet, to be extruded into a tubu-
u, v = particle velocity components in axial z and radial
lar product, by sectioning the billet along a meridian plane and
indirections, respectively
providing the billet on this plane with intersecting grid lines.
az = angle between principal strain rate and extrusion
The method of extruding a tubular product from a solid billet is
axis
not conventional, but permits comparison with previous results
= wall pressure measured with SLL-4 gages, psi obtained with a solid extrusion. The grid-line intersections were
considered to be particles whose motion must be determined.
p = mean pressure, psi = — — (<r2 + (Tg - f o"r) Grid lines after various stages of deformation during an inverted
K z = axial stress-reference datum, psi extrusion process at room temperature using commercially pure
L = applied load, lb lead are shown in Fig. l ( o to b) inclusive.
The direction and magnitude of velocity of particles were de-
INTRODUCTION
termined by subjecting the billet to a series of small deforma-
Many engineering problems are not readily amenable to solution tion steps and noting the displacement of the particles during
by a purely analytical approach. The equations describing a these steps. Since the meridian plane is hidden from the ob-
1 Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engi- server's view when in the extrusion apparatus, Fig. 2, it was nec-
neering, University of California. essary to disassemble the billet from the apparatus between each
Contributed by the Metals Processing Research Committee and step. A permanent record of particle position between each de-
presented at a joint session of the Mexico Section and the Metal
formation step was taken on a negative in a fixed photographic
Processing Research Committee at the International Meeting,
M e x i c o C i t y , M e x i c o , M a r c h 1 0 - 1 2 , 1954, o f THEAMERICAN SOCIETY
OF M E C H A N I C A L ENGINEERS. 2 "An Experimental Investigation of the Mechanics of Plastic

NOTE: Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be
understood as individual expressions of their authors and not those of
the Society. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, Decem-
ber 30, 1953. Paper No. 54— Mex-16.
515
Deformation of Metals," by E. G. Thomsen, C. T. Yang, and J. B.
Bierbower, University of California Publications in Engineering, vol.
5, no. 4, pp. 89, et seq., University of California Press, Berkeley and
Los Angeles, Calif., 1954 (in process of publication).

Copyright © 1955 by ASME

516 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASM 10
(c)
F I G . 1 ( O T O </) LEAD BILLET
setup. These negatives were then enlarged on a screen to 10 times
the actual billet size and the instantaneous intersecting grid lines
were plotted on the screen.
The flow directions as determined by this method are shown in
Fig. 3 which is a composite photograph of this enlarged plot.
The actual extrusion steps from which the plot was constructed
for this 4.3-in-diam billet extruded into a tube with outside and
inside diameters of 2.15 in. and 1.52 in., respectively (reduction in
area = 87.5 per cent), varied from approximately 0.025 in. to
0.10-in. change in billet length per step. The short steps of
0.025 in. were necessary to fix the direction of flow near the die
opening, where the relative particle velocity is high as compared
with that in the corner formed between the die plate and the wall
of the extrusion chamber or the extrusion axis. This flow pattern
MAY, 1955
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(d)
IN S E V E R A L STAGES OK DEFORMATION
is characteristic for this particular die shape and reduction in area.
For a different die shape or a different reduction in area the flow
pattern changes. This is strikingly portrayed in the flow pattern
shown in Fig. 4 which was obtained with a 1.5-in-diam solid ex-
trusion also pressed from a 4.3-in-diam lead billet at a reduction in
area of 88 per cent.
In order to make a complete stress and strain-rate analysis it is
necessary that in addition to their direction the magnitude of the
instantaneous particle velocities be known. Hence the magni-
tudes of the particle velocities for the tubular extrusion are shown
in Fig. 5 as trajectories of constant-velocity ratios. These ratios
are dimensionless and were obtained by dividing the particle
velocity as represented by average particle displacement per unit
time during a small step by the velocity of the butt end of the
 APPLIED FORCE

LOAD D I S T R I B U T I O N
PLATE

RAM

MANDREL

EXTRUSION

CHAMBER

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SPLIT DIE

PLATE

SR-4 GAGES

PRESSURE MEASURING
UNIT
SPLIT BILLET

M E R I D I A N P L A N E OF
B I L L E T HALF

PLATE
APPLIED FORCE
0 I 2
1 I ' I I I ' I I
S C A L E : INCHES

FIG. 2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF E X T R U S I O N APPARATUS

F I G . 1(C, / ) L E A D B I L L E T I N A D D I T I O N A L S T A G E S OF DEFORMATION
:::;;;///////'/////fSiW^\W
l I
I 1I 1 1
'
I I I1 1 i
x»* - - i S13
i;: : t : i i 11 i I!! 11115:i; 111111111 i
l l I , l | l I I I I I I I I II II M M M I I t I M M I ! • l l l
I I I I I . . I M I I II I I M I I I M I I II I I I I I I I I I I I t l
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II It I I I M I I I I I I I I I
M I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M I I I I I I I I I I t I I
I I I I I I M II I I II II I I M M I I! I I I I I I I I I M I I I
I I II III III II I II II II I I I I I II II I I
I I II III III II II I II II II II I I I ! I I I I I I I
l I II III II I II II I I I IIl I I I I I I ' I 1 I I I 1 1
I I II II I II I II IIIM ' I II

FIG. 4 STEADY-STATE PARTICLE-FLOW DIRECTIONS. W H E N E X T R U D -

ING A 4 . 3 - I N - D I A M B I L L E T I N T O A 1 . 5 - I N - D I A M SOLID B A R
( 8 8 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n in a r e a . M a t e r i a l is c o m m e r c i a l l y p u r e l e a d e x t r u d e d
at r o o m temperature.)

F I G . 3 (.left) S T E A D Y - S T A T E P A R T I C L E - F L O W D I R E C T I O N S , W H E N E X -
TRUDING A 4 . 3 - I N - D I A M B I L L E T INTO A T U B E , W I T H O D = 2 . 1 5 IN.
AND I D = 1 . 5 2 IN.
( 8 7 . 5 p e r c e n t r e d u c t i o n in a r e a . M a t e r i a l is c o m m e r c i a l l y p u r e l e a d e x t r u d e d
at r o o m temperature using M o l y K o t e lubrication.)
518 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASM 10 MAY, 1955

FIG. 5 T R A J E C T O R I E S OF C O N S T A N T DIMEN-
SIONLESS R A T I O S OF P A R T I C L E VELOCITY TO
VELOCITY OF END OF BILLET DURING EX-
TRUSION OF TUBE

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billet, considering the movable die to be stationary. The trajec-
tories were then drawn as average curves through many calcu- tan 2ct, = ; [4]
lated velocity ratios.
where a, is the angle between the extrusion axis z and the principal
STRAIN-RATE ANALYSIS
stress direction. Fig. 6 shows the calculated principal directions
The rate of plastic deformation at a point may be completely as crosses and also the faired principal stress trajectories drawn
described by six strain-rate components as given in cylindrical through these crosses. Inasmuch as the directions of maximum
co-ordinates by shear are at 45 deg to the principal directions, these can be ob-
^z, ^r» yz„ ire, and y0, [1] tained at once and are shown in Fig. 7. It may be noted that a
symmetrical pattern is obtained and the metal along the extrusion
The first three are the normal strain-rate components in the
2, r, 0-directions, respectively. The remaining are the three
shear strain-rate components, where the subscripts have the
meaning that the shear strain occurs on a plane normal to the
direction of the first subscript and in the direction of the second.
In the present analysis the co-ordinate direction z is parallel with
the extrusion axis and r is the radial direction. For the case of
axial symmetry as applicable to the extrusion under discussion,
the shear-strain rates y,o and y gz are zero as is evidenced by the
fact that the meridian plane remains a plane. Furthermore, the
continuity equation (or constant-volume equation in plastic flow)
demands that
6, + er + = 0 [2]
Hence the three strain-rate components e., er, and y l r which are
determinable from particle movement on a meridian plane com- FIG. C PRINCIPAL STRESS TRAJECTORIES IN B I L L E T FOR TUBULAR
pletely describe the rate of plastic deformation at a point. These EXTRUSION
strain-rate components may be determined from the particle
velocities by the differential relationships

where u and v are the particle-velocity components in the z and

r co-ordinate directions, respectively. These velocity compo-
nents are readily determinable at any point on the meridian plane
from the experimental data given in Figs. 3 and 5.
It is now of interest to establish the principal direction of the
strain rates which correspond also to the principal stress direc-
tions where shear stresses are zero, if the plastic metal is assumed
to be isotropic. This can be accomplished by substituting the FIG. 7 MAXIMUM SHEAR-STRESS TRAJECTORIES IN BILLET FOR
experimental strain rates into the equation TUBULAR EXTRUSION
 THOMSEN—A NEW APPROACH TO METAL-FORMING PROBLEMS 519

FIG. 8 CONSTANT EFFECTIVE

STRAIN-RATE TRAJECTORIES IN
B I L L E T FOR T U B U L A R EXTRUSION

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axis contains no shearing stresses as could be predicted, since the K = X K + V) ig = \{a0 4- p)
maximum shear directions are at 45 deg to the axis. • [6]
K = X (°v + v) i,r = 2 \ r „
The experimentally determined constant effective strain-rate
trajectories are plotted in Fig. 8 and numerically are a measure where a„ <rr, and ag are the normal stress components associated
of the rate at which plastic work is being clone. The significance of with the normal strain-rate components and T!T is the shearing
the effective strain rate will be discussed in the next section. stress, the subscripts having the same meaning as those used
It may be noted that the rate at which plastic work is being done earlier for the strain-rate components; p is the mean pressure and
is large in the vicinity of the die corners but significantly lower in X is the proportionality factor between stress and strain rate,
the metal within the tube wall. This is of importance from a known as the plastic modulus, and is given by
practical standpoint because it indicates that the rate of grain
deformation along the surfaces of the extruded tube is appreciably •[7]
x = T2, T
a-
greater than in the center. Hence nonuniform grain-size distribu-
tion may be expected in the extruded product. The effective strain-rate g mentioned earlier, a complex quantity
STRESS ANALYSIS
varying from point to point in the plastic mass, is given by

The experimental analysis of the strain-rate distribution was

carried out for steady-state conditions only. This applies as long
as the billet length is at least 2.0 in. Steady-state conditions are
disturbed, however, when the billet length becomes shorter than
2.0 in. because the stub end of the billet then enters the plastic
zone, which extends approximately by this length into the billet up-
stream from the orifice. The effect of nonsteady-state flow may
be seen by the initiation of the defect known as a pipe just starting
in Fig. 1(c). This pipe, in subsequent stages of deformation, dis-
appears and the central portion of the billet is sheared out as
shown in Fig. 1 (e, / ) .
For steady-state conditions when the plastic metal is moving
relatively slowly, in the range of commercially used extrusion
speeds, the equations of static equilibrium apply and must be
satisfied at every point in the metal undergoing plastic deforma-
tion. The equations for axial symmetry in cylindrical co-ordi-
nates are
dOV dT,r 7•„
0 =
dz Z>r r dr
. dr„ oy — ag _
>
or r oz
x r
— U [5]
r d0
These equations can be solved for the axial-stress gradient in the
r-direction, (dcrs)/dr, by transforming the stress Equations [5]
into strain-rate equations by means of the L6vy-Mises plasticity
equations. These plasticity equations in cylindrical co-ordinates
with axial symmetry are
r + (er — «,)« + ( « , - O l + 74 y j
[8]
The effective stress a is a similar complex stress quantity given by
<7r)2 + O r — orgy + (ag— crj 2 ] + 3r„ 2 . . [9]
The effective stress a is proportional to Nadai's octahedral shear-
ing stress and may be thought of as a root-mean-square shearing
stress as suggested by Prof. E. R. Parker, Professor of Physical
Metallurgy, University of California, since all terms under the
square-root sign may be expressed as shearing stresses.
Assuming that lead obeys the Ldvy-Mises equations and
assuming that a is a constant, then the equilibrium equations
may be rewritten in terms of strain rates as follows
1 - Hi A - _ (ir - ie\
3 " L&r V i J \ ri J
- i im ™
The effective stress for lead actually increases approximately
linearly with strain rate as determined from compression tests'
and follows the equation
a = So + tni [11]
In Equation [11], So is an equivalent yield stress in compression
or tension and m is the slope of the stress-strain-rate curve.
520 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASM 10 MAY, 1955

Equation [11] can be substituted into Equation [10] and hence

the effect of strain rate on a can be incorporated. Since the effect
of strain rate on a was small, however, it was taken as constant in
order to reduce the required calculations. It is believed that the
error resulting from this simplification is small and hence may be
ignored.
All terms on the right-hand side of Equation [10] can be
evaluated at any point in the plastic metal from the known
strain-rate components and hence the axial-stress gradients in
the r-dircction can be determined at any position z. Equation
[ 10] can then be integrated graphically by constructing continuous
curves from the calculated gradients as functions of r at any given 0 10 20 0 t.O 20 0 10 2.0 0 10 20 0 1.0 20 0 1.0 20 V)

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position by means of the following equation RADIUS - INCHES

— L = 2ir (—a,))' dr = — 2irr02 Kt — 2ir J J ° Aajrdr. . [ 1 2 ]

where L = the total axial load, a, = K, -f- Ac., K: = an unknown

constant having units of stress to be determined for any section z,
ro
X
^ A ay dr is the area under the curves
constructed from the stress gradients of Equation [10]. It is
assumed, of course, that the load is constant at any given section.
This is substantially true for the inverted extrusion process,
since the friction loss appears to be small as demonstrated by the
fact that the extrusion load remained nearly constant whether 0 10 2.0 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 1.0 ZO 0 1.0 2 0
using lubricated or dry billets. If assumption of constant load is RADIUS ~ INCHES

not permissible, the equilibrium equations can be rewritten and FIG. 10 MEAN PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN B I L L E T DURING EXTRU-
solved for the mean pressure gradients. Thus, if a pressure meas- SION OF TUBE OF COMMERCIALLY PURE LEAD AT ROOM TEMPERA-

urement can be made along t he chamber wall by means of a pres-
sure gage as used in the present experiments, see Fig. 2, then the
equilibrium equations can be solved in a similar manner without
requiring knowledge of the axial load distribution as a function of
Equation [12] can now be solved for the unknown Kz and hence
the axial-stress distribution can be determined. The effective
TURE AND A RATE OF 1 IPM
(z = upstream distance from orifice.)
stress for lead is approximately 2000 psi and the axial extrusion
load at an extrusion speed of '/» ipm is 118,000 lb. With these
values substituted the graphical integration yields the axial-stress
distributions given in Fig. 9 for several z-positions from the die
orifice.
It is of interest to note that the axial stress is highest at the
cylinder wall and on the extrusion axis near the orifice. The steep
stress gradients within the billet, of course, are the reason that
the forming load, calculated by simple theories assuming uniform
deformation, are in error by a factor of 2.
The mean pressure p also can be calculated from the plasticity
equations as soon as cr2 is known, and the distributions are shown
in Fig. 10. Similar steep pressure gradients also may be ob-
served here but with the numerical values differing at the center
and at the wall from those of the axial stresses.

1.0 20 0 1.0 2.0 0 10 2.0 0 1.0 2.0 0 10 20 0 1.0 20 CHECKING M E A N PRESSURE

RADIUS ~ INCHES
It is now of interest to check the calculated mean pressures at
the wall with those measured by the pressure gage attached to
the extrusion chamber, previously referred to and discussed by
Frisch and Thomson,3 and Frisch.4
The results are given in Fig. 11. The open circles are the wall
pressures as determined from the new straight-line calibration
6 I curve obtained by Frisch and shown in Fig. 3 of his paper.4 The
6>b t? corresponding measured mean pressures (closed circles) were taken
from curve " C " of Fig. 6 of that paper, which this author believes
to be the appropriate calibration curve. The crosses are the pre-
dicted mean pressures at the wall as calculated from the stress
analysis, see Fig. 10.
0 10 2.0 0 10 20 0 10 20 0 1.0 2.0 0 10 2.0 0 10 2.o"
3 ' A n Experimental S t u d y of M e t a l Extrusions at Various Strain
RADIUS - INCHES
R a t e s , " b y J. Frisch and E . G . T h o m s e n , T r a n s . A S M E , v o l . 76,
FIG. 9 A X I A L STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN BILLET DURING EXTRUSION 1954, pp. 5 9 9 - 6 0 6 .
OF T U B E OF C O M M E R C I A L L Y P U R E L E A D A T R O O M T E M P E R A T U R E AND 4 " A C o n t r i b u t i o n to the K n o w l e d g e of Pressure Measurements
A RATE OF 1PM D u r i n g M e t a l D e f o r m a t i o n , " b y J. Frisch, published in this issue, p p .
(z = upstream distance from orifice.) 509-514.
 THOl\ISEN-A NEW APPROACH TO MET AL-FORi\II NG PRODLE:\IS 52 l

- q.", Q
12 0 v ~
-'U.J'boo lOOqOOOOO 0 0 0

RAM LOAD
~II 0
-l
o
o
~IO 0
0
6
«
o

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-l 90
I , p = MEAN PRESSURE (measured)
>

10 / ,P = MEAN PRESSURE (pred i cted)

•...1. 'i·-..
-x·1··
--x..1.- -..1.
x-- · x.1
8
• 0000 b fo ~
0 0 0 0 0 roo 10 0 r
(f)
Q. •
0
L Pw = WALL PRESSURE MEASURED
o 0 BY GAGE
o
o 6 .
0
W
0:
::> 4
(f)
(f) CONSTANT EXTRUSION RATE OF
W
0:
Q.
o,f
0 .7 0 .6 0.5
TUBE ~ 1/;' PER MINUTE

0.4
I I
0 .3
I
0 .2 0 .1
POSITION OF PRESSURE GAGE FROM DIE-INCHES
o 0.1 0.2 0 .3 0.4 0 .5 0 .6
DIE MOVE MENT ~ INCHES
F IG. 11 AXI.\L L OAD AND PRESSURES AS FUNCTIONS O~' DIE Dls-
I'L ACE ME:)IT D U RING EXTIlUS I ON OF TUDE OF COMM ERC I A I. LY PUIlE
LEAD AT ROOM TEMPEIlATUIlE .\ ND A HATE OF II'M 1/.

The close agree ment between measured a nd caleuln.ted mea n

pressures is at once evideut, and a ppears to justify co nfidence in
the stress ana lysis developed herein .

CONCLUSIONS

The flo\\' pattei'll on the meridian plane of a spli t cylindrica l

billet of commercia ll y pure lead ext ruded at room temperature
into a tubular product wi th a reduction in area of 88 pel' ce nt has
been determined.
2 Particle-flow patterns in billets of co mmerciall y pure lead
extruded into solid bars and tubes are sub tant ially different for
the Qame reduction in area.
3 The calcul ated ax ial co mpre sive stresses and mean pres-
sures in the billet during extrusion of a tube are highest on the
ext.rusion axis and the cha mber wall in the region ncar the die
orifice.
4 Calculated mean pressures \\'ere found to be in good agree-
ment with measured pressures.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully ma kes acknow ledgment to fl'. N. J . I\:u,

former graduate student at the Un iversity of California, and to
Prof. J . Fri ch of the Univ ersity of California, for their aid in
obtaining the experiment a l flow patterns. H e a lso wishes to
thank the University of California for providing shop facilities
and research grants for carrying out this investigation.