An introduction to orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing

Edfors, Ove; Sandell, Magnus; van de Beek, Jan-Jaap; Landström, Daniel; Sjöberg, Frank

1996

Link to publication

Citation for published version (APA):

Edfors, O., Sandell, M., van de Beek, J-J., Landström, D., & Sjöberg, F. (1996). An introduction to orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing. (Div. of Signal Processing, Research Report; Vol. TULEA 1996:16). Luleå
University of Technology.

Total number of authors:

5

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!N INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

/VE %DFORS -AGNUS 3ANDELL *AN *AAP VAN DE "EEK

$ANIEL ,ANDSTR¶M &RANK 3J¶BERG

3EPTEMBER 
 !BSTRACT

4HIS REPORT IS AN INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING /&$-  4HE FOCUS
IS ON SIGNAL PROCESSING AREAS PURSUED BY OUR RESEARCH GROUP AT ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY
7E PRESENT AN HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND SOME FREQUENTLY USED SYSTEM MODELS 4YPICAL AREAS OF
APPLICATIONS ARE ALSO DESCRIBED BOTH WIRELESS AND WIRED )N ADDITION TO THE GENERAL OVERVIEW
THE ADDRESSED AREAS INCLUDE SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL ESTIMATION AND CHANNEL CODING "OTH
TIME AND FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION ARE DESCRIBED AND THE EdECTS OF SYNCHRONIZATION ERRORS
ARE PRESENTED $IdERENT TYPES OF CHANNEL ESTIMATORS ARE DESCRIBED WHERE THE FOCUS IS ON LOW
COMPLEXITY ALGORITHMS AND IN THIS CONTEXT ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COHERENT AND
DIdERENTIAL MODULATION ARE ALSO DISCUSSED #HANNEL CODING IS DESCRIBED BOTH FOR WIRELESS AND
WIRED SYSTEMS AND POINTERS ARE INCLUDED TO EVALUATION TOOLS AND BITLOADING ALGORITHMS !N
EXTENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY IS ALSO INCLUDED
#ONTENTS

 )NTRODUCTION 

 3YSTEM MODELS 
 #ONTINUOUS TIME MODEL                                
 $ISCRETE TIME MODEL                                  
 ! TIME FREQUENCY INTERPRETATION                           
 )MPERFECTIONS                                     

 3YSTEM ENVIRONMENTS 
 7IRELESS SYSTEMS                                   
 $OWNLINK                                   
 5PLINK                                     
 7IRED SYSTEMS                                     
 3UBSCRIBER LINE TRANSFER FUNCTION                       
 .OISE AND CROSSTALK                              

 3YNCHRONIZATION 
 3YMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION                               
 4IMING ERRORS                                 
 #ARRIER PHASE NOISE                              
 3AMPLING FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION                         
 #ARRIER FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION                          
 &REQUENCY ERRORS                               
 &REQUENCY ESTIMATORS                             

 #HANNEL ESTIMATION 
 0ILOT INFORMATION                                   
 %STIMATOR DESIGN                                   
 0ERFORMANCE EXAMPLE                                 

 #HANNEL CODING 
 7IRELESS SYSTEMS                                   
 $IGITAL !UDIO "ROADCASTING                         
 4RELLIS CODED /&$-                             
 /THER SYSTEMS                                 
 #ODING ON FADING CHANNELS                          
 7IRED SYSTEMS                                     
 "IT LOADING                                  
 "IT LOADING ALGORITHMS                            
 #HANNEL CODING                                

 $ISCUSSION 

! 4IME FREQUENCY LATTICE 

,IST OF &IGURES

 4HE CYCLIC PREçX IS A COPY OF THE LAST PART OF THE /&$- SYMBOL         
 ! DIGITAL IMPLEMENTATION OF A BASEBAND /&$- SYSTEM Ú#0Ú AND Ú#0Ú DENOTE b
THE INSERTION AND DELETION OF THE CYCLIC PREçX RESPECTIVELY            
 "ASE BAND /&$- SYSTEM MODEL                          
 4HE CONTINUOUS TIME /&$- SYSTEM INTERPRETED AS PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS 
 ! SYMBOLIC PICTURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUBCHANNELS FOR AN /&$- SYSTEM WITH -
TONES OVER A BANDWIDTH 6                               
 0ULSE SHAPING USING THE RAISED COSINE FUNCTION 4HE GRAY PARTS OF THE SIGNAL
INDICATE THE EXTENSIONS                                
 3PECTRUM WITH RECTANGULAR PULSE SOLID AND RAISED COSINE PULSE DASHED     
 $ISCRETE TIME /&$- SYSTEM                            
 ,ATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE 4HE DATA SYMBOLS WJK ARE TRANSMITTED AT
THE LATTICE POINTS                                   

 4HE WIRELESS DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT                         

 4HE WIRELESS UPLINK ENVIRONMENT                          
 .EAR END CROSSTALK .%84                              
 &AR END CROSSTALK &%84                               
 0OWER SPECTRAL DENSITY OF ATTENUATED SIGNAL .%84 AND &%84          

 %dECTS OF A FREQUENCY OdSET a%  REDUCTION IN SIGNAL AMPLITUDE p AND INTER

CARRIER INTERFERENCE q                                 
 $EGRADATION IN 3.2 DUE TO A FREQUENCY OdSET NORMALIZED TO THE SUBCARRIER
SPACING  !NALYTICAL EXPRESSION FOR !7'. DASHED AND FADING CHANNELS SOLID  

 !N EXAMPLE OF PILOT INFORMATION TRANSMITTED BOTH SCATTERED AND CONTINUAL ON

CERTAIN SUBCARRIERS                                  
 !N EXAMPLE ON THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN COHERENT AND DIdERENTIAL  03+ IN A
2AYLEIGH FADING ENVIRONMENT                            

 /VERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM INVESTIGATED BY (¶HER ;=                

 3LOW FREQUENCY HOPPING %ACH PROGRAM /H USES A BANDWIDTH ! AND CHANGES
FREQUENCY BAND AFTER 3GNO                              
 #HANNEL 3.2 LEFT AND CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF BITS ON EACH SUBCARRIER RIGHT  

! !MBIGUITY FUNCTION FOR A RECTANGULAR PULSE AND CYCLIC PREçX WITH LENGTHS ~  
AND 3BO   RESPECTIVELY                              
#HAPTER 

)NTRODUCTION

4HE AIM OF THIS REPORT IS TWOFOLD 4HE çRST AIM IS TO PROVIDE AN INTRODUCTION TO ORTHOGONAL
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING /&$- SYSTEMS AND SELECTED PARTS OF ITS THEORETICAL BACK
GROUND 4HE SECOND AIM IS TO DESCRIBE THE AREAS OF RESEARCH WITHIN /&$- THAT ARE PURSUED
AT THE $IVISION OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY 4HIS ALSO INCLUDES A BY NO MEANS
COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF RELATED WORK THAT MAY BE OF INTEREST 4HE PRESENTATION IS IN THE FORM
OF A SINGLE BODY WHERE WE DO NOT SEPARATE OUR OWN WORK FROM THAT BY OTHERS
4HE TECHNOLOGY WE CALL /&$- IN THIS REPORT IS USUALLY VIEWED AS A COLLECTION OF TRANSMIS
SION TECHNIQUES 7HEN APPLIED IN A WIRELESS ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS RADIO BROADCASTING IT IS
USUALLY REFERRED TO AS /&$- (OWEVER IN A WIRED ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS IN ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL
SUBSCRIBER LINES !$3, THE TERM DISCRETE MULTITONE $-4 IS MORE APPROPRIATE 4HROUGH
OUT THIS REPORT WE ONLY USE THE TERM $-4 WHEN EXPLICITLY ADDRESSING THE WIRED ENVIRONMENT
&URTHER THE TWO TERMS SUBCARRIER AND SUBCHANNEL WILL BE USED INTERCHANGEABLY 4HE HISTORY
OF /&$- HAS BEEN ADDRESSED SEVERAL TIMES IN THE LITERATURE SEE EG ; = WHICH WE HAVE
CONDENSED TO THE BRIEF OVERVIEW BELOW
4HE HISTORY OF /&$- DATES BACK TO THE MID ÚS WHEN #HANG PUBLISHED HIS PAPER ON THE
SYNTHESIS OF BANDLIMITED SIGNALS FOR MULTICHANNEL TRANSMISSION ;= (E PRESENTS A PRINCIPLE
FOR TRANSMITTING MESSAGES SIMULTANEOUSLY THROUGH A LINEAR BANDLIMITED CHANNEL WITHOUT IN
TERCHANNEL )#) AND INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE )3)  3HORTLY AFTER #HANG PRESENTED HIS PAPER
3ALTZBERG PERFORMED AN ANALYSIS OF THE PERFORMANCE ;= WHERE HE CONCLUDED THAT ÞTHE STRATEGY
OF DESIGNING AN EbCIENT PARALLEL SYSTEM SHOULD CONCENTRATE MORE ON REDUCING CROSSTALK BETWEEN
ADJACENT CHANNELS THAN ON PERFECTING THE INDIVIDUAL CHANNELS THEMSELVES SINCE THE DISTORTIONS
DUE TO CROSSTALK TEND TO DOMINATEÞ 4HIS IS AN IMPORTANT CONCLUSION WHICH HAS PROVEN CORRECT
IN THE DIGITAL BASEBAND PROCESSING THAT EMERGED A FEW YEARS LATER
! MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO /&$- WAS PRESENTED IN  BY 7EINSTEIN AND %BERT ;= WHO
USED THE DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM $&4 TO PERFORM BASEBAND MODULATION AND DEMODULATION
4HIS WORK DID NOT FOCUS ON ÝPERFECTING THE INDIVIDUAL CHANNELSÞ BUT RATHER ON INTRODUCING
EbCIENT PROCESSING ELIMINATING THE BANKS OF SUBCARRIER OSCILLATORS 4O COMBAT )3) AND )#) THEY
USED BOTH A GUARD SPACE BETWEEN THE SYMBOLS AND RAISED COSINE WINDOWING IN THE TIME DOMAIN
4HEIR SYSTEM DID NOT OBTAIN PERFECT ORTHOGONALITY BETWEEN SUBCARRIERS OVER A DISPERSIVE CHANNEL
BUT IT WAS STILL A MAJOR CONTRIBUTION TO /&$-
!NOTHER IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION WAS DUE TO 0ELED AND 2UIZ IN  ;= WHO INTRODUCED
THE CYCLIC PREçX #0 OR CYCLIC EXTENSION SOLVING THE ORTHOGONALITY PROBLEM )NSTEAD OF USING
AN EMPTY GUARD SPACE THEY çLLED THE GUARD SPACE WITH A CYCLIC EXTENSION OF THE /&$- SYMBOL


4HIS EdECTIVELY SIMULATES A CHANNEL PERFORMING CYCLIC CONVOLUTION WHICH IMPLIES ORTHOGONALITY
OVER DISPERSIVE CHANNELS WHEN THE #0 IS LONGER THAN THE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL 4HIS
INTRODUCES AN ENERGY LOSS PROPORTIONAL TO THE LENGTH OF THE #0 BUT THE ZERO )#) GENERALLY
MOTIVATES THE LOSS
/&$- SYSTEMS ARE USUALLY DESIGNED WITH RECTANGULAR PULSES BUT RECENTLY THERE HAS BEEN
AN INCREASED INTEREST IN PULSE SHAPING ;  = "Y USING PULSES OTHER THAN RECTANGULAR
THE SPECTRUM CAN BE SHAPED TO BE MORE WELL LOCALIZED IN FREQUENCY WHICH IS BENEçCIAL FROM AN
INTERFERENCE POINT OF VIEW
/&$- IS CURRENTLY USED IN THE %UROPEAN DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING $!" STANDARD ;=
3EVERAL $!" SYSTEMS PROPOSED FOR .ORTH !MERICA ARE ALSO BASED ON /&$- ;= AND ITS
APPLICABILITY TO DIGITAL 46 BROADCASTING IS CURRENTLY BEING INVESTIGATED ;    =
/&$- IN COMBINATION WITH MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES ARE SUBJECT TO SIGNIçCANT INVESTIGATION
SEE EG ;    = /&$- UNDER THE NAME $-4 HAS ALSO ATTRACTED A GREAT DEAL
OF ATTENTION AS AN EbCIENT TECHNOLOGY FOR HIGH SPEED TRANSMISSION ON THE EXISTING TELEPHONE
NETWORK SEE EG ;   =
4HIS REPORT IS ORGANIZED AS FOLLOWS )N 3ECTION  WE PRESENT COMMON /&$- MODELS INCLUD
ING CONTINUOUS TIME AND DISCRETE TIME %NVIRONMENTS IN WHICH /&$- SYSTEMS ARE EXPECTED
TO WORK ARE SUMMARIZED IN 3ECTION  3YNCHRONIZATION PROBLEMS AND PROPOSED SOLUTION ARE
PRESENTED IN 3ECTION  #HANNEL ESTIMATION IS ELABORATED ON IN 3ECTION  AND CODING IN BOTH
WIRELESS AND WIRED /&$- SYSTEMS IS DISCUSSED IN 3ECTION  &INALLY IN 3ECTION  WE DISCUSS
AND SUMMARIZE THE CONTENTS OF THIS REPORT


#HAPTER 

3YSTEM MODELS

4HE BASIC IDEA OF /&$- IS TO DIVIDE THE AVAILABLE SPECTRUM INTO SEVERAL SUBCHANNELS SUBCARRI
ERS  "Y MAKING ALL SUBCHANNELS NARROWBAND THEY EXPERIENCE ALMOST âAT FADING WHICH MAKES
EQUALIZATION VERY SIMPLE 4O OBTAIN A HIGH SPECTRAL EbCIENCY THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE
SUBCHANNELS ARE OVERLAPPING AND ORTHOGONAL HENCE THE NAME /&$- 4HIS ORTHOGONALITY CAN
BE COMPLETELY MAINTAINED EVEN THOUGH THE SIGNAL PASSES THROUGH A TIME DISPERSIVE CHANNEL BY
INTRODUCING A CYCLIC PREçX 4HERE ARE SEVERAL VERSIONS OF /&$- SEE EG ;  = BUT WE
FOCUS ON SYSTEMS USING SUCH A CYCLIC PREçX ;= ! CYCLIC PREçX IS A COPY OF THE LAST PART OF THE
/&$- SYMBOL WHICH IS PREPENDED TO THE TRANSMITTED SYMBOL SEE &IGURE  4HIS MAKES THE

&IGURE  4HE CYCLIC PREçX IS A COPY OF THE LAST PART OF THE /&$- SYMBOL

TRANSMITTED SIGNAL PERIODIC WHICH PLAYS A DECISIVE ROLL IN AVOIDING INTERSYMBOL AND INTERCARRIER
INTERFERENCE ;= 4HIS IS EXPLAINED LATER IN THIS SECTION !LTHOUGH THE CYCLIC PREçX INTRODUCES
A LOSS IN SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO 3.2 IT IS USUALLY A SMALL PRICE TO PAY TO MITIGATE INTERFERENCE
! SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A BASEBAND /&$- SYSTEM IS SHOWN IN &IGURE 

4RANSMITTER #HANNEL 2ECEIVER

WK XK
WK E S
M XK
3% 74 R:J< RS QS Q:J<
74 3%
(# ,
"/ # F~  S  # "/ ,
$# #
W- ` K X- ` K

&IGURE  ! DIGITAL IMPLEMENTATION OF A BASEBAND /&$- SYSTEM Ú#0Ú AND Ú#0Ú DENOTE THE b
INSERTION AND DELETION OF THE CYCLIC PREçX RESPECTIVELY

&OR THIS SYSTEM WE EMPLOY THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTIONS


 q ! CYCLIC PREçX IS USED

q 4HE IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL IS SHORTER THAN THE CYCLIC PREçX

q 4RANSMITTER AND RECEIVER ARE PERFECTLY SYNCHRONIZED

q #HANNEL NOISE IS ADDITIVE WHITE AND COMPLEX 'AUSSIAN

q 4HE FADING IS SLOW ENOUGH FOR THE CHANNEL TO BE CONSIDERED CONSTANT DURING ONE /&$-
SYMBOL INTERVAL

4HE DIbCULTIES IN A COMPLETE ANALYSIS OF THIS SYSTEM MAKE IT RATHER AWKWARD FOR THEORETICAL
STUDIES 4HEREFORE IT IS COMMON PRACTICE TO USE SIMPLIçED MODELS RESULTING IN A TRACTABLE
ANALYSIS 7E CLASSIFY THESE /&$- SYSTEM MODELS INTO TWO DIdERENT CLASSES CONTINUOUS TIME
AND DISCRETE TIME

 #ONTINUOUS TIME MODEL

4HE çRST /&$- SYSTEMS DID NOT EMPLOY DIGITAL MODULATION AND DEMODULATION (ENCE THE
CONTINUOUS TIME /&$- MODEL PRESENTED BELOW CAN BE CONSIDERED AS THE IDEAL /&$- SYSTEM
WHICH IN PRACTICE IS DIGITALLY SYNTHESIZED 3INCE THIS IS THE çRST MODEL DESCRIBED WE MOVE
THROUGH IT IN A STEP BY STEP FASHION 7E START WITH THE WAVEFORMS USED IN THE TRANSMITTER AND
PROCEED ALL THE WAY TO THE RECEIVER 4HE BASEBAND MODEL IS SHOWN IN &IGURE 
4RANSMITTER #HANNEL 2ECEIVER
K + 3

W K €S ME S ‚ S XK

W €S ‚ S X
RS QS
K K

F~  S 

W - ` K €- `  S ‚
- `  S X
- ` K

&IGURE  "ASE BAND /&$- SYSTEM MODEL

q 4RANSMITTER
!SSUMING AN /&$- SYSTEM WITH - SUBCARRIERS A BANDWIDTH OF 6 (Z AND SYMBOL LENGTH
OF 3 SECONDS OF WHICH 3BO SECONDS IS THE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREçX THE TRANSMITTER USES
THE FOLLOWING WAVEFORMS
 6
P  DI { - JS 3BO  IF S  : 3 < `

3BO
€J S  3 `
 
 OTHERWISE

WHERE 3  -6 3BO  .OTE THAT €J S  €J S -6  WHEN S IS WITHIN THE CYCLIC PREçX
: 3BO < 3INCE €J S IS A RECTANGULAR PULSE MODULATED ON THE CARRIER FREQUENCY J6-
THE COMMON INTERPRETATION OF /&$- IS THAT IT USES - SUBCARRIERS EACH CARRYING A LOW


 BIT RATE 4HE WAVEFORMS €J S ARE USED IN THE MODULATION AND THE TRANSMITTED BASE BAND
SIGNAL FOR /&$- SYMBOL NUMBER K IS

8
- `

RK S  WJK €J S ` K3 
J 

WHERE WK WK    W- K ARE COMPLEX NUMBERS FROM A SET OF SIGNAL CONSTELLATION POINTS
`

7HEN AN INçNITE SEQUENCE OF /&$- SYMBOLS IS TRANSMITTED THE OUTPUT FROM THE TRANS
MITTER IS A JUXTAPOSITION OF INDIVIDUAL /&$- SYMBOLS

8

8 -

8 `

RS  RK S  WJK €J S ` K3  

K` K` J 

q 0HYSICAL CHANNEL
7E ASSUME THAT THE SUPPORT OF THE POSSIBLY TIME VARIANT IMPULSE RESPONSE F~  S OF THE
PHYSICAL CHANNEL IS RESTRICTED TO THE INTERVAL ~  : 3BO< IE TO THE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC
PREçX 4HE RECEIVED SIGNAL BECOMES
: 3BO
QS  F c R S  F~  SRS ` ~ C~ M
ES 


WHERE M
ES IS ADDITIVE WHITE AND COMPLEX 'AUSSIAN CHANNEL NOISE

q 2ECEIVER
4HE /&$- RECEIVER CONSISTS OF A çLTER BANK MATCHED TO THE LAST PART :3BO 3 < OF THE
TRANSMITTER WAVEFORMS €J S IE
|
€J 3 ` S IF S  : 3 ` 3BO <
c

‚J S   
 OTHERWISE

%dECTIVELY THIS MEANS THAT THE CYCLIC PREçX IS REMOVED IN THE RECEIVER 3INCE THE CYCLIC
PREçX CONTAINS ALL )3) FROM THE PREVIOUS SYMBOL THE SAMPLED OUTPUT FROM THE RECEIVER
çLTER BANK CONTAINS NO )3) (ENCE WE CAN IGNORE THE TIME INDEX K WHEN CALCULATING THE
SAMPLED OUTPUT AT THE JTH MATCHED çLTER "Y USING   AND  WE GET
: 

XJ  Q c ‚J  SJS3  Q S ‚J 3 ` S CS
: 3 ‚: 3BO -  

`

8 ` : 3
 F~  S WJ €J S ` ~  C~ €J S CS
  M
E 3 ` S €J S CS c c

3BO  3BO
J  

7E CONSIDER THE CHANNEL TO BE çXED OVER THE /&$- SYMBOL INTERVAL AND DENOTE IT BY
F~  WHICH GIVES

8
- ` : 3
t: 3BO u : 3

XJ  WJ  F~ €J S ` ~ C~

 €J S CS
c
M
E 3 ` S €J S CS
c

J  
3 BO  3 BO


 4HE INTEGRATION INTERVALS ARE 3BO  S  3 AND   ~  3BO WHICH IMPLIES THAT   S ` ~ 
3 AND THE INNER INTEGRAL CAN BE WRITTEN AS
: 3BO : 3BO
DI {J S ~ 3BO 6-

` `

F~ €J S ` ~ C~ 

 F~  P C~
  3 ` 3BO
:
DI {J S 3BO 6- 3BO

`

 P F~ D I {J ~ 6- C~ 3BO  S  3 `

3 ` 3BO 

4HE LATTER PART OF THIS EXPRESSION IS THE SAMPLED FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL AT
FREQUENCY E  J 6- IE AT THE J TH SUBCARRIER FREQUENCY
 

t u : 3BO
6 
GJ  & J  F~ D I {J ~ 6- C~

 `

- 

WHERE & E  IS THE &OURIER TRANSFORM OF F ~  5SING THIS NOTATION THE OUTPUT FROM THE
RECEIVER çLTER BANK CAN BE SIMPLIçED TO
8 : :
DI {J S 3BO 6-
- ` 3 
3
`

XJ  WJ P  GJ €J S CS 
c
M
E 3 ` S €J S CS
c

J  3BO 3 ` 3BO 3 BO
8
- : 3
`

 WJ GJ €J S €J S CS MJ 
  
c

3BO
J  

23
WHERE MJ  3BO
M
E 3 ` S €J S CS 3INCE THE TRANSMITTER çLTERS €J S ARE ORTHOGONAL
c

: 3 : 3 I {J S 3BO 6- I {JS 3BO 6-

D D

` ` `

€J S €J S CS 

c
P P CS  p :J ` J <  

3BO 3BO 3 ` 3BO 3 ` 3BO

WHERE p :J< IS THE +RONECKER DELTA FUNCTION ;= WE CAN SIMPLIFY  AND OBTAIN

XJ  GJ WJ MJ  

WHERE MJ IS ADDITIVE WHITE 'AUSSIAN NOISE !7'. 

4HE BENEçT OF A CYCLIC PREçX IS TWOFOLD IT AVOIDS BOTH )3) SINCE IT ACTS AS A GUARD SPACE
AND )#) SINCE IT MAINTAINS THE ORTHOGONALITY OF THE SUBCARRIERS  "Y RE INTRODUCING THE TIME
INDEX K WE MAY NOW VIEW THE /&$- SYSTEM AS A SET OF PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS ACCORDING
TO &IGURE 
!N EdECT TO CONSIDER AT THIS STAGE IS THAT THE TRANSMITTED ENERGY INCREASES WITH THE LENGTH
OF THE CYCLIC PREçX WHILE THE EXPRESSIONS FOR THE2 RECEIVED AND SAMPLED SIGNALS  STAY THE
SAME 4HE TRANSMITTED ENERGY PER SUBCARRIER IS J€J SJ CS  3  3 ` 3BO  AND THE 3.2 LOSS
BECAUSE OF THE DISCARDED CYCLIC PREçX IN THE RECEIVER BECOMES

2-1KNRR  ` KNF  ` o 

WHERE o  3BO 3 IS THE RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREçX 4HE LONGER THE CYCLIC PREçX THE
LARGER THE 3.2 LOSS 4YPICALLY THE RELATIVE LENGTH OF THE CYCLIC PREçX IS SMALL AND THE )#) AND
)3) FREE TRANSMISSION MOTIVATES THE 3.2 LOSS LESS THAN  D" FOR o   


 G K M K

W K X K

G ` M ` 
- K - K

W `
- K X ` - K

&IGURE  4HE CONTINUOUS TIME /&$- SYSTEM INTERPRETED AS PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS

- RTAB@QQHDQR
2O@BHMF aE  6-

&IGURE  ! SYMBOLIC PICTURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUBCHANNELS FOR AN /&$- SYSTEM WITH -
TONES OVER A BANDWIDTH 6 

&IGURE  DISPLAYS A SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL SUB
CHANNELS IN AN /&$- SYMBOL )N THIS çGURE THE INDIVIDUAL SUBCHANNELS OF THE SYSTEM ARE
SEPARATED 4HE RECTANGULAR WINDOWING OF THE TRANSMITTED PULSES RESULTS IN A SINC SHAPED FRE
QUENCY RESPONSE FOR EACH CHANNEL 4HUS THE POWER SPECTRUM OF THE /&$- SYSTEM DECAYS
AS E   )N SOME CASES THIS IS NOT SUbCIENT AND METHODS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED TO SHAPE THE
`

SPECTRUM )N ;= A RAISED COSINE PULSE IS USED WHERE THE ROLL Od REGION ALSO ACTS AS A GUARD
SPACE SEE &IGURE  )F THE âAT PART IS THE /&$- SYMBOL INCLUDING THE CYCLIC PREçX BOTH

&IGURE  0ULSE SHAPING USING THE RAISED COSINE FUNCTION 4HE GRAY PARTS OF THE SIGNAL INDICATE
THE EXTENSIONS

)#) AND )3) ARE AVOIDED 4HE SPECTRUM WITH THIS KIND OF PULSE SHAPING IS SHOWN IN &IGURE 
WHERE IT IS COMPARED WITH A RECTANGULAR PULSE 4HE OVERHEAD INTRODUCED BY AN EXTRA GUARD
SPACE WITH A GRACEFUL ROLL Od CAN BE A GOOD INVESTMENT SINCE THE SPECTRUM FALLS MUCH MORE
QUICKLY AND REDUCES THE INTERFERENCE TO ADJACENT FREQUENCY BANDS


 &IGURE  3PECTRUM WITH RECTANGULAR PULSE SOLID AND RAISED COSINE PULSE DASHED 

/THER TYPES OF PULSE SHAPING SUCH AS OVERLAPPING ;= AND WELL LOCALIZED PULSES ; =
HAVE ALSO BEEN INVESTIGATED

 $ISCRETE TIME MODEL

!N ENTIRELY DISCRETE TIME MODEL OF AN /&$- SYSTEM IS DISPLAYED IN &IGURE  #OMPARED TO
THE CONTINUOUS TIME MODEL THE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION ARE REPLACED BY AN INVERSE $&4
)$&4 AND A $&4 RESPECTIVELY AND THE CHANNEL IS A DISCRETE TIME CONVOLUTION 4HE CYCLIC
PREçX OPERATES IN THE SAME FASHION IN THIS SYSTEM AND THE CALCULATIONS CAN BE PERFORMED IN
ESSENTIALLY THE SAME WAY 4HE MAIN DIdERENCE IS THAT ALL INTEGRALS ARE REPLACED BY SUMS
4RANSMITTER #HANNEL 2ECEIVER
WK XK
WK E :J<
M XK
3% 74 R:J< Q :J<
74 3%
(# ,
"/ F:LJ< "/ ,
$# #
W- ` K X- ` K

&IGURE  $ISCRETE TIME /&$- SYSTEM

&ROM THE RECEIVERÚS POINT OF VIEW THE USE OF A CYCLIC PREçX LONGER THAN THE CHANNEL WILL
TRANSFORM THE LINEAR CONVOLUTION IN THE CHANNEL TO A CYCLIC CONVOLUTION $ENOTING CYCLIC CON
VOLUTION BY Ú]Ú WE CAN WRITE THE WHOLE /&$- SYSTEM AS

XK  #%3 (#%3 WK  ] FK M EK 

 #%3 (#%3 WK  ] FK  MK 

WHERE XK CONTAINS THE - RECEIVED DATA POINTS WK THE - TRANSMITTED CONSTELLATION POINTS F
THE CHANNEL IMPULSE RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL PADDED WITH ZEROS TO OBTAIN A LENGTH OF -
AND ME K THE CHANNEL NOISE 3INCE THE CHANNEL NOISE IS ASSUMED WHITE AND 'AUSSIAN THE TERM
MK  #%3 E MK  REPRESENTS UNCORRELATED 'AUSSIAN NOISE &URTHER WE USE THAT THE $&4 OF TWO
CYCLICALLY CONVOLVED SIGNALS IS EQUIVALENT TO THE PRODUCT OF THEIR INDIVIDUAL $&4S $ENOTING


ELEMENT BY ELEMENT MULTIPLICATION BY ÚaÚ THE ABOVE EXPRESSION CAN BE WRITTEN

XK  WK a #%3 FK  MK  WK a GK MK 

WHERE GK  #%3 FK  IS THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE CHANNEL 4HUS WE HAVE OBTAINED THE
SAME TYPE OF PARALLEL 'AUSSIAN CHANNELS AS FOR THE CONTINUOUS TIME MODEL 4HE ONLY DIdERENCE
IS THAT THE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS GK ARE GIVEN BY THE - POINT $&4 OF THE DISCRETE TIME CHANNEL
INSTEAD OF THE SAMPLED FREQUENCY RESPONSE AS IN  

 ! TIME FREQUENCY INTERPRETATION

4HE MODELS DESCRIBED ABOVE ARE TWO CLASSICAL MODELS OF /&$- WITH A CYCLIC PREçX ! MORE
GENERAL MODEL SUITABLE FOR EG PULSE SHAPING IS TO VIEW /&$- AS TRANSMISSION OF DATA IN A
LATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE #ONSIDER çRST A TRANSMITTED /&$- SIGNAL RS
8
RS  WJK €JK S
JK

WHERE THE FUNCTIONS €JK S ARE TRANSLATIONS IN TIME BY ~ AND IN FREQUENCY BY y OF THE PROTOTYPE
FUNCTION OS IE
€JK S  O S ` K~ DI {JyS 
4HIS CREATES A TWO DIMENSIONAL  $ LATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE ; = SEE &IGURE
 5SUALLY THE PROTOTYPE FUNCTION IS CHOSEN AS THE RECTANGULAR WINDOW OS  ~   v S v ~ 
O

&IGURE  ,ATTICE IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE 4HE DATA SYMBOLS WJK ARE TRANSMITTED AT THE
LATTICE POINTS

4HE SPACING IN THE FREQUENCY DIRECTION IS THEN y   ~ ` 3BO   WHERE 3BO IS THE LENGTH OF
THE CYCLIC PREçX &OR A DISCUSSION ON THE IMPACT OF PROTOTYPE FUNCTIONS SEE !PPENDIX !
%ACH TRANSMITTED DATA SYMBOL IN THE LATTICE EXPERIENCES âAT FADING SEE  WHICH SIMPLIçES
EQUALIZATION AND CHANNEL ESTIMATION 4HE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS AT THE LATTICE POINTS ARE CORRE
LATED AND BY TRANSMITTING KNOWN SYMBOLS AT SOME POSTIONS THE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS CAN BE


ESTIMATED WITH AN INTERPOLATION çLTER ;  = 4HIS IS A  $ VERSION OF PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED
MODULATION WHICH HAS BEEN PROPOSED FOR SEVERAL WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEMS SEE EG ;  =
! MORE DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF /&$- CHANNEL ESTIMATION IS GIVEN IN 3ECTION 

 )MPERFECTIONS
$EPENDING ON THE ANALYZED SITUATION IMPERFECTIONS IN A REAL /&$- SYSTEM MAY BE IGNORED
OR EXPLICITLY INCLUDED IN THE MODEL "ELOW WE MENTION SOME OF THE IMPERFECTIONS AND THEIR
CORRESPONDING EdECTS

q $ISPERSION
"OTH TIME AND FREQUENCY DISPERSION OF THE CHANNEL CAN DESTROY THE ORTHOGONALITY OF THE
SYSTEM IE INTRODUCE BOTH )3) AND )#) ;= )F THESE EdECTS ARE NOT SUbCIENTLY MITIGATED
BY EG A CYCLIC PREçX AND A LARGE INTER CARRIER SPACING THEY HAVE TO BE INCLUDED IN THE
MODEL /NE WAY OF MODELLING THESE EdECTS IS AN INCREASE OF THE ADDITIVE NOISE ;=

q .ONLINEARITIES AND CLIPPING DISTORTION

/&$- SYSTEMS HAVE HIGH PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIOS AND HIGH DEMANDS ON LINEAR
AMPLIçERS ;= .ONLINEARITIES IN AMPLIçERS MAY CAUSE BOTH )3) AND )#) IN THE SYSTEM
%SPECIALLY IF THE AMPLIçERS ARE NOT DESIGNED WITH PROPER OUTPUT BACK Od /"/ THE
CLIPPING DISTORTION MAY CAUSE SEVERE DEGRADATION 4HESE EdECTS HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED IN
EG ;   = 3PECIAL CODING STRATEGIES WITH THE AIM TO MINIMIZE PEAK TO AVERAGE
POWER RATIOS HAVE ALSO BEEN SUGGESTED SEE EG ;  =

q %XTERNAL INTERFERENCE
"OTH WIRELESS AND WIRED /&$- SYSTEMS SUdER FROM EXTERNAL INTERFERENCE )N WIRELESS
SYSTEMS THIS INTERFERENCE USUALLY STEMS FROM RADIO TRANSMITTERS AND OTHER TYPES ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENT IN THE VINCINITY OF THE RECEIVER )N WIRED SYSTEMS THE LIMITING FACTOR IS USUALLY
CROSSTALK WHICH IS DISCUSSED IN MORE DETAIL IN 3ECTION  )NTERFERENCE CAN BE INCLUDED
IN THE MODEL AS EG COLORED NOISE


#HAPTER 
3YSTEM ENVIRONMENTS

4WO MAJOR GROUPS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ARE THOSE WHO OPERATE IN WIRELESS AND WIRED
ENVIRONMENTS &OR INSTANCE WHEN DESIGNING A WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEM THE FADING CHANNEL IS
USUALLY A MAJOR OBSTACLE WHILE FOR A WIRED /&$- AKA $-4 SYSTEM CROSSTALK AND IMPULSIVE
NOISE ARE MORE DIbCULT TO HANDLE
)N THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS WE BRIEâY DISCUSS THE WIRELESS AND WIRED ENVIRONMENTS

 7IRELESS SYSTEMS

)N WIRELESS SYSTEMS RADIO SYSTEMS CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT CAUSE THE CHANNEL
TO FADE 4HESE CHANGES INCLUDE BOTH RELATIVE MOVEMENT BETWEEN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER AND
MOVING SCATTERERSREâECTORS IN THE SURROUNDING SPACE
7HEN DEVELOPING NEW STANDARDS FOR WIRELESS SYSTEMS CHANNEL MODELS ARE USUALLY CLASSIçED
ACCORDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH THE RECEIVER OPERATES 4HESE ENVIRONMENTS ARE OFTEN
DESCRIBED IN TERMS LIKE Þ2URAL AREAÞ Þ"USINESS INDOORÞ ETC -ODELS OF THIS TYPE ARE SPECIçED
BY EG THE %UROPEAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS INSTITUTE %43) ; =
)N THEORETICAL STUDIES OF WIRELESS SYSTEMS THE CHANNEL MODELS ARE USUALLY CHOSEN SO THAT
THEY RESULT IN A TRACTABLE ANALYSIS 4HE TWO MAJOR CLASSES OF FADING CHARACTERISTICS ARE KNOWN AS
2AYLEIGH AND 2ICIAN ;= ! 2AYLEIGH FADING ENVIRONMENT ASSUMES NO LINE OF SIGHT AND NO çXED
REâECTORSSCATTERERS 4HE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE FADING IS ZERO )F THERE IS A LINE OF SIGHT THIS
CAN BE MODELLED BY 2ICIAN FADING WHICH HAS THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS THE 2AYLEIGH FADING
EXCEPT FOR A NON ZERO EXPECTED VALUE
/FTEN PROPERTIES OF A THEORETICAL MODEL ARE CHARACTERIZED BY ONLY A FEW PARAMETERS SUCH
AS POWER DELAY PROçLE AND MAXIMAL $OPPLER FREQUENCY 4HE POWER DELAY PROçLE | a DEPENDS
ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND A COMMON CHOICE IS THE EXPONENTIALLY DECAYING PROçLE
| ~   D ~ ~QLR 
`

WHERE ~ IS THE TIME DELAY AND ~QLR IS THE ROOT MEAN SQUARED 2-3 VALUE OF THE POWER DELAY
PROçLE 3EVERAL OTHER CHOICES ARE POSSIBLE SEE EG ;= 4HE MAXIMAL $OPPLER FREQUENCY ECL@W
CAN BE DETERMINED BY
U
ECL@W  EB 
B
WHERE THE CARRIER FREQUENCY IS EB (Z THE SPEED OF THE RECEIVER IS U MS AND THE SPEED OF LIGHT
IS B {  b  MS )SOTROPIC SCATTERING IS COMMONLY ASSUMED IE THE RECEIVED SIGNAL POWER


IS SPREAD UNIFORMLY OVER ALL ANGLES OF ARRIVAL WHICH RESULTS IN A 5 SHAPED $OPPLER SPECTRUM
4HIS IS USUALLY REFERRED TO AS A *AKES SPECTRUM ;= AND IS DETERMINED BY THE MAXIMAL $OPPLER
FREQUENCY
"EFORE WE START DISCUSSING THE DIdERENT SCENARIOS ENCOUNTERED IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS THERE ARE
A FEW THINGS THAT MAY BE SAID ABOUT /&$- ON FADING CHANNELS IN GENERAL

 4HE INTER CARRIER SPACING OF THE SYSTEM HAS TO BE CHOSEN LARGE COMPARED TO THE MAXIMAL
$OPPLER FREQUENCY OF THE FADING CHANNEL TO KEEP THE )#) SMALL ; = 4HIS IS FURTHER
DISCUSSED IN !PPENDIX !

 )F THE ORTHOGONALITY OF THE SYSTEM IS MAINTAINED THE BASIC /&$- STRUCTURE DOES NOT
NECESSITATE TRADITIONAL EQUALIZING (OWEVER TO EXPLOIT THE DIVERSITY OF THE CHANNEL PROPER
CODING AND INTERLEAVING IS REQUIRED ;=

7E HAVE CHOSEN TO DISCUSS THE WIRELESS ENVIRONMENT IN TWO CONTEXTS THE TRANSMISSION FROM
A BASE STATION TO MOBILE TERMINALS DOWNLINK AND THE TRANSMISSION FROM MOBILE TERMINALS TO
A BASE STATION UPLINK  4HE REASON FOR THE CHOSEN CONTEXTS IS THAT ONE OR BOTH USUALLY ARE
REPRESENTED IN EVERY WIRELESS SYSTEM AND THEY REQUIRE QUITE DIdERENT DESIGN STRATEGIES
4HE MOST FREQUENTLY DISCUSSED WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEMS ARE FOR BROADCASTING EG DIGITAL
AUDIO AND DIGITAL VIDEO AND ONLY CONTAIN A DOWNLINK SINCE THERE IS NO RETURN CHANNEL #ELLULAR
SYSTEMS ON THE OTHER HAND HAVE BOTH A DOWNLINK AND AN UPLINK

 $OWNLINK
! SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF THE DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  )N THIS CASE MOBILE
TERMINAL NUMBER M RECEIVES THE SIGNAL R S TRANSMITTED FROM THE BASE STATION THROUGH ITS OWN
CHANNEL FM S AND THE RECEIVED SIGNAL QM S IS GIVEN BY

QM S  R c FM  S 

#HAN
NEL  NEL +
#HAN
L
NE

4ERMINAL  4ERMINAL +
AN

"ASE
#H

STATION

4ERMINAL 

&IGURE  4HE WIRELESS DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT

4HIS ENVIRONMENT IMPLIES THAT EACH RECEIVER TERMINAL ONLY HAS TO SYNCHRONIZE TO THE BASE
STATION AND FROM ITS POINT OF VIEW THE OTHER TERMINALS DO NOT EXIST 4HIS MAKES SYNCHRONIZATION
RELATIVELY EASY AND ALL PILOT INFORMATION TRANSMITTED FROM THE BASE STATION CAN BE USED FOR
CHANNEL ESTIMATION AND SYNCHRONIZATION


 4HE DOWNLINK ENVIRONMENT HAS BEEN THOROUGHLY INVESTIGATED SEE EG ;    = 
,ARGE PORTIONS OF WORK PRESENTED ON SYSTEMS OF THIS KIND HAVE BEEN CONCERNED WITH DIGITAL
AUDIO SEE EG ;    = AND DIGITAL VIDEO SEE EG ;      =
BROADCASTING

 5PLINK
! SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF THE UPLINK ENVIRONMENT IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  )N THIS CASE THE BASE
STATION RECEIVES THE TRANSMITTED SIGNAL RM S FROM MOBILE TERMINAL M THROUGH CHANNEL FM S
AND THE TOTAL RECEIVED SIGNAL Q S AT THE BASE STATION IS A SUPERPOSITION

8
*

Q S  RM c FM  S

M

OF SIGNALS FROM ALL MOBILE TERMINALS

#HAN
NEL  NEL
#HAN +
L
NE

4ERMINAL  4ERMINAL +
AN

"ASE
#H

STATION

4ERMINAL 

&IGURE  4HE WIRELESS UPLINK ENVIRONMENT

4HE MAJOR PROBLEM HERE IS THE SUPERPOSITION OF SIGNALS ARRIVING THROUGH DIdERENT CHAN
NELS &OR THE BASE STATION TO BE ABLE TO SEPARATE THE SIGNALS FROM EACH RECEIVER A SUbCIENT
ORTHOGONALITY BETWEEN RECEIVED SIGNALS FROM DIdERENT TERMINALS HAS TO BE ACHIEVED 3EV
ERAL METHODS FOR OBTAINING THIS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED 4HESE INCLUDE COMBINATIONS OF /&$-
AND CODE DIVISION TIME DIVISION AND FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS #$-! 4$-! AND
&$-! RESPECTIVELY  !LL THREE HAVE BEEN PROPOSED IN ;= AND &$-!/&$- IS CURRENTLY
UNDER INVESTIGATION IN EG ;  =
)NDEPENDENT OF THE METHOD CHOSEN TO SEPARATE SIGNALS FROM DIdERENT TERMINALS THE SYSTEM
SYNCHRONIZATION IS ONE OF THE MAJOR DESIGN ISSUES 4O AVOID INTERFERENCE ALL MOBILE TERMINALS
HAVE TO BE JOINTLY SYNCHRONIZED TO THE BASE STATION &URTHER IF COHERENT MODULATION IS USED
AS IN ;  = THE DIdERENT CHANNELS FROM THE USERS HAVE TO BE ESTIMATED SEPARATELY

 7IRED SYSTEMS

7HEN STUDYING WIRED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF CABLES A
DISTINCTION IS OFTEN MADE BETWEEN SHIELDED CABLES LIKE COAXIAL CABLES AND UNSHIELDED CABLES
LIKE TWISTED WIRE PAIRS  #OAXIAL CABLES HAVE MUCH BETTER TRANSMISSION PROPERTIES FOR BROAD
BAND SIGNALS THAN DO WIRE PAIRS %XCEPT FOR COMPUTER NETWORKS COAXIAL CABLES AND WIRE PAIRS
CURRENTLY EXIST IN TWO BASICALLY DIdERENT NETWORK TOPOLOGIES


 7IRE PAIRS ARE THE DOMINATING CABLE TYPE IN TELEPHONE ACCESS NETWORKS THAT ARE BUILT FOR
POINT TO POINT AND TWO WAY COMMUNICATION #OAXIAL CABLES ARE USUALLY FOUND IN CABLE 46 SYS
TEMS A NETWORK TOPOLOGY THAT IS PRIMARILY INTENDED FOR BROADCASTING AND NOT FOR POINT TO POINT
COMMUNICATION 4HE CABLE 46 SYSTEMS SOMETIMES CONTAIN AMPLIçERS THAT MAKE BIDIRECTIONAL
COMMUNICATION ALMOST IMPOSSIBLE (OWEVER CABLE 46 NETWORKS ARE CURRENTLY BEING UPGRADED
TO SUPPORT BIDIRECTIONAL COMMUNICATION 7E FOCUS ON WIRE PAIRS AND WILL NOT DISCUSS COAXIAL
CABLES FURTHER
4HE COPPER WIRE PAIR DOES NOT CHANGE ITS PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR SIGNIçCANTLY WITH TIME AND IS
THEREFORE CONSIDERED A STATIONARY CHANNEL ;= 4HIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO USE A TECHNIQUE CALLED
BIT LOADING ;= SEE 3ECTION  WHICH MAKES GOOD USE OF THE SPECTRALLY SHAPED CHANNEL
7HEN BIT LOADING IS USED IN A WIRED /&$- SYSTEM IT IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS $-4
3INCE /&$- IN COMBINATION WITH BIT LOADING MAKES EbCIENT USE OF AVAILABLE BANDWIDTH IT
HAS BECOME A GOOD CANDIDATE FOR DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE $3, SYSTEMS $3, IS ANOTHER NAME
FOR DIGITAL HIGH SPEED COMMUNICATION IN THE TELEPHONE ACCESS NETWORK
7HEN THE BIT RATE OdERED IN DOWNSTREAM DIRECTION TO THE SUBSCRIBER IS LARGER THAN THE
BIT RATE IN UPSTREAM DIRECTION TO THE BASE IT IS CALLED AN ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE
!$3,  !$3, IS SUITABLE FOR APPLICATIONS LIKE VIDEO ON DEMAND GAMES VIRTUAL SHOPPING
INTERNET SURçNG ETC WHERE MOST OF THE DATA GOES FROM THE BASE TO THE SUBSCRIBER )N THE 53!
THERE EXISTS AN !$3, STANDARD THAT SUPPORTS DOWNSTREAM BIT RATES FROM  TO  -BITSS
;= 4HE BIT RATES OF THE UPSTREAM RETURN PATH USUALLY RANGES BETWEEN  AND  KBITSS
;=
3TANDARDS FOR SYMMETRICAL $3,S HAVE ALSO EMERGED TO SUPPORT VIDEO CONFERENCING AND OTHER
SERVICES WITH HIGH DATA RATE IN THE UPSTREAM DIRECTION 4HE çRST SYMMETRIC $3, SYSTEM WAS
CALLED HIGH BIT RATE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE ($3, ;= WHICH CURRENTLY SUPPORTS BIT RATES BE
TWEEN  AND  -BITSSEC IN BOTH DIRECTIONS ; = &OR DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES WITH HIGHER
BIT RATES THAN ($3, AND !$3, THE TERM VERY HIGH BIT RATE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE 6$3, IS
USED

 3UBSCRIBER LINE TRANSFER FUNCTION

4HE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WIRE PAIR CHANNEL HAVE BEEN STUDIED IN A NUMBER OF PAPERS ; 
= ! THOROUGH DESCRIPTION OF THE TRANSFER FUNCTION OF COPPER WIRES AND NOISE SOURCES IS GIVEN
BY 7ERNER IN ;=
&OR $3,S USING A LARGE FREQUENCY RANGE SEVERAL -(Z OR HIGHER THE ATTENUATION FUNCTION
CAN THEN BE APPROXIMATED AS O

J' E CJ  D CJ E 

`

WHERE C IS THE LENGTH OF THE CABLE AND J IS A CABLE CONSTANT 4HIS MODEL IS OFTEN USED WHEN
6$3, AND ($3, SYSTEMS ARE ANALYZED ; =

 .OISE AND CROSSTALK

4HE MOST IMPORTANT NOISE SOURCES IN THE SUBSCRIBER LINE ENVIRONMENT ARE CROSSTALK FROM OTHER
WIRE PAIRS IN THE SAME CABLE RADIO FREQUENCY 2& NOISE FROM NEARBY RADIO TRANSMITTERS AND
IMPULSE NOISE FROM RELAYS SWITCHES ELECTRICAL MACHINES ETC !7'. IS GENERALLY NOT A LIMITING
FACTOR IN DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES FOR SHORT CABLES BUT BECOMES MORE IMPORTANT WITH INCREASING


CABLE LENGTH )N EG ;=
P !'7. IS INCLUDED IN THE CHANNEL MODEL WITH A SPECTRAL DENSITY OF
` D"M(Z x6 (Z 
)MPULSE NOISE IS DIbCULT TO CHARACTERIZE COMPLETELY BUT SOME EdORTS HAS BEEN MADE TO MODEL
THIS KIND OF DISTURBANCES ; = 4HE NORMAL WAY TO MITIGATE THE EdECTS OF IMPULSE NOISE
ON A $-4 SYSTEM IS TO ADD   D" TO THE SYSTEM MARGIN ;= AND TO USE SPECIALLY DESIGNED
CODES ;= )T SHOULD BE NOTED THAT $-4 IS MORE RESISTANT TO IMPULSE NOISE THAN SINGLE CARRIER
SYSTEMS SUCH AS CARRIERLESS AMPLITUDEPHASE #!0 MODULATION ;= 4HE IMPACT OF 2& NOISE
ON A $3, SYSTEM CAN BE REDUCED SIGNIçCANTLY WITH /&$- AND BIT LOADING ;= 2& NOISE
CAN BE MODELLED AS NARROWBAND DISTURBANCE WITH KNOWN SPECTRAL DENSITY AND THE BIT ERROR
RATE "%2 CAN BE PRESERVED BY TRANSMITTING FEWER SOMETIMES ZERO BITS ON THE DISTURBED
SUBCHANNELS
4HERE ARE BASICALLY TWO DIdERENT FORMS OF CROSSTALK NEAR END CROSSTALK .%84 AND FAR END
CROSSTALK &%84  .%84 OCCURS AT THE CENTRAL ObCE BASE STATION WHEN THE WEAK UPSTREAM
SIGNAL QS IS DISTURBED BY STRONG DOWNSTREAM SIGNALS RS SEE &IGURE  &%84 IS CROSSTALK
FROM ONE TRANSMITTED SIGNAL RS TO ANOTHER QS IN THE SAME DIRECTION SEE &IGURE  AND
APPEARS AT BOTH ENDS OF THE WIRE LOOP

&IGURE  .EAR END CROSSTALK .%84 

&IGURE  &AR END CROSSTALK &%84 

4HE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF .%84 IS MODELLED IN ;= AS

/- E   /R E  J- E   

AND THE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF &%84 AS

O

/% E C  /R E  J% E  J' E CJ C  /R E  J% E  D `CJ E

C 

WHERE /R E  IS THE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF THE TRANSMITTED SIGNALS J- AND J% ARE CONSTANTS DE
PENDING ON THE TYPE OF CABLE HOW WELL BALANCED THE CABLES ARE AND THE NUMBER OF DISTURBING
COPPER PAIRS ;= .OTE THAT .%84 DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE LENGTH OF THE WIRE PAIR
)N &IGURE  WE DISPLAY AN EXAMPLE OF THE SPECTRAL DENSITY OF A RECEIVED SIGNAL .%84
AND &%84


 


2 J ' E  CJ
/


- E 
/ NEXT
/ % E C FEXT
= 
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(

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LA
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SP 
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0




          

&REQUENCY ;-(Z=

&IGURE  0OWER SPECTRAL DENSITY OF ATTENUATED SIGNAL .%84 AND &%84


#HAPTER 

3YNCHRONIZATION

/NE OF THE ARGUMENTS AGAINST /&$- IS THAT IT IS HIGHLY SENSITIVE TO SYNCHRONIZATION ERRORS
IN PARTICULAR TO FREQUENCY ERRORS ;= (ERE WE GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF THREE SYNCHRONIZATION
PROBLEMS SYMBOL CARRIER FREQUENCY AND SAMPLING FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION !LSO THE EdECTS
OF PHASE OdSETS AND PHASE NOISE ARE DISCUSSED

 3YMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION

 4IMING ERRORS
! GREAT DEAL OF ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZATION IN /&$- SYSTEMS (OWEVER BY
USING A CYCLIC PREçX THE TIMING REQUIREMENTS ARE RELAXED SOMEWHAT 4HE OBJECTIVE IS TO KNOW
WHEN THE SYMBOL STARTS 4HE IMPACT OF TIMING ERRORS HAS BEEN ANALYZED IN ; = ! TIMING
OdSET GIVES RISE TO A PHASE ROTATION OF THE SUBCARRIERS 4HIS PHASE ROTATION IS LARGEST ON THE
EDGES OF THE FREQUENCY BAND )F A TIMING ERROR IS SMALL ENOUGH TO KEEP THE CHANNEL IMPULSE
RESPONSE WITHIN THE CYCLIC PREçX THE ORTHOGONALITY IS MAINTAINED )N THIS CASE A SYMBOL TIMING
DELAY CAN BE VIEWED AS A PHASE SHIFT INTRODUCED BY THE CHANNEL AND THE PHASE ROTATIONS CAN
BE ESTIMATED BY A CHANNEL ESTIMATOR )F A TIME SHIFT IS LARGER THAN THE CYCLIC PREçX )3) WILL
OCCUR
4HERE ARE TWO MAIN METHODS FOR TIMING SYNCHRONIZATION BASED ON PILOTS OR ON THE CYCLIC
PREçX !N ALGORITHM OF THE FORMER KIND WAS SUGGESTED BY 7ARNER AND ,EUNG IN ;= 4HEY
USE A SCHEME WHERE THE /&$- SIGNAL IS TRANSMITTED BY FREQUENCY MODULATION &-  4HE
TRANSMITTER ENCODES A NUMBER OF RESERVED SUBCHANNELS WITH KNOWN PHASES AND AMPLITUDES
4HE SYNCHRONIZATION TECHNIQUE WITH MODIçCATIONS IS APPLICABLE TO /&$- SIGNALS TRANSMITTED
BY AMPLITUDE MODULATION 4HEIR ALGORITHM CONSISTS OF  PHASES POWER DETECTION COARSE
SYNCHRONIZATION AND çNE SYNCHRONIZATION
4HE çRST PHASE POWER DETECTION DETECTS WHETHER OR NOT AN /&$- SIGNAL IS PRESENT BY
MEASURING THE RECEIVED POWER AND COMPARE IT TO A THRESHOLD 4HE SECOND PHASE COARSE SYN
CHRONIZATION IS USED TO ACQUIRE SYNCHRONIZATION ALIGNMENT TO WITHIN f SAMPLES 4HIS PER
FORMANCE IS NOT ACCEPTABLE BUT THIS PHASE SERVES TO SIMPLIFY THE TRACKING ALGORITHM WHICH CAN
ASSUME THAT THE TIMING ERROR IS SMALL  4HE COARSE SYNCHRONIZATION IS DONE BY CORRELATING THE
RECEIVED SIGNAL TO A COPY OF THE TRANSMITTED SYNCHRONIZATION SIGNAL 4O çND THE PEAK OF THIS
CORRELATION WITH ENOUGH ACCURACY A DIGITAL çLTER IS USED TO PROVIDE INTERPOLATED DATA VALUES


AT FOUR TIMES THE ORIGINAL DATA RATE )N THE LAST PHASE çNE SYNCHRONIZATION OF THE SYNCHRO
NIZATION THE SUBCHANNELS WITH PILOTS ARE EQUALIZED WITH THE ESTIMATED CHANNEL OBTAINED FROM
PILOTS 3INCE THE COARSE SYNCHRONIZATION GUARANTEES THAT THE TIMING ERROR IS LESS THAN f THE
CHANNEL IMPULSE RESPONSE IS WITHIN THE CYCLIC PREçX 4HE REMAINING PHASE ERRORS ON THE PILOT
SUBCHANNELS ARE DUE TO TIMING ERROR AND CAN BE ESTIMATED BY LINEAR REGRESSION
4HERE ARE ALSO SYNCHRONIZATION ALGORITHMS BASED ON THE CYCLIC PREçX )N ;= THE DIdERENCE
BETWEEN RECEIVED SAMPLES SPACED - SAMPLES APART IS FORMED QJ ` QJ -  7HEN ONE
OF THE SAMPLES BELONGS TO THE CYCLIC PREçX AND THE OTHER ONE TO THE /&$- SYMBOL FROM
WHICH IT IS COPIED THE DIdERENCE SHOULD BE SMALL /THERWISE THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN TWO
UNCORRELATED RANDOM VARIABLES WILL HAVE TWICE THE POWER AND HENCE ON AVERAGE WILL BE
LARGER "Y WINDOWING THIS DIdERENCE WITH A RECTANGULAR WINDOW OF THE SAME LENGTH AS THE
CYCLIC PREçX THE OUTPUT SIGNAL HAS A MINIMUM WHEN A NEW /&$- SYMBOL STARTS
4HIS IDEA IS MORE FORMALLY ELABORATED IN ;  = 4HE LIKELIHOOD FUNCTION GIVEN THE
OBSERVED SIGNAL QJ WITH A TIMING AND FREQUENCY ERROR IS DERIVED IN ; = 4HIS FUNCTION IS
MAXIMIZED TO SIMULTANEOUSLY OBTAIN ESTIMATES OF BOTH TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSETS 7ITH NO
FREQUENCY OdSET THE LIKELIHOOD FUNCTION WITH RESPECT TO A TIMING OdSET t IS

t
8
+ 
`
 2-1
c t  1D FQJQ J
c
- G ` JQJ ` QJ - J
J t
2-1  2-1 

&OR MEDIUM AND HIGH 3.2S 2-1   A MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD -, ESTIMATOR BASED ON
c t ESSENTIALLY APPLIES A MOVING AVERAGE TO THE TERM JQJ ` QJ - J  IE THE SAME AS
THE ESTIMATOR IN ;= (OWEVER FOR SMALL 3.2 VALUES THE CROSSCORRELATION QJQ J -  ALSO
c

HAS TO BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT ! SIMILAR PROCEDURE IS USED IN ;= WITH THE DIdERENCE THAT THE
INPHASE AND QUADRATURE PARTS OF THE OBSERVED SIGNAL QJ ARE QUANTIZED TO  BIT BEFORE t IS
ESTIMATED 4HIS YIELDS A SYMBOL SYNCHRONIZER WITH A LOW COMPLEXITY THAT CAN BE USED IN AN
ACQUISITION MODE
3YNCHRONIZATION IN THE UPLINK IS MORE DIbCULT THAN IN THE DOWNLINK OR IN BROADCASTING
4HIS IS DUE TO THE FACT THAT THERE WILL BE A SEPARATE OdSET FOR EACH USER 4HIS PROBLEM HAS NOT
YET BEEN GIVEN MUCH ATTENTION IN THE LITERATURE (OWEVER A RANDOM ACCESS SEQUENCE IS USED
TO SYNCHRONIZE THE MOBILE AND THE BASE STATION IN ;= )NTERFERENCE DUE TO NON SYNCHRONIZED
TRANSMISSION HAS BEEN INVESTIGATED IN ;=

 #ARRIER PHASE NOISE

#ARRIER PHASE NOISE IS CAUSED BY IMPERFECTIONS IN THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER OSCILLATORS &OR A
FREQUENCY SELECTIVE CHANNEL NO DISTINCTION CAN BE MADE BETWEEN THE PHASE ROTATION INTRODUCED
BY A TIMING ERROR AND A CARRIER PHASE OdSET ;= !N ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF CARRIER PHASE
NOISE
h IS DONE IN ;= 4HERE
i IT IS MODELLED AS A 7IENER PROCESS t S WITH $ Ft SG   AND
$ t S S ` t S   {n JSJ WHERE n IN (Z DENOTES THE ONE SIDED  D" LINEWIDTH OF
THE ,ORENTZIAN POWER DENSITY SPECTRUM OF THE FREE RUNNING CARRIER GENERATOR 4HE DEGRADATION
IN 3.2 IE THE INCREASE IN 3.2 NEEDED TO COMPENSATE FOR THE ERROR CAN BE APPROXIMATED BY
t u
 n $R
# D" { {- 
 KM  6 -


WHERE 6 IS THE BANDWIDTH AND $R - IS THE PER SYMBOL 3.2 .OTE THAT THE DEGRADATION
INCREASES WITH THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS $UE TO THE RAPID VARIATIONS OF THE PHASE NOISE IT
MAY CAUSE LARGE PROBLEMS !NALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF PHASE NOISE IN CODED SYSTEMS HAS BEEN
DONE IN ;=

 3AMPLING FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION

4HE RECEIVED CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNAL IS SAMPLED AT INSTANTS DETERMINED BY THE RECEIVER CLOCK
4HERE ARE TWO TYPES OF METHODS OF DEALING WITH THE MISMATCH IN SAMPLING FREQUENCY )N
SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEMS A TIMING ALGORITHM CONTROLS A VOLTAGE CONTROLLED CRYSTAL OSCIL
LATOR IN ORDER TO ALIGN THE RECEIVER CLOCK WITH THE TRANSMITTER CLOCK 4HE OTHER METHOD IS NON
SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING WHERE THE SAMPLING RATE REMAINS çXED WHICH REQUIRES POST PROCESSING
IN THE DIGITAL DOMAIN 4HE EdECT OF A CLOCK FREQUENCY OdSET IS TWOFOLD THE USEFUL SIGNAL COM
PONENT IS ROTATED AND ATTENUATED AND IN ADDITION )#) IS INTRODUCED )N ;= THE BIT ERROR
RATE PERFORMANCE OF A NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLED /&$- SYSTEM HAS BEEN INVESTIGATED )T IS
SHOWN THAT NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEMS ARE MUCH MORE SENSITIVE TO A FREQUENCY OdSET
COMPARED WITH A SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEM &OR NON SYNCHRONIZED SAMPLING SYSTEMS IT
WAS SHOWN THAT THE DEGRADATION IN D" DUE TO A FREQUENCY SAMPLING OdSET DEPENDS ON THE
SQUARE OF THE CARRIER INDEX AND ON THE SQUARE OF THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OdSET
%RRORS IN THE SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR $-4 SYSTEMS HAVE BEEN ANALYZED IN ;=

 #ARRIER FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION

 &REQUENCY ERRORS
&REQUENCY OdSETS ARE CREATED BY DIdERENCES IN OSCILLATORS IN TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER $OPPLER
SHIFTS OR PHASE NOISE INTRODUCED BY NON LINEAR CHANNELS 4HERE ARE TWO DESTRUCTIVE EdECTS
CAUSED BY A CARRIER FREQUENCY OdSET IN /&$- SYSTEMS /NE IS THE REDUCTION OF SIGNAL AM
PLITUDE THE SINC FUNCTIONS ARE SHIFTED AND NO LONGER SAMPLED AT THE PEAK AND THE OTHER IS
THE INTRODUCTION OF )#) FROM THE OTHER CARRIERS SEE &IGURE  4HE LATTER IS CAUSED BY THE
LOSS OF ORTHOGONALITY BETWEEN THE SUBCHANNELS )N ;= 0OLLET ET AL ANALYTICALLY EVALUATE THE
DEGRADATION OF THE "%2 CAUSED BY THE PRESENCE OF CARRIER FREQUENCY OdSET AND CARRIER PHASE
NOISE FOR AN !7'. CHANNEL )T IS FOUND THAT A MULTICARRIER SYSTEM IS MUCH MORE SENSITIVE
THAN A SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM $ENOTE THE RELATIVE FREQUENCY OdSET NORMALIZED BY THE SUBCAR
RIER SPACING BY aE  6-a%
WHERE a% IS THE FREQUENCY OdSET AND - THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS
4HE DEGRADATION # IN 3.2 IN D" CAN THEN BE APPROXIMATED BY
t u
 $R  - a a% $R
# D" { {aE   { 
 KM  -  KM  6 -

.OTE THAT THE DEGRADATION IN D" INCREASES WITH THE SQUARE OF THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS IF
a% AND 6 ARE çXED
)N ;= -OOSE DERIVES THE SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO 2(1 ON A FADING AND DISPERSIVE
CHANNEL 4HE 2(1 IS DEçNED AS THE RATIO OF THE POWER OF THE USEFUL SIGNAL TO THE POWER OF THE


&IGURE  %dECTS OF A FREQUENCY OdSET a%  REDUCTION IN SIGNAL AMPLITUDE p AND INTERCARRIER
INTERFERENCE q 

INTERFERENCE SIGNAL )#)

h AND i ADDITIVE NOISE  (E ASSUMED THAT ALL CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS GJ HAVE

THE SAME POWER $ JGJ J  !N UPPER BOUND ON THE DEGRADATION IS
‚ $R


  - 
RHM
{aE
# D" v  KNF  
RHMB aE

WHERE RHMB W RHM {W  {W 4HE FACTOR  IS FOUND FROM A LOWER BOUND OF THE SUMMATION
OF ALL INTERFERING SUBCARRIERS )N &IGURE  THE DEGRADATION IS PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF THE
NORMALIZED FREQUENCY OdSET aE IE RELATIVE TO THE SUBCARRIER SPACING 4HE SYNCHRONIZATION

&IGURE  $EGRADATION IN 3.2 DUE TO A FREQUENCY OdSET NORMALIZED TO THE SUBCARRIER SPAC
ING  !NALYTICAL EXPRESSION FOR !7'. DASHED AND FADING CHANNELS SOLID 

REQUIREMENTS FOR AN /&$- SYSTEM HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED IN ;= 4HE CONCLUSION THEREIN IS


THAT IN ORDER TO AVOID SEVERE DEGRADATION THE FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION ACCURACY SHOULD BE
BETTER THAN 

 &REQUENCY ESTIMATORS

3EVERAL CARRIER SYNCHRONIZATION SCHEMES HAVE BEEN SUGGESTED IN THE LITERATURE !S WITH SYMBOL
SYNCHRONIZATION THEY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES BASED ON PILOTS OR ON THE CYCLIC PREçX
"ELOW FOLLOWS A SHORT OVERVIEW OF SOME OF THEM
0ILOT AIDED ALGORITHMS HAVE BEEN ADDRESSED IN ;= )N THAT WORK SOME SUBCARRIERS ARE USED
FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF PILOTS USUALLY A PSEUDO NOISE 0. SEQUENCE  5SING THESE KNOWN
SYMBOLS THE PHASE ROTATIONS CAUSED BY THE FREQUENCY OdSET CAN BE ESTIMATED 5NDER THE
ASSUMPTION THAT THE FREQUENCY OdSET IS LESS THAN HALF THE SUBCARRIER SPACING THERE IS A ONE TO
ONE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE PHASE ROTATIONS AND THE FREQUENCY OdSET 4O ASSURE THIS AN
ACQUISITION ALGORITHM MUST BE APPLIED )N ;= SUCH AN ALGORITHM IS CONSTRUCTED BY FORMING A
FUNCTION WHICH IS SINC SHAPED AND HAS A PEAK FOR E ` EB   )T WAS FOUND THAT BY EVALUATING
THIS FUNCTION IN POINTS 3 APART AN ACQUISITION COULD BE OBTAINED BY MAXIMIZING THAT
FUNCTION 4HIS ACQUISITION SCHEME WAS CONçRMED BY COMPUTER SIMULATIONS TO WORK WELL BOTH
FOR AN !7'. CHANNEL AND A FADING CHANNEL
! RELATED TECHNIQUE IS TO USE THE CYCLIC PREçX WHICH TO SOME EXTENT CAN BE VIEWED AS
PILOTS 4HE REDUNDANCY OF THE CYCLIC PREçX CAN BE USED IN SEVERAL WAYS EG BY CREATING
A FUNCTION THAT PEAKS AT ZERO OdSET AND çNDING ITS MAXIMIZING VALUE ; = OR BY DOING
MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION ;   = )N ;= IT IS ASSUMED THAT THE CYCLIC PREçX
HAS THE SAME SIZE AS THE /&$- SYMBOL IE THE USEFUL SYMBOL IS TRANSMITTED TWICE IN ;=
AVERAGING IS PERFORMED TO REMOVE THE DATA DEPENDENCE AND IN ;= DECISION DIRECTION IS USED
)N ;= THE LIKELIHOOD FUNCTION FOR BOTH TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSETS IS DERIVED BY ASSUMING
A NON DISPERSIVE CHANNEL AND BY CONSIDERING THE TRANSMITTED DATA SYMBOLS WJ UNCORRELATED
"Y MAXIMIZING THIS FUNCTION A SIMULTANEOUS ESTIMATION OF THE TIMING AND FREQUENCY OdSETS
CAN BE OBTAINED )F THE FREQUENCY ERROR IS SLOWLY VARYING COMPARED THE /&$- SYMBOL RATE A
PHASE LOCKED LOOP 0,, ;= CAN BE USED TO REDUCE THE ERROR FURTHER
)T IS INTERESTING TO NOTE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME AND FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION )F THE
FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION IS A PROBLEM IT CAN BE REDUCED BY LOWERING THE NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS
WHICH WILL INCREASE THE SUBCARRIER SPACING 4HIS WILL HOWEVER INCREASE THE DEMANDS ON THE
TIME SYNCHRONIZATION SINCE THE SYMBOL LENGTH GETS SHORTER IE A LARGER RELATIVE TIMING ERROR
WILL OCCUR 4HUS THE SYNCHRONIZATIONS IN TIME AND FREQUENCY ARE CLOSELY RELATED TO EACH OTHER



#HAPTER 

#HANNEL ESTIMATION

-ODULATION CAN BE CLASSIçED AS DIdERENTIAL OR COHERENT 7HEN USING DIdERENTIAL MODULATION

THERE IS NO NEED FOR A CHANNEL ESTIMATE SINCE THE INFORMATION IS ENCODED IN THE DIdERENCE
BETWEEN TWO CONSECUTIVE SYMBOLS 4HIS IS A COMMON TECHNIQUE IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS WHICH
SINCE NO CHANNEL ESTIMATOR IS NEEDED REDUCES THE COMPLEXITY OF THE RECEIVER $IdERENTIAL
MODULATION IS USED IN THE %UROPEAN $!" STANDARD ;= 4HE DRAWBACKS ARE ABOUT A  D" NOISE
ENHANCEMENT ;= AND AN INABILITY TO USE EbCIENT MULTIAMPLITUDE CONSTELLATIONS (OWEVER
DIdERENTIAL SCHEMES CAN BENEçT FROM ASSISTANCE BY A CHANNEL ESTIMATOR ;= !N INTERESTING
ALTERNATIVE TO COHERENT MODULATION IS DIdERENTIAL AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SHIFT KEYING $!03+
;   = WHERE A SPECTRAL EbCIENCY GREATER THAN THAT OF $03+ IS ACHIEVED BY USING A
DIdERENTIAL CODING OF AMPLITUDE AS WELL 4HIS REQUIRES A NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE DISTRIBUTION
#OHERENT MODULATION HOWEVER ALLOWS ARBITRARY SIGNAL CONSTELLATIONS AND IS AN OBVIOUS CHOICE
IN WIRED SYSTEMS WHERE THE CHANNEL HARDLY CHANGES WITH TIME )N WIRELESS SYSTEMS THE EbCIENCY
OF COHERENT MODULATION MAKES IT AN INTERESTING CHOICE WHEN THE BIT RATE IS HIGH AS IN DIGITAL
VIDEO BROADCAST $6" ; =
4HE CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN WIRED SYSTEMS IS FAIRLY STRAIGHTFORWARD AND IS NOT DISCUSSED IN
DETAIL BELOW 7E CONCENTRATE ON CHANNEL ESTIMATION IN WIRELESS SYSTEMS WHERE THE COMPLEXITY
OF THE ESTIMATOR IS AN IMPORTANT DESIGN CRITERION
4HERE ARE MAINLY TWO PROBLEMS IN THE DESIGN OF CHANNEL ESTIMATORS FOR WIRELESS /&$-
SYSTEMS 4HE çRST PROBLEM CONCERNS THE CHOICE OF HOW PILOT INFORMATION DATASIGNALS KNOWN AT
THE RECEIVER SHOULD BE TRANSMITTED 4HIS PILOT INFORMATION IS NEEDED AS A REFERENCE FOR CHANNEL
ESTIMATION 4HE SECOND PROBLEM IS THE DESIGN OF AN ESTIMATOR WITH BOTH LOW COMPLEXITY AND
GOOD CHANNEL TRACKING ABILITY 4HESE TWO PROBLEMS ARE INTERCONNECTED SINCE THE PERFORMANCE
OF THE ESTIMATOR DEPENDS ON HOW PILOT INFORMATION IS TRANSMITTED

 0ILOT INFORMATION

#HANNEL ESTIMATORS USUALLY NEED SOME KIND OF PILOT INFORMATION AS A POINT OF REFERENCE !
FADING CHANNEL REQUIRES CONSTANT TRACKING SO PILOT INFORMATION HAS TO BE TRANSMITTED MORE
OR LESS CONTINUOUSLY $ECISION DIRECTED CHANNEL ESTIMATION CAN ALSO BE USED ;= BUT EVEN
IN THESE TYPES OF SCHEMES PILOT INFORMATION HAS TO BE TRANSMITTED REGULARLY TO MITIGATE ERROR
PROPAGATION
4O THE AUTHORSÚ KNOWLEDGE THERE IS VERY LITTLE PUBLISHED ON HOW TO TRANSMIT PILOT INFORMA


TION IN WIRELESS /&$- (OWEVER AN EbCIENT WAY OF ALLOWING A CONTINUOUSLY UPDATED CHANNEL
ESTIMATE IS TO TRANSMIT PILOT SYMBOLS INSTEAD OF DATA AT CERTAIN LOCATIONS OF THE /&$- TIME
FREQUENCY LATTICE 4HIS CAN BE VIEWED AS A GENERALIZATION OF PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULATION
03!- IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE 03!- IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE WAS INTRODUCED IN ;= AND
THOROUGHLY ANALYZED IN ;= !N EXAMPLE OF THIS IS SHOWN IN &IGURE  WHERE BOTH SCATTERED
AND CONTINUAL PILOT SYMBOLS ARE SHOWN )N A PRELIMINARY DRAFT OF THE %UROPEAN $6" STANDARD
;= PILOT INFORMATION IS SPECIçED TO BE TRANSMITTED ON BOOSTED SUBCARRIERS BOTH SCATTERED AND
AS CONTINUAL PILOT CARRIERS "OOSTED SUBCARRIERS MEANS THAT PILOT INFORMATION IS TRANSMITTED AT
HIGHER POWER THAN THE DATA

&IGURE  !N EXAMPLE OF PILOT INFORMATION TRANSMITTED BOTH SCATTERED AND CONTINUAL ON
CERTAIN SUBCARRIERS

)N GENERAL THE FADING CHANNEL CAN BE VIEWED AS A  $ SIGNAL TIME AND FREQUENCY WHICH
IS SAMPLED AT PILOT POSITIONS AND THE CHANNEL ATTENUATIONS BETWEEN PILOTS ARE ESTIMATED BY
INTERPOLATION 4HIS ENABLES US TO USE THE  $ SAMPLING THEOREM TO PUT LIMITS THE DENSITY OF
THE PILOT PATTERN ;= (OWEVER AS IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE ;= THE PILOT PATTERN SHOULD BE
DESIGNED SO THAT THE CHANNEL IS OVERSAMPLED AT THE RECEIVER

 %STIMATOR DESIGN

!SSUMING THAT THE PILOT PATTERN IS CHOSEN THE OPTIMAL LINEAR CHANNEL ESTIMATOR IN TERMS OF
MEAN SQUARED ERROR -3% IS A  $ 7IENER çLTER +NOWING THE STATISTICAL PROPERTIES OF THE
CHANNEL SUCH AN ESTIMATOR CAN BE DESIGNED USING STANDARD TECHNIQUES ;= 4HE COMBINATION
OF HIGH DATA RATES AND LOW BIT ERROR RATES NECESSITATES THE USE OF ESTIMATORS THAT HAVE BOTH LOW


COMPLEXITY AND HIGH ACCURACY 4HESE TWO CONSTRAINTS ON THE ESTIMATORS WORK AGAINST EACH OTHER
-OST ESTIMATORS WITH HIGH ACCURACY SUCH AS THE  $ 7IENER çLTER HAVE A LARGE COMPUTATIONAL
COMPLEXITY WHILE ESTIMATORS OF LOWER COMPLEXITY USUALLY PRODUCE A LESS ACCURATE ESTIMATE
4HE ART IN DESIGNING CHANNEL ESTIMATORS IS çNDING A GOOD TRADE Od BETWEEN COMPLEXITY AND
PERFORMANCE
4HE ISSUE OF REDUCING THE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY WHILE MAINTAINING MOST OF THE PERFOR
MANCE HAS BEEN ADDRESSED IN SEVERAL PUBLICATIONS )N ;= SEPARABLE çLTERS ARE APPLIED INSTEAD
OF A  $ çNITE IMPULSE RESPONSE &)2 çLTER 4HE USE OF SEPARABLE çLTERS INSTEAD OF FULL  $
çLTERS IS A STANDARD TECHNIQUE USED TO REDUCE COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY IN MULTIDIMENSIONAL
SIGNAL PROCESSING ;= 5SING THIS TECHNIQUE THE ESTIMATION IS çRST PERFORMED IN THE FREQUENCY
DIRECTION USING A  $ &)2 çLTER AND THEN IN THE TIME DIRECTION USING A SECOND  $ &)2 çLTER
4HIS RESTRICTS THE OBTAINABLE  $ IMPULSE RESPONSES TO THOSE THAT ARE THE OUTER PRODUCT OF TWO
 $ çLTERS 4HIS RESULTS IN A SMALL PERFORMANCE LOSS BUT THE GREATLY REDUCED COMPLEXITY USUALLY
MOTIVATES THE USE OF SEPARABLE çLTERS ; =
! SECOND APPROACH IN THE REDUCTION OF COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY IS BASED ON USING TRANS
FORMS THAT CONCENTRATE THE CHANNEL POWER TO A FEW TRANSFORM COEbCIENTS THUS ALLOWING EbCIENT
CHANNEL ESTIMATION TO BE PERFORMED WITH LITTLE EdORT IN THE TRANSFORM DOMAIN ,OW COMPLEXITY
ESTIMATORS OF THIS TYPE BASED ON BOTH THE $&4 ;  = AND ON OPTIMAL RANK REDUCTION
; = HAVE BEEN PROPOSED 4HIS TECHNIQUE USUALLY YIELD ESTIMATORS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE AND
LOW COMPLEXITY BUT MAY RESULT IN AN IRREDUCIBLE ERROR âOOR UNLESS SPECIAL CARE IS TAKEN 4HESE
EdECTS ARE ANALYZED IN DETAIL IN ; =
! COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PILOT BASED ESTIMATORS PRESENTED IN ;= SHOWS THAT THE COMBI
NATION OF SEPARABLE çLTERS AND LOW RANK APPROXIMATIONS CAN GIVE HIGH PERFORMANCE ESTIMATORS
OF LOW COMPLEXITY WHERE THE GREATEST PORTION OF THE REDUCED COMPLEXITY STEMS FROM THE USE OF
SEPARABLE çLTERS

 0ERFORMANCE EXAMPLE

&IGURE  SHOWS AN EXAMPLE ON THE DIdERENCE IN CODED BIT ERROR RATE BETWEEN COHERENT AND
DIdERENTIAL MODULATION 4HE SIMULATIONS ARE PERFORMED FOR A WIRELESS  SUBCARRIER /&$-
SYSTEM WITH A  SAMPLE CYCLIC PREçX 4HE CHANNEL IS 2AYLEIGH FADING WITH  RELATIVE $OPPLER
FREQUENCY AND THE SYSTEM USES TRELLIS CODED MODULATION WITH  PHASE SHIFT KEYING  03+
ACCORDING TO ;= 4HE DIdERENTIAL MODULATION IS PERFORMED IN THE FREQUENCY DIRECTION SINCE
THE FREQUENCY CORRELATION IS GREATER THAN THE TIME CORRELATION ;= 4HE PERFORMANCE OF COHERENT
MODULATION IS PRESENTED FOR BOTH KNOWN CHANNEL AND WITH A LOW COMPLEXITY ESTIMATOR ;=
4HE LOW COMPLEXITY CHANNEL ESTIMATOR USES A  PILOT SYMBOL DENSITY AND REQUIRES ONLY 
MULTIPLICATIONS PER ESTIMATED CHANNEL ATTENUATION
4HIS çGURE ILLUSTRATES THAT COHERENT MODULATION WITH LOW COMPLEXITY CHANNEL ESTIMATION
CAN OUTPERFORM DIdERENTIAL MODULATION %VEN THOUGH THE CHANNEL CORRELATION IN THE FREQUENCY
DIRECTION IS LARGE IN THIS CASE THE BEGINNING OF AN ERROR âOOR FOR THE DIdERENTIAL MODULATION IS
CLEARLY VISIBLE FOR $A - GREATER THAN ABOUT  D" 4HIS ERROR âOOR IS OF THE SAME TYPE AS THE
ONE EXPERIENCED IN THE SINGLE CARRIER CASE WHEN THE CHANNEL IS FADING ;=


&IGURE  !N EXAMPLE ON THE DIdERENCE BETWEEN COHERENT AND DIdERENTIAL  03+ IN A 2AYLEIGH
FADING ENVIRONMENT


#HAPTER 

#HANNEL CODING

4HIS CHAPTER DESCRIBES CODING IN /&$- SYSTEMS 4HE CODING PROBLEM IS QUITE DIdERENT FOR
THE WIRELESS AND THE WIRED CASE )N THE LATTER CASE THE CHANNEL IS STATIC AND TECHNIQUES LIKE BIT
LOADING AND MULTIDIMENSIONAL CODING ARE APPROPRIATE /N A FADING CHANNEL THE MAIN DIdERENCE
BETWEEN AN /&$- SYSTEM AND A SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM IS THE INTERLEAVING 7E WILL GIVE A SHORT
OVERVIEW OF CODING ON BOTH WIRELESS AND THE WIRED CHANNELS

 7IRELESS SYSTEMS

5SING A TIME DOMAIN EQUALIZER IT IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN AN , BRANCH DIVERSITY IF THE CHANNEL
CONSISTS OF , RESOLVABLE PATHS ;= )N /&$- THE EQUALIZER DOES NOT GIVE YOU ANY DIVERSITY
SINCE ALL SUBCHANNELS ARE NARROWBAND AND EXPERIENCE âAT FADING ;= (OWEVER THE STRUCTURE
OF /&$- OdERS THE OPPORTUNITY TO CODE ACROSS THE SUBCARRIERS )N ;= IT IS SHOWN THAT WITH
AN , PATH CHANNEL IT IS POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN AN , BRANCH DIVERSITY THROUGH CODING (ENCE IN
THIS DIVERSITY CONTEXT A MULTI CARRIER SYSTEM IS COMPARABLE TO A SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM "ESIDES
COMBATING FADING CODING HAS ALSO BEEN PROPOSED TO DEAL WITH LONG ECHOES THAT CAUSES )3)
BETWEEN SUBSEQUENT /&$- SYMBOLS ;=
4HE DESIGN OF CODES FOR /&$- SYSTEMS ON FADING CHANNELS FOLLOWS MANY OF THE STANDARD
TECHNIQUES 7HAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT /&$- IS THE TIME FREQUENCY LATTICE AND THE POSSIBILITY TO
USE TWO DIMENSIONS FOR INTERLEAVING AND CODING 4O ILLUSTRATE HOW TO USE THIS STRUCTURE WE
GIVE AN OVERVIEW OF TWO SYSTEMS THE %UROPEAN $!" STANDARD AND A TRELLIS CODED SYSTEM BY
(¶HER 4HE $!" SYSTEM USES DIdERENTIAL MODULATION WHICH AVOIDS CHANNEL ESTIMATION WHILE
THE OTHER SYSTEM USES A MULTIAMPLITUDE SIGNAL CONSTELLATION WHICH REQUIRES CHANNEL ESTIMATION

 $IGITAL !UDIO "ROADCASTING

$IGITAL BROADCASTING TO MOBILE RECEIVERS WAS UNDER CONSIDERABLE INVESTIGATION IN THE LATE %IGHT
IES ; = 4HE STANDARD FOR $!" WAS SET IN %UROPE TO USE /&$- ;= WHILE IT IS STILL UNDER
INVESTIGATION IN THE 53! ;= 4HE %UROPEAN $!" SYSTEM USES DIdERENTIAL QUADRATURE PHASE
SHIFT KEYING $103+ TO AVOID CHANNEL ESTIMATION !N ARGUMENT FOR THIS IS BASED ON SIMPLE
AND INEXPENSIVE RECEIVERS FOR CONSUMERS 4HE CHANNEL ENCODING PROCESS IS BASED ON PUNC
TURED CONVOLUTIONAL CODING WHICH ALLOWS BOTH EQUAL AND UNEQUAL ERROR PROTECTION ;= !S A
MOTHER CODE A RATE  CONVOLUTIONAL CODE WITH CONSTRAINT LENGTH  AND OCTAL POLYNOMIALS


    IS USED 4HE PUNCTURING PROCEDURE ALLOWS THE EdECTIVE CODE RATE TO VARY
BETWEEN  AND 
)NTERLEAVING IS PERFORMED IN BOTH TIME AND FREQUENCY 4HE FORMER IS A KIND OF BLOCK INTER
LEAVING AFTER WHICH THE BITS ARE MAPPED TO 103+ SYMBOLS 4HE FREQUENCY INTERLEAVER WORKING
WITH THE 103+ SYMBOLS FOLLOWS A PERMUTATION RULE OF THE  SUBCARRIERS )N ONE OF THE
THREE TRANSMISSIONS MODES THIS PERMUTATION RULE IS

e   
e M  e M `   LNC   M       

4HIS PERMUTATION DEçNES THE SET

Fe   e   e       e G  F       G

ACCORDING TO WHICH THE INTERLEAVING PATTERN IS CHOSEN !FTER THE FREQUENCY INTERLEAVING THE
103+ SYMBOLS ARE DIdERENTIALLY MODULATED ON EACH SUBCARRIER

 4RELLIS CODED /&$-

!S AN EXAMPLE OF A MULTIAMPLITUDE COHERENT AND CODED /&$- SYSTEM WE GIVE A SHORT
OVERVIEW OF A SYSTEM INVESTIGATED BY (¶HER 4HE ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION ;= ADDRESSES A DIGITAL
AUDIO BROADCASTING SCENARIO BUT THE CONCEPT IS MORE GENERAL (¶HERÚS INVESTIGATION IS THEREFORE
ONE OF THE MOST REFERENCED PAPERS ON /&$- (IS SYSTEM IS A POWER AND BANDWIDTH EbCIENT
CONCATENATED CODING SYSTEM FOR DATA TRANSMISSION ON TIME AND FREQUENCY SELECTIVE MOBILE
FADING CHANNELS ! CONCATENATED CODING IS USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH DOUBLE INTERLEAVING AND
SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING TO PROVIDE DIVERSITY !N OVERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM IS DEPICTED IN &IGURE
 4HE OUTER CODES ARE RATE COMPATIBLE PUNCTURED CODES 2#0# DERIVED FROM THE RATE 

&IGURE  /VERVIEW OF THE SYSTEM INVESTIGATED BY (¶HER ;=

CODE   WITH CONSTRAINT LENGTH  4HE OUTER INTERLEAVING SCHEME IS APPLIED TO BREAK UP
ERROR BURSTS FROM THE INNER CODING SYSTEM 3INCE THESE BURSTS ARE TYPICALLY MUCH SHORTER THAN
THE FADING BURSTS THE OUTER INTERLEAVING CAN BE MUCH SIMPLER THAN THE INNER INTERLEAVING
4HE INNER CODE IS BINARY TRELLIS CODED MODULATION 4#- WITH ONE DIMENSIONAL SIGNAL CON
STELLATION 4HE REASON FOR THIS CHOICE IS THAT THEY WERE FOUND TO PROVIDE A GOOD DIVERSITY FACTOR


AT A VERY LOW DECODER COMPLEXITY ;= 4HE CODE USED IS A ONE DIMENSIONAL  STATE CODE WITH
 LEVEL UNIFORM PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION  0!-  4HE  0!- OUTPUT SYMBOLS ARE THEN
COMBINED TO A  SYMBOL QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE MODULATION  1!- CONSTELLATION AND INTER
LEAVED TO BREAK UP CHANNEL MEMORY )N THE RECEIVER THE 6ITERBI ALGORITHM 6! IS USED FOR
DECODING 4HIS ALGORITHM IS CAPABLE OF USING THE CHANNEL STATE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM A
PILOT SEQUENCE SEE 3ECTION  4HE DECODING IS PERFORMED BY MINIMIZING THE METRIC
8 nn nn
) nB
GM n JXM ` WM J 
M

WHERE BGM IS THE CHANNEL ESTIMATE XM IS THE DEINTERLEAVED OBSERVATION AFTER EQUALIZATION THE REAL
OR IMAGINARY PART AND WM IS A POTENTIAL CODEWORD "ECAUSE OF THE OUTER CODE THE 6! SHOULD
BE MODIçED TO PROVIDE RELIABILITY ESTIMATES TOGETHER WITH THE DECODED SEQUENCE 4HIS ENABLES
SOFT DECODING OF THE OUTER CODE AS WELL "Y APPLYING A SOFT OUTPUT 6ITERBI ALGORITHM 3/6!
AN IMPROVEMENT OF ABOUT  D" IS OBTAINED ;= 4OGETHER WITH INNER CODING MULTICARRIER
SIGNALLING AND SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING THE INTERLEAVER PROVIDES DUAL TIMEFREQUENCY DIVERSITY
!N EXAMPLE OF SLOW FREQUENCY HOPPING IS DEPICTED IN &IGURE  %ACH PROGRAM CONSISTS OF A

&IGURE  3LOW FREQUENCY HOPPING %ACH PROGRAM /H USES A BANDWIDTH ! AND CHANGES
FREQUENCY BAND AFTER 3GNO 

NUMBER OF SUBCARRIERS AND /&$- SYMBOLS THE PARAMETERS ! AND 3GNO ARE CHOSEN TO MAXIMIZE
THE DIVERSITY OF THE SYSTEM ! SIMILAR BUT SOMEWHAT MORE GENERALIZED HOPPING SCHEME IS
PRESENTED IN ;=

 /THER SYSTEMS

4HERE HAVE BEEN OTHER CODED /&$- SYSTEMS PROPOSED AND ANALYZED IN THE LITERATURE )N
; = AN /&$-&- SYSTEM IS INVESTIGATED AND SIMULATED /&$- IS PROPOSED IN %UROPE
AS THE TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE FOR THE NEW $6" SYSTEM ;= WHERE A MULTIRESOLUTION SCHEME
IS USED TOGETHER WITH JOINT SOURCECHANNEL CODING ; = 4HIS ALLOWS SEVERAL BIT RATES AND
THEREBY A GRACEFUL DEGRADATION OF IMAGE QUALITY IN THE FRINGES OF THE BROADCAST AREA


 #ODING ON FADING CHANNELS
#ODES FOR FADING CHANNELS HAVE BEEN INVESTIGATED FOR A LONG TIME AND THE SEARCH FOR GOOD CODES
IS STILL GOING ON !N OVERVIEW OF THIS SUBJECT IS FOUND IN ;= $ESIGN OF CODES HAS BEEN
ANALYZED IN ;   = AND FOR TRELLIS CODED MULTIPLE 03+ IN ; = !SYMMETRIC 03+
CONSTELLATIONS ARE CONSIDERED IN ;= AND CODE DESIGN FOR 2ICIAN FADING CHANNELS IS INVESTIGATED
IN ;= 0ERFORMANCE BOUNDS HAVE BEEN DERIVED FOR 2AYLEIGH FADING CHANNELS IN ;   
  = AND FOR 2ICIAN FADING CHANNELS IN ;  =
5SUALLY PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF CODES ASSUMES PERFECT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHANNEL (OWEVER
IN ; = AN ANALYTICAL METHOD WAS INTRODUCED THAT ALLOWS NON IDEAL CHANNEL INFORMATION
4HIS WAS LATER GENERALIZED TO INCLUDE NON IDEAL INTERLEAVING ; = 4HIS METHOD HAS BEEN
USED TO ANALYZE A CODED /&$- SYSTEM WITH PILOT BASED CHANNEL ESTIMATION ON 2AYLEIGH FADING
CHANNELS ;= ! MAJOR BENEçT OF USING ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF CODED SYSTEMS
IS THAT A CODED BIT ERROR RATE CAN BE OBTAINED QUICKLY AFTER SYSTEM MODIçCATIONS WITHOUT
TIME CONSUMING SIMULATIONS

 7IRED SYSTEMS

!N IMPORTANT DIdERENCE BETWEEN A WIRED AND A WIRELESS SYSTEM IS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
CHANNEL )N THE WIRED CASE THE CHANNEL IS OFTEN CONSIDERED STATIONARY WHICH FACILITATES A
NUMBER OF TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE THE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM #HANNEL CODING IN COMBINATION
WITH A TECHNIQUE CALLED BIT LOADING IS OFTEN EMPLOYED FOR THIS PURPOSE -ULTIDIMENSIONAL TRELLIS
CODES ARE WELL SUITED FOR THE CHANNEL CODING 7HEN USING BIT LOADING THE SUBCHANNELS ARE
ASSIGNED INDIVIDUAL NUMBERS OF BITS ACCORDING TO THEIR RESPECTIVE 3.2S !N /&$- BASED
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM USING BIT LOADING IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS A $-4 SYSTEM

 "IT LOADING

"IT LOADING IS A TECHNIQUE THAT IS USED FOR MULTICARRIER SYSTEMS OPERATING ON STATIONARY CHANNELS
;= ! STATIONARY CHANNEL MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO MEASURE THE 3.2 ON EACH SUBCHANNEL AND ASSIGN
INDIVIDUAL NUMBERS OF TRANSMITTED BITS ! SUBCHANNEL WITH HIGH 3.2 THUS TRANSMITS MORE BITS
THAN A SUBCHANNEL WITH LOW 3.2 &IGURE  SHOWS A SCHEMATIC PICTURE OF 3.2 AND HOW THE
NUMBER OF BITS ON EACH SUBCHANNEL VARY ACCORDINGLY
3.2 "ITS

3UBCARRIER 3UBCARRIER

&IGURE  #HANNEL 3.2 LEFT AND CORRESPONDING NUMBER OF BITS ON EACH SUBCARRIER RIGHT 

7HEN PERFORMING BIT LOADING ONE USUALLY OPTIMIZES FOR EITHER HIGH DATA RATE LOW AVERAGE
TRANSMITTING ENERGY OR LOW ERROR PROBABILITY 4YPICALLY TWO OF THESE ARE KEPT CONSTANT AND THE


THIRD IS THE GOAL FOR THE OPTIMIZATION 7HICH PARAMETER SHOULD BE OPTIMIZED DEPENDS ON THE
SYSTEM ITS ENVIRONMENT AND ITS APPLICATION
7HEN THERE IS ONLY ONE SYSTEM OPERATING ON A CABLE THIS SYSTEM NEITHER INTERFERES WITH NOR
IS INTERFERED BY OTHER SYSTEMS 4HIS MEANS THAT CONTROLLING THE TRANSMITTING POWER TO REDUCE
CROSSTALK IS NOT NECESSARY 'IVEN A DATA RATE AND A BIT ERROR PROBABILITY WHATEVER TRANSMISSION
ENERGY NEEDED TO ACHIEVE THESE GOALS CAN BE USED WITHIN REASONABLE LIMITS  )N A MULTI SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENT WHERE THERE ARE SEVERAL SYSTEMS TRANSMITTING IN THE SAME CABLE THE PROBLEM IS
MORE COMPLICATED SINCE THE SYSTEMS EXPERIENCE CROSSTALK 4HE LEVEL OF CROSSTALK IS PROPORTIONAL
TO THE TRANSMITTING POWER IN THE SYSTEMS SEE  AND   )T IS THEREFORE DESIRABLE TO HAVE
AN EQUAL TRANSMISSION POWER IN ALL SYSTEMS TO OBTAIN EQUAL DISTURBANCE SITUATIONS )N A MULTI
SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT THE AVERAGE TRANSMITTING POWER IS USUALLY çXED AND THE OPTIMIZATION IS
FOR EITHER HIGH DATA RATE OR LOW BIT ERROR RATE

 "IT LOADING ALGORITHMS

4HERE ARE SEVERAL TECHNIQUES FOR BIT LOADING IN $-4 SYSTEMS AND SOME OF THESE ARE DESCRIBED
IN ;   = !S MENTIONED EARLIER THERE ARE SEVERAL PARAMETERS THAT ONE CAN OPTIMIZE
FOR -OST ALGORITHMS OPTIMIZE FOR HIGH DATA RATE OR LOW BIT ERROR RATE
'IVEN A CERTAIN DATA RATE AND AN ENERGY CONSTRAINT THE (UGHES (ARTOGS ALGORITHM PROVIDES
THE BIT LOADING FACTORS THAT YIELD MINIMAL BIT ERROR RATE SEE EG ;= 4HE IDEA BEHIND THE
(UGHES (ARTOGS ALGORITHM IS TO ASSIGN ONE BIT AT A TIME TO THE SUBCHANNELS 4HE ALGORITHM
CALCULATES THE ENERGY COST TO SEND ONE BIT MORE ON EACH SUBCHANNEL 4HE SUBCHANNEL WITH
THE SMALLEST ENERGY COST IS THEN ASSIGNED THE BIT 4HIS PROCEDURE IS REPEATED UNTIL A DESIRED
BIT RATE IS OBTAINED #HOW HAS SHOWED THAT COMPLEXITY OF THE (UGHES (ARTOGS ALGORITHM IS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE NUMBER OF SUBCHANNELS AND THE NUMBER OF BITS TRANSMITTED IN A $-4 FRAME
;= (E ALSO SUGGESTS A SUBOPTIMAL ALGORITHM OF LOWER COMPLEXITY IN ;=
!N ALGORITHM THAT MAINTAINS AN EQUAL BIT ERROR PROBABILITY OVER ALL SUBCHANNELS GIVEN A
DATA RATE AND AN ENERGY CONSTRAINT IS PRESENTED BY &ISCHER IN ;=
! SUBOPTIMAL WAY OF PERFORMING BIT LOADING TO ACHIEVE A HIGH DATA RATE WHILE MAINTAINING
A CONSTANT SYMBOL ERROR PROBABILITY ACROSS ALL SUBCHANNELS IS PRESENTED BY 4U ;= )N HIS
ALGORITHM THE BIT LOADING FACTORS ARE CALCULATED ACCORDING TO
t u
$J FJ oC
AJ  KNF  ` KNF " 
*}J

WHERE AJ IS THE NUMBER OF BITS CARRIED BIT LOADING FACTOR ON SUBCARRIER J $J THE AVERAGE
SYMBOL TRANSMISSION ENERGY FJ THE CHANNEL ATTENUATION AND }J THE NOISE VARIANCE 4HE CODING
GAIN IS DENOTED oC AND THE CONSTELLATION EXPANSION FACTOR DUE TO CODING IS DENOTED " &URTHER
TO OBTAIN A DESIRED SYMBOL ERROR RATE OF /D THE DESIGN CONSTANT * IS CHOSEN TO
v t uw
/D
* 0 ` 
 
-D
WHERE -D IS THE NUMBER OF NEAREST NEIGHBORS
%XPRESSION  CAN BE VIEWED AS THE UNION BOUND FOR A 1!- CONSTELLATION WITH SOME
MODIçCATIONS FOR CODING WHERE * IS THE 3.2 REQUIRED TO OBTAIN AN ERROR PROBABILITY /D  4HE
CHANNEL 3.2 INCLUDING CODING $J FJ oC }J IS DIVIDED BY THE 3.2 REQUIRED TO TRANSMIT ONE


BIT &INALLY THE NUMBER OF BITS NEEDED IN THE CODING KNF " IS SUBTRACTED TO GET THE NUMBER
OF BITS CARRIED BY SUBCHANNEL J
)F THE NUMBER OF SYSTEMS TRANSMITTING IN A CABLE VARY THE AMOUNT OF CROSSTALK WILL VARY
ACCORDINGLY 4O HANDLE THE SITUATION WHERE THE NUMBER OF TRANSMITTING SYSTEMS VARY ONE CAN
EITHER DO THE BIT LOADING FOR A WORST CASE OR EMPLOY ADAPTIVE BIT LOADING #HOW ;= PRESENTS
SUCH AN ADAPTIVE ALGORITHM CALLED THE BIT SWAP ALGORITHM WHICH IS DESIGNED FOR THE CASE WHEN
A çXED DATA RATE IS SPECIçED
7HEN TRYING TO MAXIMIZE THE DATA RATE WITH A CONSTANT TRANSMITTING POWER IT IS OPTIMAL
TO ALLOW BIT LOADING FACTORS TO SPAN A CONTINUOUS RANGE OF VALUES 4U PRESENTS SOME RESULTS
IN ;= ON HOW THE GRANULARITY OF BIT LOADING FACTORS AdECTS THE OBTAINED DATA RATE IN SUCH
A SYSTEM /NE WAY TO GET NON INTEGER BIT LOADING FACTORS IS TO USE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES
-ULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES ALLOW A FRACTIONAL NUMBER OF BITS PER  $ SYMBOL TO BE TRANSMITTED
ON EACH SUBCHANNEL &OR  $  $ AND  $ CODES THE GRANULARITIES BECOME  BIT  BITS AND
 BITS PER  $ SYMBOL RESPECTIVELY !NOTHER TECHNIQUE REFERRED TO AS ENERGY LOADING IS TO
ALLOW SOME SORT OF çNE TUNING OF THE TRANSMITTED ENERGY ON THE SUBCHANNELS IE ADJUSTING THE
ENERGY $J IN  SO THAT IT CORRESPONDS TO ONE OF THE SUPPORTED BIT LOADING FACTORS (OWEVER
ENERGY LOADING ONLY WORKS IF THE TUNING IS SMALL WHICH REQUIRES MANY BIT LOADING FACTORS AND
A SIDE EdECT IS THAT A MORE COMPLEX SIGNAL CONSTELLATION MAPPERDEMAPPER IS REQUIRED

 #HANNEL CODING

#ODING IN $-4 HAS BEEN ANALYZED IN EG ; = ! TYPICAL CODING SCHEME FOR $-4 CONSISTS
OF AN OUTER CODE AN INTERLEAVER AND AN INNER CODE $UE TO THE TYPE OF APPLICATIONS THAT $-4
IS DESIGNED TO CARRY SEE 3ECTION  IT IS APPEALING TO KEEP A LOW DELAY BETWEEN TRANSMITTER
AND RECEIVER 4HIS LIMITS THE INTERLEAVING DEPTH AND AdECTS THE CHOICE OF ERROR CORRECTING CODES
4HE CODING SCHEME ANALYZED IN ;= USES AN OUTER 2EED 3OLOMON CODE AND AN INNER TRELLIS
CODE 4HE 2EED 3OLOMON CODE AND INTERLEAVING ARE DESIGNED TO REDUCE ERRORS DUE TO IMPULSE
NOISE "Y USING ONLY ONE CODER THAT CODES ACROSS SUBCARRIERS THE DELAY IS SMALL COMPARED TO
THE CASE WHERE ONE TRELLIS CODE IS USED FOR EACH SUBCARRIER 4HIS IS DUE TO THE 6ITERBI DECODERÚS
NEED FOR A CERTAIN DECISION DEPTH TO MAKE A GOOD DECISION )N THE INVESTIGATED SYSTEM THE
AMOUNT OF DATA SENT IN ONE $-4 FRAME IS ENOUGH FOR THE 6ITERBI ALGORITHM TO MAKE A DECISION
-ULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES ARE WELL SUITED FOR $-4 SYSTEMS "Y USING SEVERAL  $ CONSTELLA
TIONS ON DIdERENT SUBCHANNELS IT IS EASY TO CREATE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONSTELLATIONS !S DESCRIBED
EARLIER THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL CODES ALLOW FRACTIONAL BITS TO BE TRANSMITTED WHICH REDUCES THE
GRANULARITY OF THE BIT LOADING FACTORS


#HAPTER 

$ISCUSSION

4HIS SECTION IS BOTH A DISCUSSION AND A SUMMARY OF THE MATERIAL PRESENTED EARLIER IN THIS REPORT
/NE OF THE MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF /&$- IS ITS ROBUSTNESS AGAINST MULTIPATH PROPAGATION
(ENCE ITS TYPICAL APPLICATIONS ARE IN TOUGH RADIO ENVIRONMENTS /&$- IS ALSO SUITABLE IN
SINGLE FREQUENCY NETWORKS SINCE THE SIGNALS FROM OTHER TRANSMITTERS CAN BE VIEWED AS ECHOES
IE MULTIPATH PROPAGATION 4HIS MEANS THAT IT IS FAVORABLE TO USE /&$- IN BROADCASTING
APPLICATIONS SUCH AS $!" AND $6" 4HE USE OF /&$- IN MULTIUSER SYSTEMS HAS GAINED AN
INCREASING INTEREST THE LAST FEW YEARS 4HE DOWNLINK IN THOSE SYSTEMS IS SIMILAR TO BROADCASTING
WHILE THE UPLINK PUTS HIGH DEMANDS ON EG SYNCHRONIZATION 4HE FUTURE OF /&$- AS A
TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUE FOR MULTIUSER SYSTEMS DEPENDS ON HOW WELL THESE PROBLEMS CAN BE
SOLVED
)N WIRED SYSTEMS THE STRUCTURE OF /&$- OdERS THE POSSIBILITY OF EbCIENT BIT LOADING "Y
ALLOCATING A DIdERENT NUMBER OF BITS TO DIdERENT SUBCHANNELS DEPENDING ON THEIR INDIVIDUAL
3.2S EbCIENT TRANSMISSION CAN BE ACHIEVED !LTHOUGH OTHER SYSTEMS HAVE BEEN PROPOSED
/&$- IS THE DOMINATING TECHNIQUE ON EG DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES .OTE THAT /&$- OFTEN
GOES UNDER THE NAME $-4 WHEN USED IN WIRED SYSTEMS WITH BITLOADING
4HERE ARE ALSO PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH /&$- SYSTEM DESIGN 4HE TWO MAIN OBSTACLES
WHEN USING /&$- ARE THE HIGH PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIO AND SYNCHRONIZATION 4HE FORMER
PUTS HIGH DEMANDS ON LINEARITY IN AMPLIçERS 3YNCHRONIZATION ERRORS IN BOTH TIME AND FRE
QUENCY DESTROY THE ORTHOGONALITY AND CAUSE INTERFERENCE "Y USING A CYCLIC PREçX THE TIMING
REQUIREMENTS ARE SOMEWHAT RELAXED SO THE BIGGEST PROBLEMS ARE DUE TO HIGH FREQUENCY SYN
CHRONIZATION DEMANDS $EGRADATION DUE TO FREQUENCY ERRORS CAN BE CAUSED BOTH BY DIdERENCES
IN LOCAL OSCILLATORS AND BY $OPPLER SHIFTS ! GREAT DEAL OF EdORT IS THEREFORE SPENT ON DESIGNING
ACCURATE FREQUENCY SYNCHRONIZERS FOR /&$-
!S IN ANY DIGITAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM THERE ARE TWO ALTERNATIVES FOR MODULATION CO
HERENT OR DIdERENTIAL 4HE %UROPEAN $!" SYSTEM USES DIdERENTIAL 103+ WHILE THE PROPOSED
SCHEME FOR $6" IS COHERENT  1!- $IdERENTIAL 03+ IS SUITABLE FOR LOW DATA RATES AND GIVES
SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE RECEIVERS WHICH IS IMPORTANT FOR PORTABLE CONSUMER PRODUCTS LIKE $!"
RECEIVERS (OWEVER IN $6" THE DATA RATE IS MUCH HIGHER AND LOW BIT ERROR RATES ARE DIbCULT TO
OBTAIN WITH DIdERENTIAL 03+ ! NATURAL CHOICE FOR $6" IS THEREFORE MULTIAMPLITUDE SCHEMES
$UE TO THE STRUCTURE IN /&$- IT IS EASY TO DESIGN EbCIENT CHANNEL ESTIMATORS AND EQUALIZERS
4HIS IS ONE OF THE APPEALING PROPERTIES OF /&$- WHICH SHOULD BE EXPLOITED TO ACHIEVE HIGH
SPECTRAL EbCIENCY
#ODING IN WIRELESS /&$- SYSTEMS DOES NOT DIdER MUCH FROM CODING IN WIRELESS SINGLE CARRIER


SYSTEMS 4HE MAIN DIdERENCE IS THAT INTERLEAVING IN /&$- ALLOWS SYMBOLS TO BE SPREAD IN
BOTH TIME AND FREQUENCY 4HE POSSIBILITY TO INTERLEAVE IN FREQUENCY OVERCOMES THE DRAWBACK OF
NOT OBTAINING DIVERSITY FROM THE EQUALIZER 3INCE EACH SUBCHANNEL EXPERIENCES âAT FADING CODE
DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS DEVELOPED FOR âAT FADING CHANNELS CAN BE USED $ECODING CAN
BE PERFORMED WITH A 6ITERBI DECODER WHERE THE METRIC DEPENDS ON THE ESTIMATED CHANNEL
ATTENUATIONS 4HIS MEANS THAT SYMBOLS ARE WEIGHED WITH THEIR RESPECTIVE CHANNEL STRENGTH
4HIS REDUCES THE EdECT OF ERRORS CAUSED BY SYMBOLS TRANSMITTED DURING A FADE

!CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
4HE AUTHORS WOULD LIKE TO EXTEND THEIR GRATITUDE TO THE STAd AT 4ELIA 2ESEARCH !" ,ULE¥
AND THE COLLEAGUES AT THE $IVISION OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY FOR
PROVIDING VALUABLE COMMENTS AND CORRECTIONS


!PPENDIX !
4IME FREQUENCY LATTICE

)N THIS APPENDIX WE GIVE A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE EdECTS OF PULSE SHAPING 7E ONLY CONSIDER TIME
AND FREQUENCY DISPERSION AND EXCLUDE CHANNEL NOISE IN THIS ANALYSIS 7E DESCRIBE THE /&$-
SIGNAL AS 8
RS  WJK €JK S !
JK

WHERE THE FUNCTIONS €JK S ARE TRANSLATIONS OF A PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OS S

€JK S  OS S ` K~  DI {Jy S  !

4HIS ALLOWS US TO INTERPRET THE PULSE SHAPING PROBLEM 4HE RECEIVER USES THE FUNCTIONS ‚JK S
THAT ARE TRANSLATIONS OF A POSSIBLY DIdERENT PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OQ S

‚JK S  OQ S ` K~  DI {Jy S 

)N /&$- THESE FUNCTIONS FULçL

H€JK S ‚J K SI  p :J ` J  K ` K < 

 
 

WHERE Ha aI DENOTES THE %UCLIDEAN INNER PRODUCT ;= (ENCE THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
FUNCTIONS ARE BI ORTHOGONAL ;= 4HIS SIMPLIçES THE RECEIVER SINCE
: 

HRS ‚JK SI  RS‚JK SCS  WJK 

c

`

(OWEVER A TIME OR FREQUENCY DISPERSIVE CHANNEL DESTROYS THIS ORTHOGONALITY "Y CAREFULLY
CHOOSING OS S AND OQ S THE EdECTS OF THE LOSS OF ORTHOGONALITY CAN BE KEPT LOW !N /&$-
SYSTEM MUST BE SUbCIENTLY RESISTANT TO BOTH TIME AND FREQUENCY DISPERSION 4HE FORMER CAN
DEALT WITH BY INTRODUCING A GUARD SPACE USUALLY IN THE FORM OF A CYCLIC PREçX WHILE THE LATTER
IS OFTEN APPROACHED BY PULSE SHAPING )N SYSTEMS WITH A CYCLIC PREçX AND NO PULSE SHAPING
THE FUNCTIONS OS S AND OQ S ARE CHOSEN AS THE RECTANGULAR PULSE ALTHOUGH OF DIdERENT LENGTHS
4HE RECEIVER PROTOTYPE FUNCTION OQ S IN THIS CASE IS SHORTER THAN THE TRANSMITTER PROTOTYPE
FUNCTION OS S WHICH CORRESPONDS TO THE REMOVAL OF THE CYCLIC PREçX
! COMMON PROPAGATION MODEL IS OBTAINED BY ASSUMING THAT THE CHANNEL CONSISTS OF A NUMBER
OF ELEMENTARY PATHS ;= WHERE EACH PATH IS DESCRIBED BY A DELAY A FREQUENCY OdSET AND A


COMPLEX ATTENUATION 4HUS BY INVESTIGATING THE EdECTS OF A STATIC DELAY AND FREQUENCY OdSET
THE SENSITIVITY TO A FADING MULTIPATH CHANNEL CAN BE EVALUATED ;= 4HIS ANALYSIS CAN BE MADE
WITH THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION ;= OF THE PROTOTYPE FUNCTIONS OS S AND OQ S
: 

~ E  OS S OQ S ` ~  D I {E S CS

c `

`

WHICH CAN BE VIEWED AS A CROSSCORRELATION FUNCTION IN THE TIME FREQUENCY PLANE 4HE BI
ORTHOGONALITY OF €JK AND ‚JK S REQUIRES THAT
: 
I {LK~
H€JK S ‚J LK M SI  D`
OS S OQ S ` M~ D I {Ly S CS
c `
!
`

 D `I {LK~

M~  Ly  p :M L< 

4HIS IS A CONDITION ON THE SAMPLES OF THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION AT POSITIONS M~ Ly  4HE
CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION SHOULD BE ZERO FOR ALL M L     BUT A DELAY OR FREQUENCY OdSET
WILL DESTROY THE ORTOGONALITY SINCE ~ E  IS NOT SAMPLED AT ITS ZEROS 7ITH A DELAY a~ AND A
FREQUENCY OdSET ay THE SIGNAL POWER IS J a~ ayJ AND THE INTERFERENCE POWER CAN BE UPPER
BOUNDED BY  ` J a~ ayJ ;= 4HIS BOUNDS THE SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO 3)2 FROM
BELOW AS
J a~ ayJ
3)2 w 
 ` J a~ ayJ
4HUS THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION IS A MEASURE OF THE INTERFERENCE IN THE SYSTEM CAUSED BY A
DELAY OR A FREQUENCY OdSET )N ;= A PROTOTYPE FUNCTION IS CREATED WHICH IS CLAIMED TO HAVE A
NEAR OPTIMUM CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION 4HE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION FOR A RECTANGULAR PULSE
IN A SYSTEM WITH CYCLIC PREçX IS SHOWN IN &IGURE ! .OTE THAT THE SYSTEM IS INSENSITIVE TO A

&IGURE ! !MBIGUITY FUNCTION FOR A RECTANGULAR PULSE AND CYCLIC PREçX WITH LENGTHS ~  
AND 3BO   RESPECTIVELY

TIME DELAY LESS THAN 3BO   SINCE THE CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION IS âAT AT THE TOP


 4HE MAIN PROBLEM WITH CHOOSING OS AS A RECTANGULAR PULSE IS THAT IT IS NOT WELL LOCALIZED
IN FREQUENCY $ENOTE THE TIME AND FREQUENCY WIDTHS RESPECTIVELY OF THE UNIT ENERGY SIGNAL
OS BY
: 

aS  S JOSJ CS
: `


aE   E  J/ EJ CE
`

P
WHERE / E  IS THE &OURIER TRANSFORM OF OS 4HEN aS  ~  AND aE   FOR THE RECTAN
GULAR PULSE 4HIS FREQUENCY SPREAD OF ENERGY IS THE REASON FOR )#) IN THE CASE OF TRANSMISSION
OVER FREQUENCY DISPERSIVE CHANNELS ;= 4HUS OTHER PULSES HAVE BEEN SOUGHT TO OVERCOME THIS

PROBLEM 3INCE THE 'AUSSIAN PULSE OS  D {S HAS A MINIMAL TIME BANDWIDTH PRODUCT ;= IT
`

HAS BEEN USED TO FORM SUITABLE FUNCTIONS ; = 0ROLATE SPHEROIDAL WAVE FUNCTIONS ;= HAVE
ALSO BEEN USED TO MINIMIZE OUT OF BAND ENERGY IN PULSES UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS ; =



"IBLIOGRAPHY

;= 2ADIO BROADCASTING SYSTEMS $IGITAL !UDIO "ROADCASTING $!" TO MOBILE PORTABLE AND
çXED RECEIVERS %43   %43) Ô %UROPEAN 4ELECOMMUNICATIONS 3TANDARDS )NSTITUTE
6ALBONNE &RANCE &EB 

;= $IGITAL BROADCASTING SYSTEMS FOR TELEVISION SOUND AND DATA SERVICES %UROPEAN 4ELECOM
MUNICATIONS 3TANDARD PR%43   $RAFT VERSION  !PR 

;= 4RANSMISSION AND RECEPTION 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT '3- 2ECOMMENDATION  VERSION
 %43) 6ALBONNE &RANCE -AR 

;= 7ORKING DOCUMENT TOWARDS %423-'  SELECTION PROCEDURES FOR THE CHOICE OF RADIO
TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES OF THE UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM 5-43 
4ECHNICAL 2EPORT $423-'  %43) 6ALBONNE &RANCE 

;= - !LARD AND 2 ,ASSALLE 0RINCIPLES OF MODULATION AND CHANNEL CODING FOR DIGITAL BROAD
CASTING FOR MOBILE RECEIVERS %"5 2EVIEW Ô 4ECHNICAL  Ô !UG 

;= * " !NDERSEN AND " , !NDERSEN &IRST ORDER FREQUENCY SELECTIVE EdECTS ON PHASE
MODULATIONS IN A FADING CHANNEL 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT #/34  4$ %52/Ô#/34
&IRENZE *AN 

;= * * VAN DE "EEK / %DFORS 0 / "¶RJESSON - 7AHLQVIST AND # –STBERG ! CON

CEPTUAL STUDY OF /&$- BASED MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES 0ART  Ô #HANNEL ESTIMATION IN
THE UPLINK 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT 4DOC  %43) 34# 3-' MEETING NO  (ELSINKI
&INLAND -AY 

;= * * VAN DE "EEK / %DFORS 0 / "¶RJESSON - 7AHLQVIST AND # –STBERG ! CONCEP

TUAL STUDY OF /&$- BASED MULTIPLE ACCESS SCHEMES 0ART  Ô 0ERFORMANCE EVALUATION
OF A CODED SYSTEM 4ECHNICAL 2EPORT 4DOC  %43) 34# 3-' MEETING NO 
$¼SSELDORF 'ERMANY 3EPT 

;= * * VAN DE "EEK / %DFORS - 3ANDELL 3 + 7ILSON AND 0 / "¶RJESSON /N CHANNEL

ESTIMATION IN /&$- SYSTEMS )N 0ROC )%%% 6EHIC 4ECHNOL #ONF VOLUME  PAGES
Ô #HICAGO ), *ULY 

;= * * VAN DE "EEK - 3ANDELL AND 0 / "¶RJESSON -, ESTIMATION OF TIMING AND

FREQUENCY OdSET IN MULTICARRIER SYSTEMS 2ESEARCH 2EPORT 45,%!  $IVISION
OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY 


;= * * VAN DE "EEK - 3ANDELL - )SAKSSON AND 0 / "¶RJESSON ,OW COMPLEX FRAME
SYNCHRONIZATION IN /&$- SYSTEMS )N 0ROC )NT #ONF 5NIVERSAL 0ERSONAL #OMMUN
PAGES Ô 4OKYO *APAN .OV 

;= $ "ENGTSSON AND $ ,ANDSTR¶M #ODING IN A DISCRETE MULTITONE MODULATION SYSTEM

-ASTERÚS THESIS ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY !PR 

;= * ! # "INGHAM -ULTICARRIER MODULATION FOR DATA TRANSMISSION !N IDEA WHOSE TIME
HAS COME )%%% #OMMUN -AG  Ô -AY 
;= % & #ASAS AND # ,EUNG /&$- FOR DATA COMMUNICATION OVER MOBILE RADIO &- CHANNELS
Ô 0ART ) !NALYSIS AND EXPERIMANTAL RESULTS )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN  Ô -AY


;= % & #ASAS AND # ,EUNG /&$- FOR DATA COMMUNICATION OVER MOBILE RADIO &- CHANNELS
Ô 0ART )) 0ERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN  Ô !PR 

;= * #AVERS AND 0 (O !NALYSIS OF THE ERROR PERFORMANCE OF TRELLIS CODED MODULATION IN
2AYLEIGH FADING CHANNELS )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN  Ô *AN 

;= * + #AVERS !N ANALYSIS OF PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULATION FOR 2AYLEIGH FADING CHAN
NELS )%%% 4RANS 6EHIC 4ECHNOL  Ô .OV 
;= 2 7 #HANG 3YNTHESIS OF BAND LIMITED ORTHOGONAL SIGNALS FOR MULTICHANNEL DATA TRANS
MISSION "ELL 3YSTEM 4ECH * Ô $EC 

;= ! #HINI -ULTICARRIER MODULATION IN FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING CHANNELS 0H$ THESIS
#ARLETON 5NIVERSITY /TTAWA #ANADA 

;= ! #HINI - 3 %L 4ANANY AND 3 ! -AHMOUD 4RANSMISSION OF HIGH RATE !4- PACKETS
OVER INDOOR RADIO CHANNELS )%%% * 3ELECT !REAS #OMMUN  Ô !PR 
;= 0 3 #HOW "ANDWIDTH OPTIMIZED DIGITAL TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES FOR SPECTRALLY SHAPED
CHANNELS WITH IMPULSE NOISE 0H$ THESIS 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY #! -AY 

;= 0 3 #HOW . !L $HAHIR AND * - #IOb ! MULTICARRIER % ($3, TRANSCEIVER SYSTEM

WITH CODED MODULATION %UR 4RANS 4ELECOMMUN 2EL 4ECHNOL  Ô -AY


;= 0 3 #HOW * - #IOb AND * ! # "INGHAM ! PRACTICAL DISCRETE MULTITONE TRANSCEIVER

LOADING ALGORITHM FOR DATA TRANSMISSION OVER SPECTRALLY SHAPED CHANNELS )%%% 4RANS
#OMMUN  Ô &EB 

;= , * #IMINI !NALYSIS AND SIMULATION OF A DIGITAL MOBILE CHANNEL USING ORTHOGONAL
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN #/-  Ô *ULY 
;= & #LASSEN AND ( -EYR &REQUENCY SYNCHRONIZATION ALGORITHMS FOR /&$- SYSTEMS
SUITABLE FOR COMMUNICATION OVER FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING CHANNELS )N 0ROC )%%%
6EHIC 4ECHNOL #ONF VOLUME  PAGES Ô 3TOCKHOLM 3WEDEN *UNE 

;= , #OHEN 4IME FREQUENCY ANALYSIS 0RENTICE (ALL .EW *ERSEY 


;= * 7 #OOK 7IDEBAND IMPULSIVE NOISE SURVEY OF THE ACCESS NETWORK "4 4ECHNOL *OURN
 Ô *ULY 

;= & $AdARA AND / !DAMI ! NEW FREQUENCY DETECTOR FOR ORTHOGONAL MULTICARRIER TRANS
MISSION TECHNIQUES )N 0ROC )%%% 6EHIC 4ECHNOL #ONF VOLUME  PAGES Ô
#HICAGO ), *ULY 

;= & $AdARA AND ! #HOULY -AXIMUM LIKELIHOOD FREQUENCY DETECTORS FOR ORTHOGONAL MUL
TICARRIER SYSTEMS )N 0ROC )NTERN #ONF #OMMUN PAGES Ô 'ENEVA 3WITZERLAND
-AY 

;= 4 DE #OUASNON 2 -ONNIER AND * " 2AULT /&$- FOR DIGITAL 46 BROADCASTING 3IGNAL
0ROC Ô Ô 3EPT 

;= 2 $INIS 0 -ONTEZUMA AND ! 'USM£O 0ERFORMANCE TRADE OdS WITH QUASI LINEARLY
AMPLIçED /&$- THROUGH A TWO BRANCH COMBINING TECHNIQUE )N 0ROC )%%% 6EHIC
4ECHNOL #ONF VOLUME  PAGES Ô !TLANTA '! !PR 

;= $ $IVSALAR AND - + 3IMON 4RELLIS CODED MODULATION FOR   BITSS TRANSMISSION
OVER A FADING MOBILE SATELLITE CHANNEL )%%% * 3ELECT !REAS #OMMUN 3!#  Ô
 &EB 

;= $ $IVSALAR AND - + 3IMON 4HE DESIGN OF TRELLIS CODED -03+ FOR FADING CHANNELS
0ERFORMANCE CRITERIA )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN  Ô 3EPT 

;= $ $IVSALAR AND - + 3IMON 4HE DESIGN OF TRELLIS CODED -03+ FOR FADING CHANNELS 3ET
PARTITIONING FOR OPTIMUM CODE DESIGN )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN  Ô 3EPT


;= $ $IVSALAR AND - + 3IMON -ULTIPLE SYMBOL DIdERENTIAL DETECTION OF -03+ )%%%
4RANS #OMMUN  Ô -AR 

;= $ $IVSALAR AND - + 3IMON -AXIMUM LIKELIHOOD DIdERENTIAL DETECTION OF UNCODED AND
TRELLIS CODED AMPLITUDE PHASE MODULATION OVER !7'. AND FADING CHANNELS Ô -ETRICS AND
PERFORMANCE )%%% 4RANS #OMMUN  Ô *AN 

;= * $U AND " 6UCETIC 4RELLIS CODED  1!- FOR FADING CHANNELS %UR 4RANS 4ELECOM
MUN 2EL 4ECHNOL  Ô -AY 

;= $ % $UDGEON AND 2 - -ERSEREAU -ULTIDIMENSIONAL DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

0RENTICEÔ(ALL %NGLEWOOD #LIdS .* 

;= / %DFORS - 3ANDELL * * VAN DE "EEK 3 + 7ILSON AND 0 / "¶RJESSON !NALYSIS

OF $&4 BASED CHANNEL ESTIMATORS FOR /&$- 2ESEARCH 2EPORT 45,%!  $IV OF
3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY 3EPT 

;= / %DFORS - 3ANDELL * * VAN DE "EEK 3 + 7ILSON AND 0 / "¶RJESSON /&$-

CHANNEL ESTIMATION BY SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION )N 0ROC )%%% 6EHIC 4ECHNOL
#ONF PAGES Ô !TLANTA '! !PR 


;= / %DFORS - 3ANDELL * * VAN DE "EEK 3 + 7ILSON AND 0 / "¶RJESSON /&$-
CHANNEL ESTIMATION BY SINGULAR VALUE DECOMPOSITION 2ESEARCH 2EPORT 45,%! 
$IV OF 3IGNAL 0ROCESSING ,ULE¥ 5NIVERSITY OF 4ECHNOLOGY 3EPT 
;= 6 %NGELS AND ( 2OHLING $IdERENTIAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES FOR A  -"ITS RADIO
CHANNEL USING ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING 7IRELESS 0ERS #OMMUN Ô
 Ô 
;= 6 %NGELS AND ( 2OHLING -ULTILEVEL DIdERENTIAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES  $!03+ FOR
MULTICARRIER TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS %UR 4RANS 4ELECOMMUN 2EL 4ECHNOL  Ô
.OV 
;= + &AZEL 0ERFORMANCE OF CONVOLUTIONALLY CODED #$-!/&$- IN A FREQUENCY TIME
SELECTIVE FADING CHANNEL AND ITS NEAR FAR RESISTANCE )N 0ROC )NTERN #ONF #OMMUN
VOLUME  PAGES Ô .EW /RLEANS ,! .OV 
;= 2 & &ISCHER AND * " (UBER ! NEW LOADING ALGORITHM FOR DISCRETE MULTITONE TRANSMIS
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)NDEX

!$3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES $!03+ SEE DIdERENTIAL AMPLITUDE AND PHASE
AMPLIçER SHIFT KEYING
LINEAR  DECISION DIRECTION  
!7'. SEE NOISE DECODING 
DEMODULATION  
BASE STATION   $&4 SEE DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM
BIT LOADING     DIdERENTIAL AMPLITUDE AND PHASE SHIFT KEYING
FACTOR  $!03+ 
BIT ERROR RATE    DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING $!"   
BROADCASTING    
DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE $3,  
CABLE  ASYMMETRIC !$3,  
#!0 SEE MODULATION HIGH BIT RATE ($3, 
#$-! SEE MULTIPLE ACCESS VERY HIGH BIT RATE 6$3, 
#HANG  DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING $6"  
CHANNEL DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM $&4  
!7'.   INVERSE 
ESTIMATION     DISCRETE MULTITONE $-4     
MODEL    
MULTIPATH  DIVERSITY   
#HOW  $-4 SEE DISCRETE MULTITONE
CLIPPING DISTORTION  $OPPLER SHIFT 
CODE   DOWNLINK  
CONCATENATED  DOWNSTREAM 
DESIGN   $3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE
JOINT SOURCECHANNEL  $6" SEE DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING
MULTIDIMENSIONAL 
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS   %BERT 
PUNCTURED   ENVIRONMENT
CROSS AMBIGUITY FUNCTION  WIRED   
CROSSTALK       WIRELESS 
FAR END &%84  EQUALIZATION 
NEAR END .%84  ERROR âOOR 
CYCLIC CONVOLUTION  ERROR PROTECTION
CYCLIC EXTENSION  EQUAL 
CYCLIC PREçX  Ô    UNEQUAL 
ESTIMATOR
$!" SEE DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD -,  


 MINIMUM MEAN SQUARED ERROR --3% -, SEE ESTIMATOR
 --3% SEE ESTIMATOR
%43) SEE %UROPEAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS STAN MOBILE TERMINAL  
DARDS INSTITUTE MODEL
%UCLIDEAN INNER PRODUCT  CONTINUOUS TIME MODEL 
%UROPEAN TELECOMMUNICATIONS STANDARDS IN DIGITAL IMPLEMENTATION 
STITUTE %43)  DISCRETE TIME MODEL 
MODULATION  
FADING CARRIERLESS AMPLITUDEPHASE #!0 
CHANNEL   COHERENT   
âAT    DIdERENTIAL    
2AYLEIGH    FREQUENCY &- 
2ICIAN   PULSE AMPLITUDE 0!- 
&$-! SEE MULTIPLE ACCESS QUADRATURE AMPLITUDE 1!-  
&%84 SEE CROSSTALK TRELLIS CODED 4#- 
çLTER MULTIPATH PROPAGATION 
BANK   MULTIPLE ACCESS 
çNITE IMPULSE RESPONSE &)2  CODE DIVISION #$-! 
SEPARABLE  FREQUENCY DIVISION &$-! 
7IENER  TIME DIVISION 4$-! 
&)2 SEE çLTER MULTIRESOLUTION 
&ISCHER 
&- SEE MODULATION .%84 SEE CROSSTALK
NOISE
GUARD SPACE  ADDITIVE WHITE 'AUSSIAN !7'.  
COLORED 
(¶HER  
IMPULSIVE  
(ARTOG 
PHASE  
($3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES
PSEUDO 
(UGHES 
/"/ SEE OUTPUT BACK Od
)#) SEE INTERCHANNEL INTERFERENCE
ORTHOGONALITY       
)$&4 SEE DISCRETE &OURIER TRANSFORM
OUT OF BAND ENERGY 
INTERCHANNEL INTERFERENCE )#)    
OUTPUT BACK Od /"/ 
   
INTERLEAVING   0!- SEE MODULATION
INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE )3)      PEAK TO AVERAGE POWER RATIO 
)3) SEE INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE 0ELED 
PHASE
*AKES  NOISE  
LATTICE   OdSET 
,EUNG  ROTATION 
LOCALIZATION  PHASE SHIFT KEYING 03+ 
,ORENTZIAN POWER DENSITY SPECTRUM  PHASE LOCKED LOOP 0,, 
LOW RANK APPROXIMATION  PILOT 
BOOSTED 
METRIC  CONTINUAL 


 SCATTERED  4U 
PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULATION 03!- 46 
 
0,, SEE PHASE LOCKED LOOP UPLINK   
POWER DETECTION  UPSTREAM 
POWER DELAY PROçLE  6$3, SEE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINES
PROPAGATION MODEL  6ITERBI ALGORITHM   
PROTOTYPE FUNCTION    SOFT OUTPUT 
03!- SEE PILOT SYMBOL ASSISTED MODULA
TION 7ARNER 
03+ SEE PHASE SHIFT KEYING 7EINSTEIN 
PULSE 7ERNER 
'AUSSIAN  7IENER PROCESS 
RECTANGULAR    
SHAPING    

1!- SEE MODULATION

RANK REDUCTION 
2EED 
2UIZ 

3ALTZBERG 
SAMPLING
NON SYNCHRONIZED 
SYNCHRONIZED 
SAMPLING THEOREM 
SCATTERING 
SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO 3)2  
SINGLE FREQUENCY NETWORKS 
SINGLE CARRIER SYSTEM 
3)2 SEE SIGNAL TO INTERFERENCE RATIO
3OLOMON 
SUBCARRIER  
SUBCHANNEL  
SYNCHRONIZATION    
CARRIER FREQUENCY 
COARSE 
çNE 
SAMPLING FREQUENCY 
SYMBOL 
SYSTEM MARGIN 

4#- SEE MODULATION

4$-! SEE MULTIPLE ACCESS
TELEPHONE ACCESS NETWORK 
TRACKING