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System Dynamics
Fourth Edition
William J. Palm III

University of Rhode Island
viii Preface
used program in system dynamics courses and by practitioners in the field. Simulink,
which is based on MATLAB and uses a diagram-based interface, is increasing in pop-
ularity because of its power and ease of use. In fact, students convinced the author to
use Simulink after they discovered it on their own and learned how easy it is to use! It
provides a useful and motivational tool.
It is, however, not necessary to cover MATLAB or Simulink in order to use the
text, and it is shown how to do this later in the Preface.
TEXT OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 introduces the basic terminology of system dynamics, covers commonly used
functions, and reviews the two systems of units used in the text: British Engineering
(FPS) units and SI units. These are the unit systems most commonly used in system
dynamics applications. The examples and homework problems employ both sets of
units so that the student will become comfortable with both. Chapter 1 also covers
some basic methods for parameter estimation. These methods are particularly useful
for obtaining numerical values of spring constants, damping coefficients, and other
parameters commonly found in system dynamics models. The chapter also contains
introductions to differential equations and to MATLAB, and it presents the first of the
text’s several case studies: design of motion-control systems. The material on function
identification and least-squares fitting, formerly in Chapter 1 in the third edition, is now
in Appendix C.
Chapter 2 covers differential equations in more depth, and develops the Laplace
transform method for solving differential equations with applications to equations hav-
ing step, ramp, sine, impulse, and other types of forcing functions. It also introduces
transfer function models.
Chapter 3 covers rigid-body dynamics, including planar motion. This chapter con-
tinues the motion-control case study by showing how to select a suitable motor and
gear system.
Chapter 4 covers modeling of mechanical systems having stiffness and damping,
and it applies the analytical methods developed in Chapter 2 to solve the models. This
chapter then introduces the second case study: design of vehicle suspensions.
Chapter 5 develops block diagrams and the state-variable model, which is useful
for certain analytical techniques as well as for numerical solutions. The optional sec-
tions of this chapter introduce Simulink, which is based on block-diagram descriptions,
and apply the chapter’s concepts using MATLAB. This chapter concludes with further
coverage of the vehicle suspension case study.
Chapter 6 treats modeling of electric circuits, operational amplifiers, electro-
mechanical devices, sensors, and electroacoustic devices. It also discusses how motor
parameters can be obtained, and it returns to the motion-control case study and shows
how to analyze motor and amplifier performance.
Part I of Chapter 7 covers fluid systems. Part II covers thermal systems. These
two parts are independent of each other. A background in fluid mechanics or heat
transfer is not required to understand this chapter, but students should have had
elementary thermodynamics before covering the material on pneumatic systems in
Section 7.5.
Chapters 8 and 9 cover analysis methods in the time domain and the frequency
domain, respectively.
Chapter 8 integrates the modeling and analysis techniques of earlier chapters with
an emphasis on understanding system behavior in the time domain, using step, ramp,
Preface ix
and impulse functions primarily. The chapter covers step-response specifications such
as maximum overshoot, peak time, delay time, rise time, and settling time.
Chapter 9 demonstrates the usefulness of the transfer function for understanding
and analyzing a system’s frequency response. It introduces Bode plots and shows how
they are sketched and interpreted to obtain information about time constants, resonant
frequencies, and bandwidth. The chapter returns to the vehicle-suspension case study,
and shows how to use frequency response methods to evaluate suspension performance.
Chapters 10, 11, and 12 deal with a major application of system dynamics, namely,
control systems. Chapter 10 is an introduction to feedback control systems, including the
PID control algorithm applied to first- and second-order plants. The chapter concludes
with thorough coverage of feedback control applied to the motion-control case study.
Chapter 11 deals with control systems in more depth and includes design methods
based on the root locus plot and practical topics such as compensation, controller tun-
ing, actuator saturation, reset windup, and state-variable feedback, with emphasis on
motion-control systems. Chapter 12 covers series compensation methods and design
with the root locus plot and the Bode plot.
Chapter 13 covers another major application area, vibrations. Important practical
applications covered are vibration isolators, vibration absorbers, modes, and suspen-
sion system design. This chapter is now on the text website to allow room for the new
case studies in earlier chapters.
ALTERNATIVE COURSES IN SYSTEM DYNAMICS

The choice of topics depends partly on the desired course emphasis, partly on the stu-
dents’ background in differential equations and dynamics, and partly on whether the
course is a quarter or semester course.
Fluid and thermal systems are covered in Chapter 7, which has been shortened in
this edition. Some students may have had courses in fluid mechanics and heat transfer,
but probably have not been exposed to the system dynamics viewpoint, which focuses
on the analogies between fluid and thermal resistance and capacitance and the corre-
sponding electrical concepts. The theory and methods of the remaining chapters do not
depend on Chapter 7, but some examples do.
In the author’s opinion, a basic semester course in system dynamics should include
most of the material in Chapters 1 through 7, and Chapters 9 and 10. At the author’s
institution, the system dynamics course is a junior course required for mechanical engi-
neering majors, who have already had courses in dynamics and differential equations.
It covers Chapters 1 through 10, with brief coverage of Chapter 7 and Chapter 8, and
with some MATLAB and Simulink sections omitted. This optional material is then
covered in a senior elective course in control systems, which also covers Simulink, and
Chapters 11 and 12.
The text is flexible enough to support a variety of courses. The sections dealing
with MATLAB and Simulink are at the end of the chapters and may be omitted. If
students are familiar with Laplace transform methods and linear differential equations,
Chapter 2 may be covered quickly. If students are comfortable with rigid-body planar
motion, Chapter 3 may be used for a quick review.
GLOSSARY AND APPENDICES

There is a glossary containing the definitions of important terms, five appendices, and
an index. Appendices D and E are on the text website.
x Preface
Appendix A is a collection of tables of MATLAB commands and functions, organized

by category. The purpose of each command and function is briefly described in the tables.
Appendix B is a brief summary of the Fourier series, which is used to represent a
periodic function as a series consisting of a constant plus a sum of sine terms and cosine
terms. It provides the background for some applications of the material in Chapter 9.
Appendix C covers function identification, and shows how to use MATLAB to fit
models to scattered data using the least-squares method.
Appendix D is a self-contained introduction to MATLAB, and it should be read
first by anyone unfamiliar with MATLAB if they intend to cover the MATLAB and
Simulink sections. It also provides a useful review for those students having prior ex-
perience with MATLAB.
Appendix E covers numerical methods, such as the Runge-Kutta algorithms, that
form the basis for the differential equation solvers of MATLAB. It is not necessary to
master this material to use the MATLAB solvers, but the appendix provides a back-
ground for the interested reader.
Answers to selected homework problems are given following Appendix C.
CHAPTER FORMAT
The format of each chapter follows the same pattern, which is
1. Chapter outline
2. Chapter objectives
3. Chapter sections
4. MATLAB sections (in most chapters)
5. Simulink section (in most chapters)
6. Chapter review
7. References
8. Problems
This structure has been designed partly to accommodate those courses that do not
cover MATLAB and/or Simulink, by placing the optional MATLAB and Simulink ma-
terial at the end of the chapter. Chapter problems are arranged according to the chap-
ter section whose concepts they illustrate. All problems requiring MATLAB and/or
Simulink have thus been placed in separate, identifiable groups.
OPTIONAL TOPICS
In addition to the optional chapters (11, 12, and 13), some chapters have sections deal-
ing with material other than MATLAB and Simulink that can be omitted without af-
fecting understanding of the core material in subsequent chapters. All such optional
material has been placed in sections near the end of the chapter. This optional material
includes:
1. Function discovery, parameter estimation, and system identification techniques
(Sections 8.4 and 9.6)
2. General theory of partial-fraction expansion (Section 2.7)
3. Impulse response (Sections 2.6 and 4.6)
4. Motor performance (Section 6.6)
5. Sensors and electroacoustic devices (Section 6.8)
Preface xi
DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
The following are considered to be the major distinguishing features of the text.
1. MATLAB. Standalone sections in most chapters provide concise summaries
and illustrations of MATLAB features relevant to the chapter’s topics.
2. Simulink. Standalone sections in Chapters 5 through 12 provide extensive
Simulink coverage not found in most system dynamics texts.
3. Parameter estimation. Coverage of function discovery, parameter estimation,
and system identification techniques is given in Sections 1.3, 8.4, 9.6, and
Appendix C. Students are uneasy when they are given parameter values such as
spring stiffness and damping coefficients in examples and homework problems,
because they want to know how they will obtain such values in practice. These
sections show how this is done.
4. Motor performance evaluation. Section 6.6 discusses the effect of motor
dynamics on practical considerations for motor and amplifier applications, such
as motion profiles and the required peak and rated continuous current and torque,
and maximum required voltage and motor speed. These considerations offer
excellent examples of practical applications of system dynamics but are not
discussed in most system dynamics texts.
5. System dynamics in everyday life. Commonly found illustrations of system
dynamics are important for helping students to understand the material and its
relevance. This text provides examples drawn from objects encountered in
everyday life. These examples include a storm door closer, fluid flow from a
bottle, shock absorbers and suspension springs, motors, systems with gearing,
chain drives, belt drives, a backhoe, a water tower, and cooling of liquid in a cup.
6. Case studies and theme applications. Two common applications provide
themes for case studies, examples, and problems throughout the text. These are
motion-control systems, such as a conveyor system and a robot arm, and vehicle
suspension systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I want to acknowledge and thank the many individuals who contributed to this effort.
At McGraw-Hill, my thanks go to the editors who helped me through four editions:
Tom Casson, who initiated the project, Jonathan Plant, Lora Neyens, Bill Stenquist,
and Thomas Scaiffe. I am grateful to Tina Bower and Laura Bies for their patience and
help with the fourth edition.
The University of Rhode Island provided an atmosphere that encourages teaching
excellence, course development, and writing, and for that I am appreciative.
I am grateful to my wife, Mary Louise; and my children, Aileene, Bill, and Andrew,
for their support, patience, and understanding through forty years of textbook creation.
Finally, thanks to my grandchildren, Elizabeth, Emma, James, and Henry, for many
enjoyable diversions!
William J. Palm III
Kingston, Rhode Island
March 2019
palm-3930292 paL40056-fm October 30, 2019 21:29
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
William J. Palm III is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical, Industrial, and Systems

Engineering at the University of Rhode Island. In 1966 he received a B.S. from Loyola
College in Baltimore, and in 1971 a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and Astronautical
Sciences from Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois.
During his forty-four years as a faculty member, he has taught nineteen courses.
One of these is a junior system dynamics course, which he developed. He has
authored nine textbooks dealing with modeling and simulation, system dynamics,
control systems, vibrations, and MATLAB. These include MATLAB for Engineering
Applications, fourth edition (McGraw-Hill, 2019), A Concise Introduction to MATLAB
(McGraw-Hill, 2008), and Differential Equations for Engineers and Scientists (McGraw-
Hill, 2013) with Yunus Çengel. He wrote a chapter on control systems in the Mechanical
Engineers’ Handbook, fourth edition (M. Kutz, ed., Wiley, 2014), and was a special
contributor to the fifth editions of Statics and Dynamics, both by J. L. Meriam and
L. G. Kraige (Wiley, 2002).
Professor Palm’s research and industrial experience are in control systems, robotics,
vibrations, and system modeling. He was the Director of the Robotics Research Center
at the University of Rhode Island from 1985 to 1993, and is the co-holder of a patent for
a robot hand. He served as Acting Department Chair from 2002 to 2003. His industrial
experience is in automated manufacturing; modeling and simulation of naval systems,
including underwater vehicles and tracking systems; and design of control systems for
underwater vehicle engine test facilities.
xii
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1
H A P T E R
Introduction
CHAPTER OUTLINE CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 2 When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
1.2 Units 9 1. Define the basic terminology of system dynamics.
1.3 Developing Linear Models 11
2. Apply the basic steps used for engineering problem
1.4 Introduction to Differential Equations 17 solving.
1.5 A Case Study in Motion Control 21
3. Apply the necessary steps for developing a
1.6 MATLAB Review 28 computer solution.
1.7 Chapter Review 34
4. Use units in both the FPS and the SI systems.
Problems 35
5. Develop linear models from given algebraic
expressions.
6. Use direct integration to solve dynamics problems
involving a differential equation in which the
derivative can be isolated.
7. Model and design a simple motion-control system
for a single rotational load.
8. Use MATLAB to perform simple calculations and
plotting, and use the MATLAB help system.
T his chapter introduces the basic terminology of system dynamics, which includes
the notions of system, static and dynamic elements, input, and output. Because
we will use both the foot-pound-second (FPS) and the metric (SI) systems of
units, the chapter introduces these two systems. Developing mathematical models of
input-output relations is essential to the applications of system dynamics. Therefore, we
begin our study by introducing some basic methods for developing algebraic models
of static elements. We show how to use the methods of function identification and
parameter estimation to develop models from data, and how to fit models to data that
have little scatter. ■
1
palm-3930292 books September 11, 2019 17:52
2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM DYNAMICS

This text is an introduction to system dynamics. We presume that the reader has some
background in calculus (specifically, differentiation and integration of functions of
a single variable) and in physics (specifically, free body diagrams, Newton’s laws
of motion for a particle, and elementary dc electricity). In this section we establish
some basic terminology and discuss the meaning of the topic “system dynamics,” its
methodology, and its applications.
1.1.1 SYSTEMS
The meaning of the term system has become somewhat vague because of overuse. The
original meaning of the term is a combination of elements intended to act together to
accomplish an objective. For example, a link in a bicycle chain is usually not considered
to be a system. However, when it is used with other links to form a chain, it becomes
part of a system. The objective for the chain is to transmit force. When the chain is
combined with gears, wheels, crank, handlebars, and other elements, it becomes part
of a larger system whose purpose is to transport a person.
The system designer must focus on how all the elements act together to achieve
the system’s intended purpose, keeping in mind other important factors such as safety,
cost, and so forth. Thus, the system designer often cannot afford to spend time on the
details of designing the system elements. For example, our bicycle designer might not
have time to study the metallurgy involved with link design; that is the role of the chain
designer. All the systems designer needs to know about the chain is its strength, its
weight, and its cost, because these are the factors that influence its role in the system.
With this “systems point of view,” we focus on how connections between the
elements influence the overall behavior of the system. This means that sometimes we
must accept a less-detailed description of the operation of the individual elements to
achieve an overall understanding of the system’s performance.
Figure 1.1.1 illustrates a liquid-filled tank with a volume inflow f (say in cubic
feet per second). The liquid height is h (say in feet). We see in Example 1.4.2 that
the functional relationship between f and h has the form f = bhm , where b and m are
constants. We would not call this a “system.” However, if two tanks are connected as
shown in Figure 1.1.2, this connection forms a “system.” Each tank is a “subsystem”
Figure 1.1.1 The effect Figure 1.1.2 Two connected tanks.

of liquid height h on the
out flow rate f .
f1
f2
h
h1
f h2
1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 3
h1 Figure 1.1.3 A system

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 diagram illustrating how the
f1 f2 two liquid heights affect
(Tank 1) (Tank 2)
h2 each other.
whose liquid height is influenced by the other tank. We can obtain a differential equation
model for each height by using the single-tank relationship f = bhm and applying the
basic physical principle called conservation of mass to express the connection between
the two tanks. This results in a model of the entire system.
We often use diagrams to illustrate the connections between the subsystems.
Figure 1.1.2 illustrates the physical connection, but Figure 1.1.3 is an example of a di-
agram showing that the height h1 affects the height h2 , and vice versa. (The flow goes
from the higher height to the lower one.) Such a diagram may be useful for a nontechni-
cal audience, but it does not show how the heights affect each other. To do that, we will
use two other types of diagrams—called simulation diagrams and block diagrams—to
represent the connections between the subsystems and the variables that describe the
system behavior. These diagrams represent the differential equation model.
1.1.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT

Like the term “system,” the meanings of input and output have become less precise.
For example, a factory manager will call a meeting to seek “input,” meaning opinions
or data, from the employees, and the manager may refer to the products manufactured
in the factory as its “output.” However, in the system dynamics meaning of the terms,
an input is a cause; an output is an effect due to the input. Thus, one input to the bicycle
is the force applied to the pedal. One resulting output is the acceleration of the bike.
Another input is the angle of the front wheel; the output is the direction of the bike’s
path of travel.
The behavior of a system element is specified by its input-output relation, which
is a description of how the output is affected by the input. The input-output relation
expresses the cause-and-effect behavior of the element. Such a description, which is
represented graphically by the diagram in Figure 1.1.4, can be in the form of a table
of numbers, a graph, or a mathematical relation. For example, a force f applied to a
particle of mass m causes an acceleration a of the particle. The input-output or causal
relation is, from Newton’s second law, a = f ∕m. The input is f and the output is a.
The input-output relations for the elements in the system provide a means of speci-
fying the connections between the elements. When connected together to form a sys-
tem, the inputs to some elements will be the outputs from other elements.
The inputs and outputs of a system are determined by the selection of the system’s
boundary (see Figure 1.1.4). Any causes acting on the system from the world exter-
nal to this boundary are considered to be system inputs. Similarly, a system’s outputs
are the outputs from any one or more of the system elements that act on the world out-
side the system boundary. If we take the bike to be the system, one system input would
be the pedal force; another input is the force of gravity acting on the bike. The outputs
Figure 1.1.4 A system

input-output diagram,
showing the system
Inputs System Outputs boundary.
Boundary
may be taken to be the bike’s position, velocity, and acceleration. Usually, our choices
for system outputs are a subset of the possible outputs and are the variables in which we
are interested. For example, a performance analysis of the bike would normally focus
on the acceleration or velocity, but not on the bike’s position.
Sometimes input-output relations are reversible, sometimes not. For example, we
can apply a current as input to a resistor and consider the resulting voltage drop to be
the output (v = iR). Or we can apply a voltage to produce a current through the resistor
(i = v∕R). However, acceleration is the cause of a change in velocity, but not vice
versa. If we integrate acceleration a over time, we obtain velocity v; that is, v = ∫ a dt.
Whenever an output of an element is the time integral of the input and the direction
of the cause-effect relation is not reversible, we say that the element exhibits integral
causality. We will see that integral causality constitutes a basic form of causality for
all physical systems.
Similar statements can be made about the relation between velocity and displace-
ment. Integration of velocity produces displacement x: x = ∫ v dt. Velocity is the cause
of displacement, but not vice versa.
Note that the mathematical relations describing integral causality can be reversed;
for example, we may write a = dv∕dt, but this does not mean that the cause-and-effect
relation can be reversed.
1.1.3 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ELEMENTS

When the present value of an element’s output depends only on the present value of its
input, we say the element is a static element. For example, the current flowing through
a resistor depends only on the present value of the applied voltage. The resistor is thus
a static element. However, because no physical element can respond instantaneously,
the concept of a static element is an approximation. It is widely used, however, because
it results in a simpler mathematical representation; that is, an algebraic representation
rather than one involving differential equations.
If an element’s present output depends on past inputs, we say it is a dynamic ele-
ment. For example, the present position of a bike depends on what its velocity has been
from the start.
In popular usage, the terms static and dynamic distinguish situations in which no
change occurs from those that are subject to changes over time. This usage conforms
to the preceding definitions of these terms if the proper interpretation is made. A static
element’s output can change with time only if the input changes and will not change
if the input is constant or absent. However, if the input is constant or removed from
a dynamic element, its output can still change. For example, if we stop pedaling, the
bike’s displacement will continue to change because of its momentum, which is due to
past inputs.
A dynamic system is one whose present output depends on past inputs. A static
system is one whose output at any given time depends only on the input at that time. A
static system contains all static elements. Any system that contains at least one dynamic
element must be a dynamic system. System dynamics, then, is the study of systems that
contain dynamic elements.
1.1.4 MODELING OF SYSTEMS

Table 1.1.1 contains a summary of the methodology that has been tried and tested by
the engineering profession for many years. These steps describe a general problem-
solving procedure. Simplifying the problem sufficiently and applying the appropriate
Table 1.1.1 Steps in engineering problem solving.
1. Understand the purpose of the problem.

2. Collect the known information. Realize that some of it might turn out to be not needed.
3. Determine what information you must find.
4. Simplify the problem only enough to obtain the required information. State any assumptions
you make.
5. Draw a sketch and label any necessary variables.
6. Determine what fundamental principles are applicable.
7. Think generally about your proposed solution approach and consider other approaches before
proceeding with the details.
8. Label each step in the solution process.
9. If you use a program to solve the problem, hand check the results using a simple version of the
problem. Checking the dimensions and units, and printing the results of intermediate steps in
the calculation sequence can uncover mistakes.
10. Perform a “reality check” on your answer. Does it make sense? Estimate the range of the
expected result and compare it with your answer. Do not state the answer with greater
precision than is justified by any of the following:
a. The precision of the given information.
b. The simplifying assumptions.
c. The requirements of the problem.
Interpret the mathematics. If the mathematics produces multiple answers, do not discard some
of them without considering what they mean. The mathematics might be trying to tell you
something, and you might miss an opportunity to discover more about the problem.
fundamental principles is called modeling, and the resulting mathematical description

is called a mathematical model, or just a model. When the modeling has been finished,
we need to solve the mathematical model to obtain the required answer. If the model is
highly detailed, we may need to solve it with a computer program.
Modeling is the art of obtaining a quantitative description of a system or one of
its elements that is simple enough to be useful for making predictions and realistic
enough to trust those predictions. For example, consider a potato being heated in an
oven. The oven designer wants to design an oven that is powerful enough to bake a
potato within a prescribed time (Figure 1.1.5). Note that because the oven has yet to be
designed, we cannot do an experiment to obtain the answer. Potatoes vary in size and
shape, but a good estimate of the required oven power can be obtained by modeling
the potato as a sphere having the thermal properties of water. Then, using the ther-
mal systems methods given in Chapter 7, we can predict how long it will take to bake
the potato.
It often is necessary to choose between a very accurate but complicated model and
a simple but not so accurate model. Complicated models may be difficult to solve, or
they may require experimental data that are unavailable or hard to find. There usually
is no “right” model choice because it depends on the particular situation. We aim to
Oven Figure 1.1.5 A potato

modeled as a sphere of
water.
Ideal Actual
175°C
Water Potato
choose the simplest model that yields adequate results. Just remember that the predic-
tions obtained from a model are no more accurate than the simplifying assumptions
made to develop the model. That is why we call modeling an art; it depends partly on
judgment obtained by experience.
The form of a mathematical model depends on its purpose. For example, design
of electrical equipment requires more than a knowledge of electrical principles. An
electric circuit can be damaged if its mounting board experiences vibration. In this
case, its force-deflection properties must be modeled. In addition, resistors generate
heat, and a thermal model is required to describe this process. Thus, we see that devices
can have many facets: thermal, mechanical, electrical, and so forth. No mathematical
model can deal with all these facets. Even if it could, it would be too complex, and thus
too cumbersome, to be useful.
For example, a map is a model of a geographic region. But if a single map contains
all information pertaining to the roads, terrain elevation, geology, population density,
and so on, it would be too cluttered to be useful. Instead, we select the particular type
of map required for the purpose at hand. In the same way, we select or construct a
mathematical model to suit the requirements of a particular study.
The examples in this text follow the steps in Table 1.1.1, although for compactness
the steps are usually not numbered. In each example, following the example’s title, there
is a problem statement that summarizes the results of steps 1 through 5. Steps 6 through
10 are described in the solution part of the example. To save space, some steps, such as
checking dimensions and units, are not always explicitly displayed. However, you are
encouraged to perform these steps on your own.
1.1.5 MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Because system dynamics deals with changes in time, mathematical models of dynamic
systems naturally involve differential equations. Therefore, we introduce differential
equation solution methods starting in this chapter. Additional methods, such as those
that make use of computers, are introduced in subsequent chapters.
1.1.6 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Often dynamic systems require a control system to perform properly. Thus, proper
control system design is one of the most important objectives of system dynamics.
Microprocessors have greatly expanded the applications for control systems. These
new applications include robotics, mechatronics, micromachines, precision engineer-
ing, active vibration control, active noise cancellation, and adaptive optics. Recent
technological advancements mean that many machines now operate at high speeds and
high accelerations. It is therefore now more often necessary for engineers to pay more
attention to the principles of system dynamics. Starting in Chapter 10, we apply these
principles to control system design.
1.1.7 APPLICATIONS IN MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

Mechanical systems are loosely defined as those whose operating principles are pri-
marily Newton’s laws of motion. The bicycle is an example of a mechanical system.
Chapters 3 and 4 deal with mechanical systems. The topic of mechanical vibrations
covers the oscillations of machines and structures due either to their own inherent flex-
ibility or to the action of an external force or motion. This is treated in Chapter 13.
Figure 1.1.6 A vehicle suspension system. Figure 1.1.7 A robot arm.

Waist rotation
Frame mount
Coil spring
Tie rod Three wrist

Shoulder rotations
Shock absorber rotation
Steering arm
Frame mount
Elbow
rotation
Wishbone
One of our major theme applications in mechanical systems is vehicle dynamics.

This topic has received renewed importance for reasons related to safety, energy effi-
ciency, and passenger comfort. Of major interest under this topic is the design of vehi-
cle suspension systems, whose elements include various types of springs and shock ab-
sorbers (Figure 1.1.6). Active suspension systems, whose characteristics can be changed
under computer control, and vehicle-dynamics control systems are undergoing rapid
development, and their design requires an understanding of system dynamics.
1.1.8 APPLICATIONS IN ELECTRICAL AND

ELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
Electromechanical systems contain both mechanical elements and electrical elements
such as electric motors. Two common applications of system dynamics in electrome-
chanical systems are in (1) motion-control systems and (2) vehicle dynamics. There-
fore, we will use these applications as major themes in many of our examples and
problems. Chapter 6 introduces electrical and electromechanical systems.
Figure 1.1.7 shows a robot arm, whose motion must be properly controlled to move
an object to a desired position and orientation. To do this, each of the several motors
and drive trains in the arm must be adequately designed to handle the load, and the
motor speeds and angular positions must be properly controlled. Figure 1.1.8 shows
a typical motor and drive train for one arm joint. Knowledge of system dynamics is
essential to design these subsystems and to control them properly.
Mobile robots are another motion-control application, but motion-control applica-
tions are not limited to robots. Figure 1.1.9 shows the mechanical drive for a conveyor
system. The motor, the gears in the speed reducer, the chain, the sprockets, and the
drive wheels all must be properly selected, and the motor must be properly controlled
for the system to work well. In subsequent chapters we will develop models of these
components and use them to design the system and analyze its performance.
Figure 1.1.8 Mechanical drive for a robot arm joint. Figure 1.1.9 Mechanical drive for a conveyor system.
Arm Load
Drive chains
Gears
Tachometer
Sprocket 2 Drive wheels

Drive shaft
Chain
Motor
Sprocket 1
Reducer
Motor
1.1.9 APPLICATIONS IN FLUID SYSTEMS

A fluid system is one whose operation depends on the flow of a fluid. If the fluid is
incompressible, that is, if its density does not change appreciably with pressure changes,
we call it a liquid, or a hydraulic fluid. On the other hand, if the fluid is compressible,
that is, if its density does change appreciably with pressure changes, we call it a gas, or
a pneumatic fluid.
Figure 1.1.10 shows a commonly seen backhoe. The bucket, forearm, and upper
arm are each driven by a hydraulic servomotor. A cutaway view of such a motor is
shown in Figure 1.1.11. We will analyze its behavior in Chapter 7. Compressed air
Figure 1.1.10 A backhoe. Figure 1.1.11 A hydraulic servomotor.
Piston Return Supply Return

rod y Pilot
Cylinder valve
Operator
controls Spool
Port
Hydraulic
x lines
Hydraulic
lines
m A
Piston
1.2 Units 9
Table 1.1.2 Steps for developing a computer solution.
1. State the problem concisely.

2. Specify the data to be used by the program. This is the “input.”
3. Specify the information to be generated by the program. This is the “output.”
4. Work through the solution steps by hand or with a calculator; use a simpler set of data
if necessary.
5. Write and run the program.
6. Check the output of the program with your hand solution.
7. Run the program with your input data and perform a reality check on the output.
8. If you will use the program as a general tool in the future, test it by running it for a range of
reasonable data values, and perform a reality check on the results. Document the program with
comment statements, flow charts, pseudo-code, or whatever else is appropriate.
cylinders and the common storm door closer are examples of pneumatic systems, and
we encounter them in Chapter 7.
1.1.10 APPLICATIONS IN THERMAL SYSTEMS

A thermal system is one whose behavior depends primarily on the exchange of heat.
The oven-potato application we saw earlier is an example of a thermal system. Many
thermal systems involve fluid flow, such as with a steam engine or an air conditioner,
and so we often speak of thermo-fluid systems. These examples also have mechanical
components such as pistons, and so we could refer to them as thermo-fluid-mechanical
systems, although we rarely use such cumbersome terminology. The designation as
thermal, fluid, or mechanical depends on what aspect of the system we are analyzing.
Thermal systems are first treated in Chapter 7, with more applications covered in later
chapters.
1.1.11 COMPUTER METHODS

The computer methods used in this text are based on MATLAB and Simulink. R 1
If
you are unfamiliar with MATLAB, Appendix D on the textbook website contains a
thorough introduction to the program. No prior experience with Simulink is required;
we will introduce the necessary methods as we need them. For the convenience of those
who prefer to use a software package other than MATLAB or Simulink, we have placed
all the MATLAB and Simulink material in optional sections at the end of each chapter.
They can be skipped without affecting your understanding of the following chapters. If
you use a program, such as MATLAB, to solve a problem, follow the steps shown in
Table 1.1.2.
1.2 UNITS
In this book we use two systems of units, the FPS system and the metric SI. The com-
mon system of units in business and industry in English-speaking countries has been
the foot-pound-second (FPS) system. This system is also known as the U.S. customary
system or the British Engineering system. Much engineering work in the United States
has been based on the FPS system, and some industries continue to use it. The metric
Système International d’Unités (SI) nevertheless is becoming the worldwide standard.
1 Simulink is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

Until the changeover is complete, engineers in the United States will have to be familiar
with both systems.
In our examples, we will use SI and FPS units in the hope that the student will
become comfortable with both. Other systems are in use, such as the meter-kilogram-
second (mks) and centimeter-gram-second (cgs) metric systems and the British system,
in which the mass unit is a pound. We will not use these, in order to simplify our cov-
erage and because FPS and SI units are the most common in engineering applications.
We now briefly summarize these two systems.
1.2.1 FPS UNITS

The FPS system is a gravitational system. This means that the primary variable is force,
and the unit of mass is derived from Newton’s second law. The pound is selected as the
unit of force and the foot and second as units of length and time, respectively. From
Newton’s second law of motion, force equals mass times acceleration, or
f = ma (1.2.1)
where f is the net force acting on the mass m and producing an acceleration a. Thus,
the unit of mass must be
force pound
mass = =
acceleration foot/(second)2
This mass unit is named the slug.
Through Newton’s second law, the weight W of an object is related to the object
mass m and the acceleration due to gravity, denoted by g, as follows: W = mg. At the
surface of the earth, the standard value of g in FPS units is g = 32.2 ft/sec2 .
Energy has the dimensions of mechanical work; namely, force times displacement.
Therefore, the unit of energy in this system is the foot-pound (ft-lb). Another energy unit
in common use for historical reasons is the British thermal unit (Btu). The relationship
between the two is given in Table 1.2.1. Power is the rate of change of energy with time,
and a common unit is horsepower. Finally, temperature in the FPS system can be
expressed in degrees Fahrenheit or in absolute units, degrees Rankine.
1.2.2 SI UNITS
The SI metric system is an absolute system, which means that the mass is chosen as the
primary variable, and the force unit is derived from Newton’s law. The meter and the
Table 1.2.1 SI and FPS units.

Unit name and abbreviation
Quantity SI Unit FPS Unit
Time second (s) second (sec)
Length meter (m) foot (ft)
Force newton (N) pound (lb)
Mass kilogram (kg) slug
Energy joule (J) foot-pound (ft-lb),
Btu (= 778 ft-lb)
Power watt (W) ft-lb/sec,
horsepower (hp)
Temperature degrees Celsius (◦ C), degrees Fahrenheit (◦ F),
degrees Kelvin (K) degrees Rankine (◦ R)
1.3 Developing Linear Models 11
Table 1.2.2 Unit conversion factors.
Length 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m

1 mile = 5280 ft 1 km = 1000 m
Speed 1 ft /sec = 0.6818 mi /hr 1 mi /hr = 1.467 ft /sec
1 m /s = 3.6 km /h 1 km /h = 0.2778 m /s
1 km /hr = 0.6214 mi /hr 1 mi /hr = 1.609 km /h
Force 1 N = 0.2248 lb 1 lb = 4.4484 N
Mass 1 kg = 0.06852 slug 1 slug = 14.594 kg
Energy 1 J = 0.7376 ft-lb 1 ft-lb = 1.3557 J
Power 1 hp = 550 ft-lb /sec 1 hp = 745.7 W
1 W = 1.341 × 10−3 hp
Temperature T ◦ C = 5 (T ◦ F − 32)∕9 T ◦ F = 9T ◦ C∕5 + 32
second are selected as the length and time units, and the kilogram is chosen as the mass
unit. The derived force unit is called the newton. In SI units the common energy unit
is the newton-meter, also called the joule, while the power unit is the joule/second, or
watt. Temperatures are measured in degrees Celsius, ◦ C, and in absolute units, which
are degrees Kelvin, K. The difference between the boiling and freezing temperatures of
water is 100◦ C, with 0◦ C being the freezing point.
At the surface of the earth, the standard value of g in SI units is g = 9.81 m/s2 .
Table 1.2.2 gives the most commonly needed factors for converting between the
FPS and the SI systems.
1.2.3 OSCILLATION UNITS

There are three commonly used units for frequency of oscillation. If time is measured
in seconds, frequency can be specified as radians /second or as hertz, abbreviated Hz.
One hertz is one cycle per second (cps). The relation between cycles per second f
and radians per second 𝜔 is 2𝜋f = 𝜔. For sinusoidal oscillation, the period P, which is
the time between peaks, is related to frequency by P = 1∕f = 2𝜋∕𝜔. The third way of
specifying frequency is revolutions per minute (rpm). Because there are 2𝜋 radians per
revolution, one rpm = (2𝜋∕60) radians per second.
1.3 DEVELOPING LINEAR MODELS

A linear model of a static element has the form y = mx + b, where x is the input and y
is the output of the element. As we will see in Chapter 2, solution of dynamic models
to predict system performance requires solution of differential equations. Differential
equations based on linear models of the system elements are easier to solve than ones
based on nonlinear models. Therefore, when developing models we try to obtain a
linear model whenever possible. Sometimes the use of a linear model results in a loss
of accuracy, and the engineer must weigh this disadvantage with advantages gained by
using a linear model. In this section, we illustrate some ways to obtain linear models.
1.3.1 DEVELOPING LINEAR MODELS FROM DATA

If we are given data on the input-output characteristics of a system element, we can first
plot the data to see whether a linear model is appropriate, and if so, we can
extract a suitable model. Example 1.3.1 illustrates a common engineering problem—
the estimation of the force-deflection characteristics of a cantilever support beam.
Another random document with
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upon such terms, conditions, and limitations as to its
internal status as may best subserve the interests of the
United States, and it is not necessary to invest such
territory with the full status of an integral part of the
Union.
"That this is one of the ordinary and necessary sovereign

powers of an independent nation, and nothing in the Federal
Constitution or in the fundamental principles that underlie
our Republic denies to the nation a right to the full exercise
of this usual and common sovereign right.
"That the treaty-making power—the President and the Senate—as

evidenced by the language of the treaty of Paris, did not
intend to make Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands integral
parts of the United States, but intended, in several
particulars, to reserve their final status for adjustment by
Congress, at the same time making peculiar and special
differential provisions for variations and exceptions in
customs and port regulations as to Spain and Spanish goods and
subjects, which are inconsistent with the intention that the
ceded countries became upon the ratification of the treaty a
part of the United States in all respects and in the fullest
sense.
"The Government contends that the term 'foreign countries' in

the act of 1897 is to be regarded as having been understood by
Congress to be subject to the rule of interpretation of the
phrase given by the Supreme Court in the case of Fleming v.
Page, where it was held that under our revenue laws every port
is regarded as a foreign one until expressly established as
domestic under the authority and control of the statutes of
the United States.
"That the clause of the Constitution which declares that

duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the
United States does not apply to nor govern these cases,
because the term 'United States,' as there used, means only
the territory comprised within the several States of the
Union, and was intended only for their benefit and protection,
and not for the benefit or protection of outside territory
belonging to the nation; that in the latter sense duties on
imports from these islands are uniform throughout the United
States, because they are uniformly imposed at every port in
the United States, so that there is no preference given to the
ports of one State over those of another, nor is any
inequality between the several States created.
{671}
"That the right to bring merchandise into the United States is

a right entirely within the regulation of Congress; such right
in no wise differs as to either citizens or aliens.
Citizenship carries with it no special or peculiar privileges
at the custom-house. The American, the Spaniard, the Porto
Rican, are treated alike. The basis of the customs laws is not
ownership, but (1) the geographical origin of the shipment,
and (2) the nature of the goods. The duty is imposed against
merchandise, not upon the importer. "The Government contends,
therefore, that in view of the fact that tariff laws are 'in
rem,' there is no principle of justice, much less of
constitutional restriction, which forbids Congress from taxing
in this way the merchandise of outlying possessions of the
United States when brought into the ports of the Union. That
the limitations of the Constitution as to customs, etc., were
intended to secure equality between the States in the
geographical sense, and not to forbid Congress from exercising
the ordinary sovereign power of taxation as to the products of
other sections of country not included within the geographical
boundaries of the States; for which we rely upon the opinion
of this court in Knowlton v. Moore as decisive and conclusive.
"If the foregoing propositions are sound, then it is

established (1) that the tariff act of 1897 was intended by
Congress to classify as foreign all countries not a part of or
belonging to the United States at the time of its passage, and
the subsequent cession of the Spanish islands to the United
States did not operate to admit imports from those islands
free of duty, under that law; (2) that the tariff act so
construed and enforced violates no constitutional rule of
uniformity.
"And the case of the plaintiffs in error would seem on these

grounds to have no legal foundation.
"The Government might well be content to rest its argument

upon these propositions. But counsel for the plaintiffs in
error, in the court below as well us in this court, have gone
far beyond these limits, and have challenged and denied the
constitutionality of certain provisions of the treaty of
Paris, contending that the cession of Porto Rico and the
Philippine Archipelago effected a complete incorporation of
those countries with the United States, so that they have
become a part of the United States in the fullest and largest
sense, not only internationally, but organically, so
completely, indeed, that no difference or distinction can be
made by law between imports from those countries and imports
from one of the States of the Union.
"They insist that there can be no limited or qualified

acquisition of territory by this nation; that when Porto Rico
was ceded to the United States it came at once under the
obligations of the Constitution and became entitled to the
privileges of the Constitution, its inhabitants citizens of
the United States, and its territory a part of the United
States. They argue, therefore, that the clause of the treaty
which says that 'the civil rights and political status of the
inhabitants shall be determined by the Congress,' in so far as
it is intended to defer the full enjoyment of the rights and
privileges of citizenship under the Constitution until
Congress shall bestow them hereafter upon the inhabitants, is
'ultra vires' and void, or at least superfluous and
ineffective, because the Constitution 'ex proprio vigore'
extends at once, as an automatic operation, to all territory
ceded to this Government, and no treaty or treaty-making power
can hinder or even suspend it. …
"Counsel have been at great pains to prove that the Government

of the United States is one of delegated powers, and that its
powers are not absolute and untrammeled, but subject to
certain limits never and nowhere to be transcended; that the
vague political entity known as The People stands behind the
constituted agencies of government, holding in reserve the
sources of supreme power, capable and ready to alter or
destroy at its pleasure the machinery heretofore set up in its
behalf. They call these doctrines truisms, and so they are.
They do not help us in this case.
"The Government of the United States has been vested not with
all powers but only with certain particular powers. These
particular delegated powers are in some respects limited and
confined in scope and operation, but in other respects they
are entirely unlimited. So that the real and practical
question is whether there is any limitation preventing the
particular thing here complained of.
"It is worth while, in passing, to allude to the undeniable

fact that 'The People' referred to are not the people of the
Territories or of the outlying possessions of the United
States, but the people of the several States, who ordained and
established for themselves and their posterity the Federal
Constitution.
"Counsel confuse ideas when they argue that the contention of

the Government in these cases implies the possession by
Congress of all unlimited and despotic powers in the
government of territory. We mean no more than this court meant
when it said:
"'The power of Congress over the Territories is general and
plenary.
"'Its sovereignty over them is complete.
"'It has full and complete legislative authority over the

people of the Territories and all departments of the
Territorial governments.
"'The people of the United States, as sovereign owners of the

National Territories, have supreme power over them and their
inhabitants.
"'In legislating for the Territories Congress would doubtless

be subject to those fundamental limitations in favor of
personal rights which are formulated in the Constitution and
its amendments, but these limitations would exist rather by
inference and the general spirit of the Constitution than by
any express and direct application of its provisions.'"
In the Supreme Court of the United States,

October Term, 1900, John H. Goetze, Appellant, &c.;
Brief for the United States.
On the 8th of January, 1901, four other causes, involving

substantially the same questions, came before the Supreme
Court, and, by order of the Court, were consolidated, to be
dealt with virtually as one case. The titles of the cases were
respectively as follows:
Elias S. A. Dc Lima et al., plaintiffs in error,

agt. George R. Bidwell;
Samuel B. Downes et al., plaintiffs in error,

agt. George R. Bidwell;
Henry W. Dooley et al., plaintiffs in error,
agt. the United States;
Carlos Armstrong, appellant,

agt. the United States, and George W. Crossmon et al.,
appellants, agt. the United States.
{672}
For the plaintiffs, in the case of Henry W. Dooley et al., the

Honorable John G. Carlisle made an oral argument, in which he
said: "What is the Constitution? In the first place it is not
only the supreme law of the States composing the union, but
the supreme law of the land; supreme over every branch and
department of the Government; supreme over every one
exercising authority under the Government; supreme over every
other law or order or regulation, and supreme over all the
people, wherever they may be, within its jurisdiction, and
what we claim is, that so long as this Constitution exists
absolute and arbitrary power over the lives, liberties, or
property of the people can be exercised nowhere in this
Republic. It is now argued that it is supreme only within the
boundaries of the several States, unless Congress extends it
to the Territories; that it limits the powers of Congress only
when legislating for the geographical area embraced in the
States; that the inhabitants of the States are the only people
who can, as a matter of right, claim the benefit of its
guarantees and prohibitions for the protection even of those
personal and property rights which have for ages been secured
by the common law of England, and that all other people within
the jurisdiction of the United States are dependent for the
protection of their civil rights substantially upon the will
of Congress. The question whether the Constitution should be
declared to be the supreme law of the whole land, or only the
supreme law of the respective States and their inhabitants or
citizens, was presented in the Federal Convention of 1787, and
was finally disposed of by the adoption of the clause as it
now stands in the Constitution, which declares it to be "the
supreme law of the land.
"In the plan proposed by Mr. Charles Pinckney, of South

Carolina, it was provided that 'all acts made by the
legislature of the United States pursuant to this
Constitution, and all treaties made under the authority of the
United States, shall be the supreme law of the land,' etc. (1
Elliot, page 46). Mr. Patterson's plan proposed 'that all acts
of the United States in Congress assembled made by virtue and
in pursuance of the powers hereby vested in them, and by the
Articles of Confederation and all treaties made and ratified
under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme
law of the respective States, so far as those acts or treaties
shall relate to such States or their citizens,' etc. (pages
71, 72). These plans and others were referred to the Committee
of the Whole House and were reported back without any
provision upon this subject. Afterwards the Convention
unanimously agreed to the following resolution:
'That the Legislative acts made by virtue and in pursuance of

the Articles of Union and all treaties made and ratified under
the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law
of the respective States, so far as those acts or treaties
shall relate to the said States or their citizens or
inhabitants' (page 100). Thus it stood when referred to the
committee of five, of which Mr. Rutledge was chairman, and on
the 6th of August, 1787, that committee reported back to the
Convention a draft of the proposed Constitution, the eighth
article of which was the same as the resolution last quoted,
except that in the place of the words 'Articles of Union' it
contained the words 'this Constitution' (page 120). This
report was considered in the Committee of the Whole, and on
the 23d of August the eighth article was unanimously amended
so as to read: 'This Constitution and all laws of the United
States made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made under
the authority of the United States shall be the supreme law of
the several States and of their citizens and inhabitants,'
etc. (page 151).
"This was the form in which the article stood when the whole
draft was referred to the committee of eleven, but when
reported back September 12, it constituted the second clause
of the sixth article and declared that the Constitution and
laws and the treaties made and to be made should be 'the
supreme law of the land,' and so it now stands as part of the
Constitution. If the clause had been adopted in the form
agreed to in the committee and inserted in the first draft,
there would have been at least a certain degree of
plausibility in the argument made here for the Government, but
even in that case we think the powers of Congress would have
been limited whenever and wherever it might attempt to
exercise them. But it is argued here that the history of the
Constitution and the language employed in the preamble, and in
some other places, show that it was intended to establish a
government only for such of the States then existing as might
ratify it, and such other States as might thereafter be
admitted into the Union, and that, therefore, while it confers
power upon Congress to govern Territories, it does not require
that body to govern them in accordance with the supreme law of
the land; that is, in accordance with the instrument from
which the power to govern is derived. Even if the premises
were true, the conclusion would not follow; but is it true
that the Constitution was ordained and established for the
government of the States only? If so, how did it happen that
the great men who framed that instrument made it confer the
power to govern Territories as well as States? It is true that
the Constitution was ordained and established by the people of
the States, but it created a National Government for national
purposes, not a mere league or compact between the States, and
jurisdiction was conferred upon that Government over the whole
national domain, whatever its boundaries might be. It is not
true that the Government was established only for the States,
their inhabitants or citizens, but if it were true, then it
could exercise no power outside of the States, and this court
would have to put a new construction upon that provision which
authorizes Congress to dispose of and make all needful rules
and regulations respecting the territory, or other property,
belonging to the United States. The necessary construction of
that clause would be that it conferred power only to dispose
of land or other property, and to make necessary rules and
regulations respecting land or other property belonging to the
United States; that is, belonging to the several States
composing the Union. It would confer no power whatever to
govern the people outside of the States."
Supreme Court of the United States,

October Term, 1900,
Henry W. Dooley [et al.] vs. the United States:
Argument of J. G. Carlisle.
{673}
On one point the argument of Mr. Charles H. Aldrich, attorney

for the plaintiff in the case of the "Fourteen Diamond Rings,"
was as follows: In "the relations of the United States to other
nations, our government is a sovereign state, and has the
right, and as such 'free and independent State has full power,
to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish
commerce, and to do all other acts and things which
independent States may of right do.' In this relation it is
correct, as I conceive, to speak of the United States of
America as a unit and use a singular verb. It is such unit and
has this power because there was created a government upon
which the people conferred these powers. If war is declared it
must be under the constitution; if peace is concluded it is in
the exercise of a constitutional power; if commerce is
established it is because Congress under the constitution was
given power to regulate commerce; if alliances are contracted
it can only be done under the constitution. In short, the
sovereign nation exists through the adoption of the
constitution, and its powers are derived from that instrument
and must be found, as this court has often declared, in the
language thereof or by necessary implication therefrom. We are
in the Philippines and Porto Rico and can be rightfully there
only in the exercise of some of these enumerated powers, as in
the language of the tenth amendment, 'the powers not delegated
to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it
to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to
the people.' This amendment designates the constitution as the
source of the power of the United States and excludes the idea
of power free from constitutional restraint derived by
implication from powers delegated by the constitution.
"Nor is it true that at the time this declaration was made all
independent states or nations claimed and exercised the right
to acquire, hold and govern foreign dependencies, and no state
or nation then recognized its obligation to confer on the
people of such acquired territory the privileges and
immunities enjoyed by the people of the home government,
except at its own will and discretion. It is true that all
independent states claimed and exercised the right to acquire
territory, but if it were important in this case I think the
arguments of Pitt, Camden and Barre could be used to establish
the proposition that under the British Constitution as it
then was, that nation had, from the time of King John and the
Great Charter until King George, recognized that its subjects
had essential rights not dependent upon the 'will and
discretion' of the home government. It is unnecessary to
follow that subject here. It is sufficient that the
Declaration of Independence was brought about by the assertion
on the part of King George and his ministers of precisely the
present doctrine of this administration and its
representatives in this court. If value is to be attached to
contemporary history that fact cannot be lost sight of. The
speeches of Grenville and Townshend in favor of unlimited
power on the part of Parliament over the American colonists
and their affairs have been substantially parodied in Congress
by the advocates of unrestrained power over our 'colonies,' as
it is now unfortunately fashionable to denominate them. The
signers of the Declaration of Independence held that as
subjects of the British Constitution there was no right to
impose taxes upon them without their consent, to deprive them
of trial by jury, to deprive them of their legislatures, and
to declare Parliament in vested with power to legislate for
them 'in all cases whatsoever.' These and other grievances
were held denials of rights belonging to every British subject
as such and to justify rebellion and war. It seems impossible
that a people who rebelled for such reasons established a
State invested with the very power which they had denied to
the British government and the assertions of which made
rebellion necessary.
"This argument that the power to declare war and conclude

peace carries with it, as an auxiliary, power to do whatever
other nations are accustomed to do with the people and
territory acquired through the exercise of these powers, has a
remarkable likeness to the arguments put forward at the
beginning of the century with reference to the Alien and
Sedition Acts. The supporters of the constitutionality of
these acts claimed that the common law had been introduced and
become a part of the constitution of the United States, and
therefore the powers usually exercisable under the common law
could be exercised by the Congress of the United States in the
respects involved in those acts. Mr. Madison's letter
discussing this contention was answered, so far as it asserted
the right of a state to nullify an act of Congress, but was
never answered, so far as it denied the existence of the
common law as a part of the constitution of the United States.
His objections to that contention, succinctly stated, were,
that if the common law was a part of the constitution, then
there were no constitutional limitations. Congress, like
Parliament, could legislate in all cases whatsoever; that the
President would be possessed of the royal prerogatives (as is
now claimed in this case by the Attorney-General); that the
judiciary would have a discretion little short of legislative
power; that these powers in the different branches of the
government would not be alterable, because, being in the
constitution, they could only be repealed by amendment of that
instrument; and, lastly, that the constitution would have a
different meaning in different States, inasmuch as the common
law was different in such States, and that it would lack the
certainty which a constitution should have, as the common law
was an ever-growing or varying body of law, and, therefore,
with reference to the proper action of the government in each
instance, the question would be important as to what portion
of the common law was in the constitution and what not so
embodied.
"Nearly every sentence of Mr. Madison's able argument with

reference to the common law as a part of the constitution is
applicable to the contention that sovereign powers, so-called,
as derived from or defined by international law, became a part
of the constitution of the United States through the
delegation of the powers to make war, conclude peace, and make
all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory and
other property belonging to the United States. This court has
adopted the view of Mr. Madison. It is hoped that the child of
the old error by which again the executive and legislative
power is sought to be enlarged through the incorporation into
the constitution of 'the sovereign power of other nations'
will receive the same answer.
"In fact, we submit that this court has already held that
sovereign power in the sense that the words are used in the
law of nations as prerogative rights of the King or Emperor,
not only is not vested in the United States or in any branch
of its government, but cannot be so vested. The sovereign
power is with the people. In leaving it with the people our
government marked a departure from all that had previously
existed."
Supreme Court of the United States,
October Term, 1900, Number 419:
C. H. Aldrich, Argument in reply.
{674}
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1901.

Military and naval expenditure,
compared with that of other Powers.
See (in this volume)

WAR BUDGETS.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1901 (January).

Apportionment of Representatives under the Twelfth Census.
The question of obedience to the Fourteenth Amendment.
Restrictions of the elective franchise in the States.
Section 3 of Article 1 of the Constitution requires that

"Representatives … shall be apportioned among the several
States which may be included within this Union according to
their respective numbers. … The actual enumeration shall be
made within three years after the first meeting of the
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent
term of ten years. … The number of Representatives shall not
exceed one for every 30,000; but each State shall have at
least one." The first meeting of Congress was in 1789; the
required first census of the United States was taken in 1790,
and, in obedience to the constitutional requirement, the
enumeration has been repeated within the closing year of every
decade since, to supply the basis for a new apportionment of
representatives among the States. The twelfth census, taken in
1900, called for such new distribution, and action upon it was
taken in Congress in January, 1901.
As the section quoted above stood in the Constitution until

1868, it contained a further clause, inserted as one of the
original compromises made between the slaveholding and the
free States, requiring that the determination of numbers to be
represented in the several States should be made "by adding to
the whole number of free persons, including those bound to
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed,
three-fifths of all other persons." This original clause of
the Constitution was superseded by the Fourteenth Amendment,
adopted in 1868, which introduced this new provision, in its
second section: "Representatives shall be apportioned among
the several States according to their respective numbers,
counting the whole number of persons in each State, except
Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election
for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of
the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive
and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the
Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants
of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of
the United States, or in any way abridged, except for
participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion
which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole
number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such
State." To many persons it seemed to be very clear that this
provision of the amended Constitution required account to be
taken of the qualifications by which a number of States have
abridged the suffrage, especially where done for the
understood purpose of disfranchising colored citizens and that
Congress was left with no discretion to do otherwise.
See, (in this volume),

LOUISIANA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA,
MISSISSIPPI, and MARYLAND.
Those holding this view in the House of Representatives gave

support to the following resolution, introduced by Mr.
Olmsted, of Pennsylvania:
"Whereas the continued enjoyment of full representation in
this House by any State which has, for reasons other than
participation in rebellion or other crime, denied to any of
the male inhabitants thereof, being 21 years of age and
citizens of the United States, the right to vote for
Representatives in Congress, Presidential electors, and other
specified officers, is in direct violation of the fourteenth
amendment to the Constitution of the United States, which
declares that in such case 'the basis of representation
therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of
such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male
citizens 21 years of age in such State,' and is an invasion of
the rights and dignity of this House and of its members, and
an infringement upon the rights and privileges in this House
of other States and their representatives; and
"Whereas the States of Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut,

Delaware, California, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Wyoming, Oregon, and other States do, by the
provisions of the constitutions and statutes of said States,
and for reasons other than participation in rebellion or other
crime, deny the right to vote for members of Congress and
Presidential electors, as well as the executive and judicial
officers of such States and members of the legislatures
thereof, to male inhabitants 21 years of age and over and
citizens of the United States; and such denial in certain of
the said States extends to more than one-half of those who
prior to the last apportionment of representation were
entitled to vote in such States; and
"Whereas in order that the apportionment of membership of the

House of Representatives may be determined in a constitutional
manner: Therefore, be it
"Resolved by the House of Representatives, That the Director

of the Census is hereby directed to furnish this House, at the
earliest possible moment, the following information;
"First. The total number of male citizens of the United States
over 21 years of age in each of the several States of the
Union.
"Second. The total number of male citizens of the United

States over 21 years of age who, by reason of State
constitutional limitations or State legislation, are denied
the right of suffrage, whether such denial exists on account
of illiteracy, on account of pauperism, on account of
polygamy, or on account of property qualifications, or for any
other reason.
"Resolved further, That the Speaker of the House of

Representatives is hereby authorized and directed to appoint a
select committee of five members from the membership of the
Census Committee of the House of Representatives, who shall
investigate the question of the alleged abridgment of the
elective franchise for any of the causes mentioned in all the
States of the Union in which constitutional or legislative
restrictions on the right of suffrage are claimed to exist,
and that such committee report its findings within twenty days
from the date of the adoption of this resolution to the said
Census Committee, and that within one week after the said
report shall have been received by the Census Committee the
Census Committee shall return a bill to the House of
Representatives providing for the apportionment of the
membership of the House of Representatives based on the
provisions of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of
the United States."
{675}
Republicans, hardly less than Democrats, in Congress and

outside, were averse to raising what could not fail to be a
burning sectional issue, and grounds for ignoring the
constitutional mandate were sought with considerable eagerness
on both sides. Strict obedience to the requirement of the
Constitutional provision was claimed to be impracticable, at
least within the time available for proceedings connected with
the present apportionment of representatives. Said one
speaker, opposing the resolutions in the House: "There is not
a State in this Union that has not added to or subtracted from
the Federal constitutional requirements—not one. … If there is
any addition, whether as a matter of police regulation or
otherwise, to the constitutional amendments regulating the
franchise and the resultant representation in this House—if
there is addition or subtraction of one iota—then those who
desire to live up to this Constitution, no matter whether they
ruin their neighbors, no matter whether they again kindle the
fires of sectional strife, those who in their love for the
Constitution are so mentally rigid that they would demand its
enforcement though they set the Union aflame, must include
every State in this Union."
Said another: "How would anybody find out how many people in
the State of Mississippi were disfranchised for the reasons
stated in this resolution? There is there an educational
qualification. How are you to determine how many of the men in
the State of Mississippi who did not vote, did not vote
because they were disfranchised under the educational
qualification? Then there is a qualification in extension and
not in limitation of the suffrage, saying that even those who
can not read and write may still vote, provided they can give
an understanding interpretation of the Constitution or any
part of it. How are you going to determine how many are
disqualified by that? And then there is a qualification which
says that those can not vote who shall not by a certain time
have paid their poll tax. Out of the number of people who did
not vote, how are you going to determine which of them have
not voted because of the educational qualification? Which
because of the understanding qualification? Which because of
the poll-tax qualification? Which because of the registration
qualification? How many because of the pure Australian ballot
which exists in the State of Mississippi? … There is not a
State in the Union which has the Australian ballot which by
the very fact and the necessity of voting according to that
Australian ballot does not prevent the citizen who can not
read and write from voting if he votes a split ticket of any
sort."
A third speaker remarked: "To live up to that amendment, 'that

no male inhabitant shall be deprived of suffrage except for
participation in the rebellion or other crimes,' the male
inhabitant, I take it, is he who has acquired domicile in that
State, and the moment that he acquires domicile, and is a
male, he is a 'male inhabitant' of that State, and entitled
at once to suffrage; and yet every State in the Union, I
believe without exception, has requirements as to residence
not only in the State, but in the city, in the county, in the
precinct and ward and the voting place; and everyone of those
requirements, as every gentleman on that side must admit, are
in direct conflict with and contravention of the fourteenth
amendment to the Constitution of the United States literally
construed."
But the advocates of obedience to the Constitution, supporting

the resolutions of Mr. Olmsted, planted their argument on the
very facts brought against it, as demonstrating the need of
measures to check a growing tendency in the country to
restrict the elective franchise. Said Mr. Shattuck, of Ohio:
"We find that in 1870 there were three States that had
abridged their electorates—California, Connecticut, and
Massachusetts. In these three States there was a
constitutional provision for an educational qualification,
which disfranchised a certain percentage of the
electorate—namely, the illiterates. But, in those States, the
percentage of illiteracy is very light, averaging about 6 per
cent. The basis of representation would hardly have been
affected in those States had the fourteenth amendment been
conformed with.
"An examination into the election laws of the various States
reveals an astonishing tendency at this time to abridge their
electorates. When the Congress which adopted the existing
apportionment discussed the matter ten years ago but three
States had abridged their electorate by action of the State,
and in these the percentage of disfranchised males was but 6
per cent. But since that time similar policies have been
adopted by other States, and to-day we face the fact that ten
of the forty-five States of this Union have abridged their
electorates, and that in these the percentage of males 21
years of age and over, disfranchised, averages over 20 per
cent. The constitutions of several other States permit such an
abridgment. Besides, there are other States preparing to adopt
these policies and to disfranchise thousands of men who to-day
hold the right of franchise. In view of this remarkable
tendency it is inconceivable that Congress can longer permit
the fourteenth amendment to remain a dead letter, and to pass
a bill making an apportionment based solely upon the
population and neglecting the proviso which applies to all
States which have abridged their electorate.
"We will not review the past by any discussion of the question
as to whether the provisions of the fourteenth amendment
should have been made effective when the last apportionment
was made ten years ago. We find to-day conditions existing
which make its enforcement imperative. I do not propose to
discuss at this time whether the reasons given for these
abridgments by the people of the various States are valid or
not. … I am simply pointing out the conditions as they exist;
I am simply pointing out that the time has come when the
tendency of the States to abridge their electorates has grown
to such proportions as to demand that this Congress shall
proceed in a constitutional manner in making the new
apportionment. I do not say that States have not the right to
establish educational qualifications for their electors, but I
do maintain that when they have done so they must pay the penalty
prescribed in the Constitution, and have their representation
abridged proportionately.
{676}
I do not say that we shall punish only Louisiana;
I do not say that we shall punish only Massachusetts;
I do not say that we shall punish only California;
but I do say and insist, as the representative of a State in
which every male member 21 years of age and over is guaranteed
the sacred right of franchise, that there is a constitutional
remedy prescribed for their acts, and I do demand that that
remedy be applied."
The following interesting table, showing the restrictions of

the electorate in the various States of the Union, was
appended to the remarks of Mr. Shattuck:
STATES.
REQUIREMENTS AS TO CITIZENSHIP. [First paragraph]
PERSONS EXCLUDED FROM SUFFRAGE. [Second paragraph]
ALABAMA.
Citizen of United States, or alien who has declared intention.
Convicted of treason or other crime punishable by

imprisonment, idiots, or insane.
ARKANSAS.
Citizen of United States, or alien who has declared intention.
Idiots, insane, convicted of felony until pardoned, failure

to pay poll tax, United States soldiers on duty in State.
CALIFORNIA.
Citizen by nativity, naturalization, or treaty of Queretaro.
Chinese, insane, embezzlers of public moneys, convicted

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(eBook PDF) System Dynamics 4th

Edition By William Palm

William J. Palm III

ALTERNATIVE COURSES IN SYSTEM DYNAMICS

GLOSSARY AND APPENDICES

Appendix A is a collection of tables of MATLAB commands and functions, organized

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

William J. Palm III is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical, Industrial, and Systems

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1.1 INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM DYNAMICS

Figure 1.1.1 The effect Figure 1.1.2 Two connected tanks.

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 3

h1 Figure 1.1.3 A system

1.1.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT

Figure 1.1.4 A system

1.1.3 STATIC AND DYNAMIC ELEMENTS

1.1.4 MODELING OF SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 5

Table 1.1.1 Steps in engineering problem solving.

1. Understand the purpose of the problem.

fundamental principles is called modeling, and the resulting mathematical description

Oven Figure 1.1.5 A potato

1.1.5 MATHEMATICAL METHODS

1.1.6 CONTROL SYSTEMS

1.1.7 APPLICATIONS IN MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction to System Dynamics 7

Figure 1.1.6 A vehicle suspension system. Figure 1.1.7 A robot arm.

Tie rod Three wrist

One of our major theme applications in mechanical systems is vehicle dynamics.

1.1.8 APPLICATIONS IN ELECTRICAL AND

Sprocket 2 Drive wheels

1.1.9 APPLICATIONS IN FLUID SYSTEMS

Piston Return Supply Return

Table 1.1.2 Steps for developing a computer solution.

1. State the problem concisely.

1.1.10 APPLICATIONS IN THERMAL SYSTEMS

1.1.11 COMPUTER METHODS

1 Simulink is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

1.2.1 FPS UNITS

Table 1.2.1 SI and FPS units.

1.3 Developing Linear Models 11

Table 1.2.2 Unit conversion factors.

Length 1 m = 3.281 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m

1.2.3 OSCILLATION UNITS

1.3 DEVELOPING LINEAR MODELS

1.3.1 DEVELOPING LINEAR MODELS FROM DATA

"That this is one of the ordinary and necessary sovereign

"That the treaty-making power—the President and the Senate—as

"The Government contends that the term 'foreign countries' in

"That the clause of the Constitution which declares that

"That the right to bring merchandise into the United States is

"If the foregoing propositions are sound, then it is

"And the case of the plaintiffs in error would seem on these

"The Government might well be content to rest its argument

"They insist that there can be no limited or qualified

"Counsel have been at great pains to prove that the Government