Unit-5

Introduction to Internet

Computers and their structures are tough to approach, and it is made even extra tough while
you want to recognize phrases associated with the difficulty this is already utilized in regular
English, Network, and the net will appear to be absolutely wonderful from one some other,
however, they may seem like identical.
A network is a group of two or more computer systems (Multiple gadgets, additionally called
hosts), which are related through a couple of channels for the motive of sending and receiving
data (records/media) in a shared environment. The community also can consist of serval
gadgets/mediums that resource communique among or extra machines; those gadgets are called
Network devices and consist of routers, switches, hubs, and bridges, amongst others.
Internet is a group of computer systems connected from all around the world. The Internet
protocol suite is a framework defined through the Internet standards. Methods are divided right
into a layered set of protocols on this architecture. The Internet gives a huge variety of
statistics and communique offerings, which includes forums, databases, email, and hypertext. It
is made of the neighborhood to global personal, public networks connected through plenty of
digital, wireless, and networking technologies.
Working of the internet: The internet is a global computer network that connects various
devices and sends a lot of information and media. It uses an Internet Protocol (IP) and
Transport Control Protocol (TCP)-based packet routing network. TCP and IP work together to
ensure that data transmission across the internet is consistent and reliable, regardless of the
device or location. Data is delivered across the internet in the form of messages and packets. A
message is a piece of data delivered over the internet, but before it is sent, it is broken down
into smaller pieces known as packets.
IP is a set of rules that control how data is transmitted from one computer to another via the
internet. The IP system receives further instructions on how the data should be transferred
using a numerical address (IP Address). The TCP is used with IP to ensure that data is
transferred in a secure and reliable manner. This ensures that no packets are lost, that packets
are reassembled in the correct order, and that there is no delay that degrades data quality.
History of Internet
The ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, later renamed the internet)
established a successful link between the University of California Los Angeles and the
Stanford Research Institute on October 29, 1969. Libraries automate and network catalogs
outside of ARPANET in the late 1960s.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol) is established in the 1970s,
allowing internet technology to mature. The development of these protocols aided in the
standardization of how data was sent and received via the internet. NSFNET (National Science
Foundation Network), the 56 Kbps backbone of the internet, was financed by the National
Science Foundation in 1986. Because government monies were being used to administer and
maintain it, there were commercial restrictions in place at the time.
In the year 1991, a user-friendly internet interface was developed. Delphi was the first national
commercial online service to offer internet connectivity in July 1992. Later in May 1995, All

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restrictions on commercial usage of the internet are lifted. As a result, the internet has been
able to diversify and grow swiftly. Wi-Fi was first introduced in 1997. The year is 1998, and
Windows 98 is released. Smartphone use is widespread in 2007. The 4G network is launched
in 2009. The internet is used by 3 billion people nowadays. By 2030, there are expected to be
7.5 billion internet users and 500 billion devices linked to the internet.
Uses of the Internet:
 E-mail: E-mail is an electronic message sent across a network from one computer user to
one or more recipients. It refers to the internet services in which messages are sent from
and received by servers.
 Web Chat: Web chat is an application that allows you to send and receive messages in
real-time with others. By using Internet chat software, the user can log on to specific
websites and talk with a variety of other users online. Chat software is interactive software
that allows users to enter comments in one window and receive responses from others who
are using the same software in another window.
 World Wide Web: The World Wide Web is the Internet’s most popular information
exchange service. It provides users with access to a large number of documents that are
linked together using hypertext or hyperlinks.
 E-commerce: E-commerce refers to electronic business transactions made over the
Internet. It encompasses a wide range of product and service-related online business
activities.
 Internet telephony: The technique that converts analog speech impulses into digital
signals and routes them through packet-switched networks of the internet is known as
internet telephony.
 Video conferencing: The term “video conferencing” refers to the use of voice and images
to communicate amongst users.
Web Client
The client (or user) side of the Internet. The Web browser on the user’s computer or mobile
device is referred to as a Web client. It could also apply to browser extensions and helper
software that improve the browser’s ability to support specific site services.
Web browser
A web browser is a software program software that searches for, retrieves, and presentations
material which includes Web pages, photos, videos, and different files. The browser sends a
request to the Webserver, which then transmits the statistics returned to the browser, which
presentations the findings at the laptop. Example – Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Google
Chrome, Safari etc.
Webpage
An internet web page (additionally called a web page) is a report that may be regarded in an
internet browser at the World Wide Web. HTML (HyperText Markup Language) and CSS
(Cascading Style Sheet) are used to generate the primary shape of an internet web page. An
internet web page is generally a segment of an internet site that carries statistics in plenty of
formats, which includes textual content inside the shape of paragraphs, lists, tables, and so on.
The home web page is the beginning or first web page of an internet site. It gives trendy
statistics and connections to all the internet pages which are associated. Every internet web
page has its personal deal with. This may be visible withinside the deal with the bar. As a

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result, if we need to get admission to a selected internet web page, the deal needs to be placed
inside the browser’s deal with bar.
Website
An internet site, in trendy, is a group of statistics approximately statistics prepared into many
internet pages. An internet site is probably made for a sure motive, subject matter, or to
provide a service. An internet site (abbreviated as “website” or “site”) is a group of online
pages connected collectively through links and saved on an internet server. By clicking on
links, a tourist can pass from one web page to the next. An internet site’s pages also are
connected below one area call and proportion a not unusual place subject matter and template.
Search Engine
Search engines are websites that search on the internet on behalf of users and show a listing of
results. More than actually written may be discovered on seek engines. You can be capable of
looking for different online content material which includes photographs, video content
material, books, and news, in addition to gadgets and offerings, relying on the seek engine you
are the use of.
To make use of the Internet, you do not always want to recognize the deal with an internet site.
It is crucial to recognize the way to do a look for statistics. Using a seek engine is one of the
only methods to seek. A seek engine can help you in finding what you are looking for. You
also can appearance up net maps and instructions to help you to plot your adventure from one
factor to some other. Example: Google, Bing, DuckDuckGo, yahoo, etc.
Web 1.0: The Beginning of the Internet
Web 1.0, which emerged with the invention of the Internet, featured static web pages that
could only be viewed. These early websites were essentially digital brochures, with limited
interactivity and no ability for users to contribute content. This era saw the rise of early
browsers such as Mosaic and Netscape Navigator, which made it easier for users to access the
Web.
Web 2.0: The Era of Social Media and User-Generated Content
Web 2.0, which emerged during the “Internet Boom” era of the late 1990s and early 2000s,
introduced more dynamic web pages and websites, and allowed for user-generated content.
This era saw the rise of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, as
well as the introduction of blogs, wikis, and other forms of user-generated content.
Web 3.0: The Future of the Internet
Web 3.0, which is still in development, promises to bring a more personalized and intuitive
experience for users. It is expected to be more intelligent and able to understand the context
and intent of the user’s actions. This will be achieved through the integration of Artificial
Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies.
Many experts in the tech industry claimed that Web 3.0 is the next evolution of the internet
that is focused on decentralization, intelligence, and security. It aims to create a more
personalized, intuitive, and inclusive experience for users by leveraging new technologies such
as blockchain and artificial intelligence. The goal of Web 3.0 is to make the internet more
democratic, open-source, and secure.
Differentiation between Network and Internet

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The number one distinction between a network and the internet is that a network is made of
computer systems that are bodily related and may be used as a personal laptop at the same time
as additionally sharing records. The Internet, on the alternative hand, might be an era that
connects those small and massive networks and creates a brand new in-intensity community.
Advantages of the Internet:
 It is the best source of a wide range of information. There is no better place to conduct
research than the internet.
 Online gaming, talking, browsing, music, movies, dramas, and TV series are quickly
becoming the most popular ways to pass the time.
 Because there are hundreds of thousands of newsgroups and services that keep you updated
with every tick of the clock, the Internet is a source of the most recent news.
 Because of virtual shops where you may buy anything you want and need without leaving
your house, internet shopping is becoming increasingly popular. Recently, virtual shops
have been making a lot of money.
 With the emergence of online businesses, virtual stores, and credit card usage, purchasing
goods without going to the store has never been easier.
Disadvantages of the Internet:
 Spending too much time on the internet is hazardous for the young generation’s physical
and mental health.
 Children who use the internet develop an addiction, which is quite dangerous.
 It is now quite easy to decipher someone’s chat or email messages thanks to the hacking
community.
 With the emergence of online stores, people prefer to order online rather than going to local
stores which results in less social interactions among people.

Meaning of Internet
The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide system of computer
networks -- a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have
permission, get information from any other computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at
other computers).

Definition
A global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities,
consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols.

CONCEPTS OF INTERNET
Internet is called the network of networks. It is a global communication system that links
together thousands of individual networks. In other words, internet is a collection of interlinked
computer networks, connected by copper wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless connections, etc. As
a result, a computer can virtually connect to other computers in any network. These connections
allow users to interchange messages, to communicate in real time (getting instant messages and
responses), to share data and programs and to access limitless information.

Internet Architecture

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Internet architecture is a meta-network, which refers to a congregation of thousands of distinct
networks interacting with a common protocol. In simple terms, it is referred as an internetwork
that is connected using protocols. Protocol used is TCP/IP. This protocol connects any two
networks that differ in hardware, software and design.
Process
TCP/IP provides end to end transmission, i.e., each and every node on one network has the
ability to communicate with any other node on the network.
Layers of Internet Architecture
Internet architecture consists of three layers −

IP
In order to communicate, we need our data to be encapsulated as Internet Protocol (IP) packets.
These IP packets travel across number of hosts in a network through routing to reach the
destination. However IP does not support error detection and error recovery, and is incapable of
detecting loss of packets.
TCP
TCP stands for "Transmission Control Protocol". It provides end to end transmission of data, i.e.,
from source to destination. It is a very complex protocol as it supports recovery of lost packets.
Application Protocol
Third layer in internet architecture is the application layer which has different protocols on which
the internet services are built. Some of the examples of internet services include email (SMTP
facilitates email feature), file transfer (FTP facilitates file transfer feature), etc.

INTRANET AND EXTRANET

1. Intranet : Intranet is owned by a single organization and is a tool for sharing information
throughout the organization.It is the type of Internet that is used privately. Since, intranet is a
private network so no one can use the intranet whose have not valid username and password. In
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intranet, there are a limited number of connected devices as compared to internet. Intranet is
highly secure and has a small number of visitors. It is used in order to get employee information,
telephone directory etc.
2. Extranet : Extranet is owned by either a single or a many organization. It is managed on a
contractual basis between organizations and is a tool for sharing information between the internal
members and external members. Like intranet, it is also a private network so only those who
have a valid username and password can use the extranet. Extranet is used to check status, access
data, send mail, place order etc.

Let’s see the difference between Extranet and Intranet which are given below:-

S.N
O Intranet Extranet

Intranet is a tool for Whereas Extranet is a tool for

sharing information sharing information between the
throughout the internal members and external
1. organization. members.

2. Intranet is owned by a While Extranet is owned by either a

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S.N
O Intranet Extranet

single organization. single or a many organization.

Whereas in this, security is

In intranet, security is implemented through a firewall in
implemented through a order to separate the extranet and
3. firewall. the internet.

Intranet is managed by an Whereas Extranet is managed by

4. organization. many organizations.

Intranet has a limited Whereas in the extranet, connected

number of connected devices are comparable with the
5. devices. intranet.

While it is also a private network in

Intranet is a private which public network is used in
network type for an order to share the information to
6. organization. the suppliers and customers.

Intranet is used in order

to get employee While It is used to check status,
information, telephone access data, send mail, place order
7. directory etc. etc.

Intranet is the limited and

compromised version of While Extranet is the limited and
8. Extranet. compromised version of Internet.

A particular organization
is the regulating authority While it is regulated by multiple
9. for intranet. organizations.

10. It is accessible to only the It is accessible to members of

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 S.N
O Intranet Extranet

organization as well as external

members of organization. members with logins.

It’s restricted area is upto an

It’s restricted area is upto organization and some of its
11. an organization. stakeholders.

It is derived from
12. Internet. It is derived from Intranet.

Example: WIPRO using Example: DELL and Intel using

internal network for its network for business related
13. business operations. operations.

An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label such as 192.0.2.1 that is
connected to a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP
address serves two main functions: network interface identification and location addressing.
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) defines an IP address as a 32-bit number. However, because of
the growth of the Internet and the depletion of available IPv4 addresses, a new version of IP
(IPv6), using 128 bits for the IP address, was standardized in 1998. IPv6 deployment has been
ongoing since the mid-2000s.
IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 192.0.2.1 in IPv4,
and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 in IPv6. The size of the routing prefix of the address is
designated in CIDR notation by suffixing the address with the number of significant bits,
e.g., 192.0.2.1/24, which is equivalent to the historically used subnet mask 255.255.255.0.
The IP address space is managed globally by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA),
and by five regional Internet registries (RIRs) responsible in their designated territories for
assignment to local Internet registries, such as Internet service providers (ISPs), and other end
users. IPv4 addresses were distributed by IANA to the RIRs in blocks of approximately
16.8 million addresses each, but have been exhausted at the IANA level since 2011. Only one of
the RIRs still has a supply for local assignments in Africa. [6] Some IPv4 addresses are reserved
for private networks and are not globally unique.

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Network administrators assign an IP address to each device connected to a network. Such
assignments may be on a static (fixed or permanent) or dynamic basis, depending on network
practices and software features.

Function
An IP address serves two principal functions: it identifies the host, or more specifically
its network interface, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus the
capability of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name
indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get
there."[ The header of each IP packet contains the IP address of the sending host and that of the
destination host.

IP versions
Two versions of the Internet Protocol are in common use on the Internet today. The original
version of the Internet Protocol that was first deployed in 1983 in the ARPANET, the
predecessor of the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).
By the early 1990s, the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space available for assignment
to Internet service providers and end-user organizations prompted the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand addressing capability on the Internet. The
result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as Internet
Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-
2000s when commercial production deployment commenced.
Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use. Among other
technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently. Because of the
historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses
defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the
assignment of version 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however
was never referred to as IPv5.
Other versions v1 to v9 were defined, but only v4 and v6 ever gained widespread use. v1 and v2
were names for TCP protocols in 1974 and 1977, as there was no separate IP specification at the
time. v3 was defined in 1978, and v3.1 is the first version where TCP is separated from IP. v6 is
a synthesis of several suggested versions, v6 Simple Internet Protocol, v7 TP/IX: The Next
Internet, v8 PIP — The P Internet Protocol, and v9 TUBA — Tcp & Udp with Big Addresses.

Subnetworks
IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP
address is recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix in the high-order bits and the
remaining bits called the rest field, host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6), used for host
numbering within a network.[1] The subnet mask or CIDR notation determines how the IP
address is divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept
and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits
used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its
subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same

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IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the
network and subnet.

IPv4 addresses
Main article: IPv4 § Addressing

Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value

An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232)
addresses. Of this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as private
networks (~18 million addresses) and multicast addressing (~270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation, consisting of four decimal
numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 192.0.2.1. Each part represents a
group of 8 bits (an octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may
be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.
Subnetting history
In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, the network number was always the
highest order octet (most significant eight bits). Because this method allowed for only 256
networks, it soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of
the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the addressing
specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture.
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-
grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were
defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for
universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was
based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional
octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order
classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now-obsolete system.

Historical classful network architecture

Size
Size
Leadin of res Number of
Clas of network Number Start
g t addresses End address
s number bi of networks address
bits bit per network
t field
field

A 0 8 24 128 (27) 16777216 (224 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.25

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 ) 5

128.0.0. 191.255.255.25
B 10 16 16 16384 (214) 65536 (216)
0 5

2097152 (221 192.0.0. 223.255.255.25

C 110 24 8 256 (28)
) 0 5

Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it
lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of networking in the 1990s. The class system
of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is
based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on
arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a
limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware
components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators'
discussions.
Private addresses
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications
with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be globally unique. However, it was found that
this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to
be conserved.
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with
each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Today, such private networks
are widely used and typically connect to the Internet with network address translation (NAT),
when needed.
Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks are reserved. ]These
addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP
address registry. Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network
administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use
a default address range of 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).

Reserved private IPv4 network ranges[9]

Number of
Name CIDR block Address range Classful description
addresses

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 24-bit 10.0.0.0 –
10.0.0.0/8 16777216 Single Class A.
block 10.255.255.255

20-bit 172.16.0.0 – Contiguous range of 16 Class

172.16.0.0/12 1048576
block 172.31.255.255 B blocks.

16-bit 192.168.0.0 – Contiguous range of 256

192.168.0.0/16 65536
block 192.168.255.255 Class C blocks.

IPv6 addresses
Main article: IPv6 address

Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its binary value

In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits, thus providing up to
2 (approximately 3.403×1038) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.
The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but
also redesign routing in the Internet by allowing more efficient aggregation of subnetwork
routing prefixes. This resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest
possible individual allocation is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the square of the size of the
entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization ratios will be small on any
IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the
addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local administration of the segment's
available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external
networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks,
should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal
redesign or manual renumbering.
The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes
and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space,
there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR.

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All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for IPv6,
but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking
routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and some networking hardware.
Private addresses
Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in
IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULAs). The routing
prefix fc00::/7 is reserved for this block, which is divided into two /8 blocks with different
implied policies. The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the
risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.
Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses.
However, the definition of what constituted a site remained unclear and the poorly defined
addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and
must not be used in new systems.
Addresses starting with fe80::, called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for
communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the
operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic
communication between all IPv6 hosts on a link. This feature is used in the lower layers of
IPv6 network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.
Private and link-local address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet.

IP address assignment
IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically as they join the network, or
persistently by configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is
also known as using a static IP address. In contrast, when a computer's IP address is
assigned each time it restarts, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by network using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP). DHCP is the most frequently used technology for assigning addresses. It
avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a
network. It also allows devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some
of them are online at a particular time. Typically, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by
default in modern desktop operating systems.
The address assigned with DHCP is associated with a lease and usually has an expiration
period. If the lease is not renewed by the host before expiry, the address may be assigned to
another device. Some DHCP implementations attempt to reassign the same IP address to a
host, based on its MAC address, each time it joins the network. A network administrator may
configure DHCP by allocating specific IP addresses based on MAC address.
DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically. Bootstrap
Protocol is a similar protocol and predecessor to DHCP. Dialup and some broadband
networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol.
Computers and equipment used for the network infrastructure, such as routers and mail
servers, are typically configured with static addressing.

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In the absence or failure of static or dynamic address configurations, an operating system
may assign a link-local address to a host using stateless address autoconfiguration.
Sticky dynamic IP address
Sticky is an informal term used to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that seldom
changes. IPv4 addresses, for example, are usually assigned with DHCP, and a DHCP
service can use rules that maximize the chance of assigning the same address each time a
client asks for an assignment. In IPv6, a prefix delegation can be handled similarly, to make
changes as rare as feasible. In a typical home or small-office setup, a single router is the only
device visible to an Internet service provider (ISP), and the ISP may try to provide a
configuration that is as stable as feasible, i.e. sticky. On the local network of the home or
business, a local DHCP server may be designed to provide sticky IPv4 configurations, and
the ISP may provide a sticky IPv6 prefix delegation, giving clients the option to use sticky
IPv6 addresses. Sticky should not be confused with static; sticky configurations have no
guarantee of stability, while static configurations are used indefinitely and only changed
deliberately.
Address autoconfiguration
Address block 169.254.0.0/16 is defined for the special use of link-local addressing for IPv4
networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic addresses, also receives a
link-local address automatically in the block fe80::/10. These addresses are only valid on the
link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, to which a host is
connected. These addresses are not routable and, like private addresses, cannot be the source
or destination of packets traversing the Internet.
When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms
of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft developed a protocol
called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA), whose first public implementation
appeared in Windows 98. APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and became
a de facto standard in the industry. In May 2005, the IETF defined a formal standard for it.[
Addressing conflicts
An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless
network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally
stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern operating
systems notify the administrator of IP address conflicts. When IP addresses are assigned by
multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault. If one of
the devices involved in the conflict is the default gateway access beyond the LAN for all
devices on the LAN, all devices may be impaired.

Routing
IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast,
multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing.
Unicast addressing
The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4
and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both

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 sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host,
but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Sending the same data to
multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for
each recipient.
Broadcast addressing
Broadcasting is an addressing technique available in IPv4 to address data to all possible
destinations on a network in one transmission operation as an all-hosts broadcast. All
receivers capture the network packet. The address 255.255.255.255 is used for network
broadcast. In addition, a more limited directed broadcast uses the all-ones host address with
the network prefix. For example, the destination address used for directed broadcast to
devices on the network 192.0.2.0/24 is 192.0.2.255.
IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially
defined all-nodes multicast address.
Multicast addressing
A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4,
addresses 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated
as multicast addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast. In
either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group
address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all
interested receivers (those that have joined the corresponding multicast group).
Anycast addressing
Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data
stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is closest in
the network. Anycast addressing is a built-in feature of IPv6. In IPv4, anycast addressing is
implemented with Border Gateway Protocol using the shortest-path metric to choose
destinations. Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing and are commonly used
in distributed DNS systems.

Geolocation
Main article: Internet geolocation
A host may use geolocation to deduce the geographic position of its communicating peer.

Public address
A public IP address is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not
an address reserved for use in private networks, such as those reserved by RFC 1918, or the
various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-local
addressing. Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global
Internet. In a home situation, a public IP address is the IP address assigned to the home's
network by the ISP. In this case, it is also locally visible by logging into the router
configuration.
Most public IP addresses change, and relatively often. Any type of IP address that changes is
called a dynamic IP address. In home networks, the ISP usually assigns a dynamic IP. If an

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 ISP gave a home network an unchanging address, it's more likely to be abused by customers
who host websites from home, or by hackers who can try the same IP address over and over
until they breach a network.

Firewalling
For security and privacy considerations, network administrators often desire to restrict public
Internet traffic within their private networks. The source and destination IP addresses
contained in the headers of each IP packet are a convenient means to discriminate traffic
by IP address blocking or by selectively tailoring responses to external requests to internal
servers. This is achieved with firewall software running on the network's gateway router. A
database of IP addresses of restricted and permissible traffic may be maintained
in blacklists and whitelists, respectively.

Address translation
Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because they are part of
a shared web hosting service environment or because an IPv4 network address
translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of the client, in
which case the real originating IP address is masked from the server receiving a request. A
common practice is to have a NAT mask many devices in a private network. Only the public
interface(s) of the NAT needs to have an Internet-routable address.
The NAT device maps different IP addresses on the private network to different TCP or
UDP port numbers on the public network. In residential networks, NAT functions are usually
implemented in a residential gateway. In this scenario, the computers connected to the router
have private IP addresses and the router has a public address on its external interface to
communicate on the Internet. The internal computers appear to share one public IP address.

Diagnostic tools
Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine network interfaces
and address configuration. Microsoft Windows provides the command-line
interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like systems may
use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, fstat, and iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task.
URL
URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A URL is nothing more than the address of a given
unique resource on the Web. In theory, each valid URL points to a unique resource. Such
resources can be an HTML page, a CSS document, an image, etc. In practice, there are some
exceptions, the most common being a URL pointing to a resource that no longer exists or that
has moved. As the resource represented by the URL and the URL itself are handled by the Web
server, it is up to the owner of the web server to carefully manage that resource and its associated
URL.

Basics: anatomy of a URL

Here are some examples of URLs:

16
https://developer.mozilla.org
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/search?q=URL

Any of those URLs can be typed into your browser's address bar to tell it to load the associated
page (resource).

A URL is composed of different parts, some mandatory and others optional. The most important
parts are highlighted on the URL below (details are provided in the following sections):

How to use URLs

Any URL can be typed right inside the browser's address bar to get to the resource behind it. But
this is only the tip of the iceberg!
The HTML language — which will be discussed later on — makes extensive use of URLs:
 to create links to other documents with the <a> element;
 to link a document with its related resources through various elements such
as <link> or <script>;
 to display media such as images (with the <img> element), videos (with
the <video> element), sounds and music (with the <audio> element), etc.;
 to display other HTML documents with the <iframe> element.

Absolute URLs vs. relative URLs

What we saw above is called an absolute URL, but there is also something called a relative URL.
The URL standard defines both — though it uses the terms absolute URL string and relative
URL string, to distinguish them from URL objects (which are in-memory representations of
URLs).

Let's examine what the distinction between absolute and relative means in the context of URLs.

The required parts of a URL depend to a great extent on the context in which the URL is used. In
your browser's address bar, a URL doesn't have any context, so you must provide a full
(or absolute) URL, like the ones we saw above. You don't need to include the protocol (the
browser uses HTTP by default) or the port (which is only required when the targeted Web server
is using some unusual port), but all the other parts of the URL are necessary.

When a URL is used within a document, such as in an HTML page, things are a bit different.
Because the browser already has the document's own URL, it can use this information to fill in
the missing parts of any URL available inside that document. We can differentiate between
an absolute URL and a relative URL by looking only at the path part of the URL. If the path part
of the URL starts with the "/" character, the browser will fetch that resource from the top root of
the server, without reference to the context given by the current document.

Let's look at some examples to make this clearer.

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Examples of absolute URLs

Full URL (the

same as the one https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn
we used before)
//developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn

Implicit protocol In this case, the browser will call that URL with the same protocol as the one used to load
the document hosting that URL.
/en-US/docs/Learn

Implicit domain This is the most common use case for an absolute URL within an HTML document. The
name browser will use the same protocol and the same domain name as the one used to load the
document hosting that URL. Note: it isn't possible to omit the domain name without
omitting the protocol as well.

Examples of relative URLs

To better understand the following examples, let's assume that the URLs are called from within
the document located at the following URL: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn

Skills/Infrastructure/Understanding_URLs

Sub- Because that URL does not start with /, the browser will attempt to find the document in a
resources subdirectory of the one containing the current resource. So in this example, we really want to
reach this URL: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/Skills/Infrastructure/
Understanding_URLs.
../CSS/display
Going back
in the In this case, we use the ../ writing convention — inherited from the UNIX file system world —
directory to tell the browser we want to go up from one directory. Here we want to reach this URL:
tree https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Learn/../CSS/display, which can be simplified to:
https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/CSS/display.

Semantic URLs
Despite their very technical flavor, URLs represent a human-readable entry point for a website.
They can be memorized, and anyone can enter them into a browser's address bar. People are at
the core of the Web, and so it is considered best practice to build what is called semantic URLs.
Semantic URLs use words with inherent meaning that can be understood by anyone, regardless
of their technical know-how.

Linguistic semantics are of course irrelevant to computers. You've probably often seen URLs
that look like mashups of random characters. But there are many advantages to creating human-
readable URLs:

18
  It is easier for you to manipulate them.
 It clarifies things for users in terms of where they are, what they're doing, what they're
reading or interacting with on the Web.
 Some search engines can use those semantics to improve the classification of the
associated pages.

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and distributed naming system
for computers, services, and other resources in the Internet or other Internet Protocol (IP)
networks. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the associated
entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical IP
addresses needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the
underlying network protocols. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of
the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping
those names to Internet resources by designating authoritative name servers for each domain.
Network administrators may delegate authority over sub-domains of their allocated name space
to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and fault-tolerant service and was
designed to avoid a single large central database.
The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of the database service that
is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data
communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the Internet Protocol Suite.
The Internet maintains two principal namespaces, the domain name hierarchy and the Internet
Protocol (IP) address spaces. The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy
and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and
a communication protocol implement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server
that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries
against its database.
The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for Start of Authority
(SOA), IP addresses (A and AAAA), SMTP mail exchangers (MX), name servers (NS), pointers
for reverse DNS lookups (PTR), and domain name aliases (CNAME). Although not intended to
be a general purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types
of data for either automatic lookups, such as DNSSEC records, or for human queries such
as responsible person (RP) records. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also been used
in combating unsolicited email (spam) by storing a real-time blackhole list (RBL). The DNS
database is traditionally stored in a structured text file, the zone file, but other database systems
are common.

19
The Domain Name System originally used the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) as transport over
IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments.

Function
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by
translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the
hostname www.example.com within the domain name example.com translates to the
addresses 93.184.216.34 (IPv4) and 2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946 (IPv6). The DNS can
be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change
without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of
this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) and e-mail addresses without
having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
An important and ubiquitous function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet
services such as cloud services and content delivery networks. When a user accesses a
distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the URL is translated to the IP
address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here
is that different users can simultaneously receive different translations for the same domain
name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of
using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable
responses on the Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet. Each subdomain
is a zone of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a registry,
administrative information is often complemented by the registry's RDAP and WHOIS services.
That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.

Structure
Domain name space
The domain name space consists of a tree data structure. Each node or leaf in the tree has
a label and zero or more resource records (RR), which hold information associated with the
domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its
parent node on the right, separated by a dot. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root
zone. A DNS zone may consist of as many domains and sub domains as the zone manager
chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to class where the separate classes can be
thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.

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The hierarchical Domain Name System for class Internet, organized into zones, each served by a name server

Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones.
Authority over the new zone is said to be delegated to a designated name server. The parent zone
ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.
Domain name syntax, internationalization
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC
1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically
called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots.
Name servers
The Domain Name System is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses
the client–server model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain has at
least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name
servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the root name
servers, the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a TLD.
Authoritative name server
An authoritative name server is a name server that only gives answers to DNS queries from data
that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by
dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that
only maintains a cache of data. An authoritative name server can either be a primary server or
a secondary server. Historically the terms master/slave and primary/secondary were sometimes
used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a
server that stores the original copies of all.

21
Internet Protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of data over
the internet. Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in order to
communicate the data. In order to understand it better, let’s take an example of a language.
Any language has its own set of vocabulary and grammar which we need to know if we want
to communicate in that language. Similarly, over the internet whenever we access a website or
exchange some data with another device then these processes are governed by a set of rules
called the internet protocols.
Working of internet protocol: The internet and many other data networks work by organizing
data into small pieces called packets. Each large data sent between two network devices is
divided into smaller packets by the underlying hardware and software. Each network protocol
defines the rules for how its data packets must be organized in specific ways according to the
protocols the network supports.
Why do we need protocols?
It may be that the sender and receiver of data are parts of different networks, located in
different parts of the world having different data transfer rates. So, we need protocols to
manage the flow control of data, access control of the link being shared in the communication
channel. Suppose there is a sender X who has a data transmission rate of 10 Mbps. And, there
is a receiver Y who has a data receiving rate of 5Mbps. Since the rate of receiving the data is
slow so some data will be lost during transmission. In order to avoid this, the receiver Y needs
to inform sender X about the speed mismatch so that the sender X can adjust its transmission
rate. Similarly, the access control decides the node which will access the link shared in the
communication channel at a particular instant of time. If not the transmitted data will collide if
many computers send data simultaneously through the same link resulting in the corruption or
loss of data.
Types of internet protocol
The Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses:-
1. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol): These are a set of standard
rules that allows different types of computers to communicate with each other. The IP protocol
ensures that each computer that is connected to the Internet is having a specific serial number
called the IP address. TCP specifies how data is exchanged over the internet and how it should
be broken into IP packets. It also makes sure that the packets have information about the
source of the message data, the destination of the message data, the sequence in which the
message data should be re-assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the
specific destination. The TCP is also known as a connection-oriented protocol.
The functionality of TCP/IP is divided into 4 layers with each one having specific protocols:
1. Application Layer: The application layer makes sure that the data from the sending end is
received in a format that is acceptable and supported at the receiving end.
2. Transport Layer: The transport layer is responsible for the smooth transmission of data
from one end to the other. It is also responsible for reliable connectivity, error recovery,
and flow control of the data.
3. Internet Layer: This Internet Layer moves packets from source to destination by
connecting independent networks.
4. Network Access Layer: The Network Access Layer sees how a computer connects to a
network.

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2. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): These protocols are important for sending and
distributing outgoing emails. This protocol uses the header of the mail to get the email id of the
receiver and enters the mail into the queue of outgoing mails. And as soon as, it delivers the
mail to the receiving email id, it removes the email from the outgoing list. The message or the
electronic mail may consider of text, video, image etc. It helps in setting up of some
communication server rules.
3. PPP(Point to Point Protocol): It is a communication protocol that is used to create a direct
connection between two communicating devices. This protocol defines the rules using which
two devices will authenticate with each other and exchange information with each other. For
example, A user connects his PC to the server of an Internet Service Provider also uses PPP.
Similarly, for connecting two routers for direct communication it uses PPP.
4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used for transferring files from one system
to the other. This works on a client-server model. When a machine requests for file transfer
from another machine, the FTO sets up a connection between the two and authenticates each
other using their ID and Password. And, the desired file transfer takes place between the
machines.
5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol): SFTP which is also known as SSH FTP refers to
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) over Secure Shell (SSH) as it encrypts both commands and data
while in transmission. SFTP acts as an extension to SSH and encrypts files and data then sends
them over a secure shell data stream. This protocol is used to remotely connect to other
systems while executing commands from the command line.
6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol): This protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over
the internet and it is defined by the www(world wide web) for information transfer. This
protocol defines how the information needs to be formatted and transmitted. And, it also
defines the various actions the web browsers should take in response to the calls made to
access a particular web page. Whenever a user opens their web browser, the user will
indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being used to share text, images, and other
multimedia files on the World Wide Web.
Note: Hypertext refers to the special format of the text that can contain links to other texts.
7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure): HTTPS is an extension of the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure communication over a computer network with
the SSL/TLS protocol for encryption and authentication. So, generally, a website has an HTTP

23
protocol but if the website is such that it receives some sensitive information such as credit
card details, debit card details, OTP, etc then it requires an SSL certificate installed to make
the website more secure. So, before entering any sensitive information on a website, we should
check if the link is HTTPS or not. If it is not HTTPS then it may not be secure enough to enter
sensitive information.
8. TELNET(Terminal Network): TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual
terminal service given by ISO. This enables one local machine to connect with another. The
computer which is being connected is called a remote computer and which is connecting is
called the local computer. TELNET operation lets us display anything being performed on the
remote computer in the local computer. This operates on the client/server principle. The local
computer uses the telnet client program whereas the remote computer uses the telnet server
program.
9. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3): POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol version 3. It has two
Message Access Agents (MAAs) where one is client MAA (Message Access Agent) and
another is server MAA(Message Access Agent) for accessing the messages from the mailbox.
This protocol helps us to retrieve and manage emails from the mailbox on the receiver mail
server to the receiver’s computer. This is implied between the receiver and receiver mail
server. It can also be called as one way client server protocol. The POP3 WORKS ON THE 2
PORTS I.E. PORT 110 AND PORT 995.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet
Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and connectionless
protocol. So, there is no need to establish a connection prior to data transfer. The UDP helps to
establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections establish over the network.The UDP
enables process to process communication.
Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer protocol used
with most of the Internet services; provides assured delivery, reliability, and much more but all
these services cost us additional overhead and latency. Here, UDP comes into the picture. For
real-time services like computer gaming, voice or video communication, live conferences; we
need UDP. Since high performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of
processing delayed packets. There is no error checking in UDP, so it also saves bandwidth.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and bandwidth.
UDP Header –
UDP header is an 8-bytes fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20 bytes to
60 bytes. The first 8 Bytes contains all necessary header information and the remaining part
consist of data. UDP port number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore the range for port
numbers is defined from 0 to 65535; port number 0 is reserved. Port numbers help to
distinguish different user requests or processes.

24
1. Source Port: Source Port is a 2 Byte long field used to identify the port number of the
source.
2. Destination Port: It is a 2 Byte long field, used to identify the port of the destined packet.
3. Length: Length is the length of UDP including the header and the data. It is a 16-bits field.
4. Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of the one’s
complement sum of the UDP header, the pseudo-header of information from the IP header,
and the data, padded with zero octets at the end (if necessary) to make a multiple of two
octets.
Notes – Unlike TCP, the Checksum calculation is not mandatory in UDP. No Error control or
flow control is provided by UDP. Hence UDP depends on IP and ICMP for error
reporting. Also UDP provides port numbers so that is can differentiate between users requests.
Applications of UDP:
 Used for simple request-response communication when the size of data is less and hence
there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
 It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.
 UDP is used for some routing update protocols like RIP(Routing Information Protocol).
 Normally used for real-time applications which can not tolerate uneven delays between
sections of a received message.
 Following implementations uses UDP as a transport layer protocol:
 NTP (Network Time Protocol)
 DNS (Domain Name Service)
 BOOTP, DHCP.
 NNP (Network News Protocol)
 Quote of the day protocol
 TFTP, RTSP, RIP.
 The application layer can do some of the tasks through UDP-
 Trace Route
 Record Route
 Timestamp
 UDP takes a datagram from Network Layer, attaches its header, and sends it to the user.
So, it works fast.

25
 Actually, UDP is a null protocol if you remove the checksum field.
1. Reduce the requirement of computer resources.
2. When using the Multicast or Broadcast to transfer.
3. The transmission of Real-time packets, mainly in multimedia applications.

DHTML

DHTML stands for Dynamic HTML, it is totally different from HTML. The browsers which
support the dynamic HTML are some of the versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet
Explorer of version higher than 4.0. The DHTML is based on the properties of the HTML,
javascript, CSS, and DOM (Document Object Model which is used to access individual
elements of a document) which helps in making dynamic content. It is the combination of
HTML, CSS, JS, and DOM. The DHTML make use of Dynamic object model to make changes
in settings and also in properties and methods. It also makes uses of Scripting and it is also part
of earlier computing trends.
DHTML allows different scripting languages in a web page to change their variables, which
enhance the effects, looks and many others functions after the whole page have been fully
loaded or under a view process, or otherwise static HTML pages on the same. But in true ways,
there is noting that as dynamic in DHTML, there is only the enclosing of different technologies
like CSS, HTML, JS, DOM, and different sets of static languages which make it as dynamic.
DHTML is used to create interactive and animated web pages that are generated in real-time,
also known as dynamic web pages so that when such a page is accessed, the code within the
page is analyzed on the web server and the resulting HTML is sent to the client’s web
browser.
HTML: HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language and it is a client-side markup
language. It is used to build the block of web pages.
Javascript: It is a Client-side Scripting language. Javascript is supported by most of the
browser, also have cookies collection to determine the user needs.
CSS: The abbreviation of CSS is Cascading Style Sheet. It helps in the styling of the web
pages and helps in designing of the pages. The CSS rules for DHTML will be modified at
different levels using JS with event handlers which adds a significant amount of dynamism
with very little code.
DOM: It is known as a Document Object Model which act as the weakest links in it. The only
defect in it is that most of the browser does not support DOM. It is a way to manipulate the
static contents.
DHTML is not a technology; rather, it is the combination of three different technologies,
client-side scripting (JavaScript or VBScript), cascading style sheets and document object
model.

26
Note: Many times DHTML is confused with being a language like HTML but it is not. It must
be kept in mind that it is an interface or browsers enhancement feature which makes it possible
to access the object model through Javascript language and hence make the webpage more
interactive.
Key Features: Following are the some major key features of DHTML:

 Tags and their properties can be changed using DHTML.

 It is used for real-time positioning.
 Dynamic fonts can be generated using DHTML.
 It is also used for data binding.
 It makes a webpage dynamic and be used to create animations, games, applications along
with providing new ways of navigating through websites.
 The functionality of a webpage is enhanced due to the usage of low-bandwidth effect by
DHTML.
 DHTML also facilitates the use of methods, events, properties, and codes.
Why Use DHTML?
DHTML makes a webpage dynamic but Javascript also does, the question arises that what
different does DHTML do? So the answer is that DHTML has the ability to change a webpages
look, content and style once the document has loaded on our demand without changing or
deleting everything already existing on the browser’s webpage. DHTML can change the
content of a webpage on demand without the browser having to erase everything else, i.e.
being able to alter changes on a webpage even after the document has completely loaded.
Advantages:

 Size of the files are compact in compared to other interactional media like Flash or
Shockwave, and it downloads faster.
 It is supported by big browser manufacturers like Microsoft and Netscape.
 Highly flexible and easy to make changes.

27
 Viewer requires no extra plug-ins for browsing through the webpage that uses DHTML,
they do not need any extra requirements or special software to view it.
 User time is saved by sending less number of requests to the server. As it is possible to
modify and replace elements even after a page is loaded, it is not required to create separate
pages for changing styles which in turn saves time in building pages and also reduces the
number of requests that are sent to the server.
 It has more advanced functionality than a static HTML. it is capable of holding more
content on the web page at the same time.
Disadvantages:

 It is not supported by all the browsers. It is supported only by recent browsers such as
Netscape 6, IE 5.5, and Opera 5 like browsers.
 Learning of DHTML requires a lot of pre-requisites languages such as HTML, CSS, JS, etc
should be known to the designer before starting with DHTML which is a long and time-
consuming in itself.
 Implementation of different browsers are different. So if it worked in one browser, it might
not necessarily work the same way in another browser.
 Even after being great with functionality, DHTML requires a few tools and utilities that are
some expensive. For example, the DHTML text editor, Dreamweaver. Along with it the
improvement cost of transferring from HTML to DHTML makes cost rise much higher.

Difference between HTML and DHTML:

 HTML is a markup language while DHTML is a collection of technologies.

 HTML is used to create static webpages while DHTML is capable of creating dynamic
webpages.
 DHTML is used to create animations and dynamic menus but HTML not used.
 HTML sites are slow upon client-side technologies whereas DHTML sites are
comparatively faster.
 Web pages created using HTML are rather simple and have no styling as it uses only one
language whereas DHTML uses HTML, CSS, and Javascript which results in a much better
and way more presentable webpage.
 HTML cannot be used as server side code but DHTML used as server side code.
 DHTML needs database connectivity but not in case of HTML.
 Files in HTML are stored using .htm or .html extension while DHTML uses .dhtm
extension.
 HTML requires no processing from the browser but DHTML does.

XML Protocol
"XMLP" redirects here. For Oracle XML Publisher reporting software, see Oracle BI Publisher.

The XML Protocol ("XMLP") is a standard being developed by the W3C XML Protocol
Working Group to the following guidelines, outlined in the group's charter:

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 1. An envelope for encapsulating XML data to be transferred in an interoperable manner
that allows for distributed extensibility.
2. A convention for the content of the envelope when used for RPC (Remote Procedure
Call) applications. The protocol aspects of this should be coordinated closely with
the IETF and make an effort to leverage any work they are doing, see below for details.
3. A mechanism for serializing data representing non-syntactic data models such as object
graphs and directed labeled graphs, based on the data types of XML Schema.
4. A mechanism for using HTTP transport in the context of an XML Protocol. This does not
mean that HTTP is the only transport mechanism that can be used for the technologies
developed, nor that support for HTTP transport is mandatory. This component merely
addresses the fact that HTTP transport is expected to be widely used, and so should be
addressed by this Working Group. There will be coordination with the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF). (See Blocks Extensible Exchange Protocol)
Further, the protocol developed must meet the following requirements, as per the working
group's charter:

1. The envelope and the serialization mechanisms developed by the Working Group may
not preclude any programming model nor assume any particular mode of communication
between peers.
2. Focus must be put on simplicity and modularity and must support the kind of
extensibility actually seen on the Web. In particular, it must support distributed
extensibility where the communicating parties do not have a priori knowledge of each
other

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