MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering
Pavements

Historically, pavements have been divided into two broad categories, rigid and flexible. These
classical definitions, in some cases, are an over-simplification. However, the terms rigid and flexible
provide a good description of how the pavements react to loads and the environment.

The flexible pavement is an asphalt pavement. It generally consists of a relatively thin wearing
surface of asphalt built over a base course and subbase course. Base and subbase courses are usually
gravel or stone. These layers rest upon a compacted subgrade (compacted soil). In contrast, rigid
pavements are made up of Portland cement concrete and may or may not have a base course between
the pavement and subgrade.

The essential difference between the two types of pavements, flexible and rigid, is the manner
in which they distribute the load over the subgrade. Rigid pavement, because of concrete’s rigidity
and stiffness, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of subgrade. The concrete slab
itself supplies a major portion of a rigid pavement’s structural capacity. Flexible pavement, inherently
built with weaker and less stiff material, does not spread loads as well as concrete. Therefore, flexible
pavements usually require more layers and greater thickness or optimally transmitting load to the
subgrade.

One further practical distinction between concrete pavements provides and asphalt
pavement is that concrete pavement provides opportunities to reinforce, texture, color and otherwise
enhance a pavement, that is not possible with asphalt. These opportunities allow concrete to be
made exceedingly strong, long lasting, safe, quiet and architecturally beautiful. Concrete pavements
on average outlast asphalt pavements by 10-15 years before needing rehabilitation.

Rigid Pavements

A rigid pavement typically consists of a Portland cement-concrete slab resting on a subbase

course.

Basic Components of Rigid Pavements

Joints

There are three basic joint types used in concrete pavement: contraction, construction and
isolation. Specific design requirements for each type depend upon the joint’s requirements for each
type depend upon the joint’s orientation to the direction of the roadway (transverse or longitudinal).
Another important factor is load transfer. Except for some isolation joint, all joints provide a means
to mechanically connect slabs. The connection helps to spread a load applied on one slab onto slabs
along its perimeter(s). This decreases the stress within the concrete and increases the longevity of the
joints and slab(s). The efficiency of the mechanical connection is expressed as load transfer efficiency.

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 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
Contraction Joints

Contraction joints are necessary to control natural cracking from stresses cause by concrete
shrinkage, thermal contraction, and moisture or thermal gradients, within the concrete. Typically,
transverse contraction joints are cut at a right angle to the pavement centerline and edges. However,
some agencies skew transverse contraction joints to decrease dynamic loading across the joints by
eliminating the simultaneous crossing of each wheel on a vehicle’s axle. Contraction joints are
usually sawed into the concrete, but they might be formed or tooled on smaller projects. The details
below show the different types of contraction joints and their dimensions.

Construction Joints

Construction joints join concrete that is paved at different times. Transverse construction
joints are necessary at the end of a paving segment, or at a placement interruption for a driveway,
cross road or bridge. Longitudinal construction joints join lanes that paved at different times, or
join through-lanes to curb and gutter or auxiliary lanes. The details below show the different types
of construction joints and their dimensions.

Isolation Joints

Isolation joints separate the pavement from objects or structures, and allow independent
movement of the pavement, object or structure without any connection that could cause damage,
isolation joints are used where a pavement abuts certain manholes, drainage fixtures sidewalks and
buildings, and intersects other pavements or bridges. The details below show the different types of
isolation joints and their dimensions.

Load transfer

Each type of joint provides a different ability to transfer load across slabs. This ability is
termed load transfer efficiency (or effectiveness). It is determined as shown in the figure. Note how
both sides of the joint deflect evenly at 100% load transfer efficiency.

Load transfer is important to pavement longevity. Most performance problems with concrete
pavement are a result of poorly performing joints. Distress, such as faulting, pumping and corner
breaks occur in-part from joints with poor load transfer efficiency. All of these problems worsen
when joints deflect greatly under loads.

Dowel bars provide a mechanical connection between slabs without restricting horizontal
joint movement. They also keep slabs in horizontal joint movement. When loaded by heavy vehicles,
dowel bars lower joint deflection and stress in the concrete slab and reduce the potential problems
by increasing load transfer efficiency.

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 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
The use of dowel bars (smooth round bars) in transverse contraction joint primarily depends
upon the roadway or street classification and can be determined by slab street classification and can
be determined by slab thickness. Doweled contraction joints are not usually used in light residential,
residential, or secondary urban pavements, but they are used in industrial roads, major streets,
highway and airports that will carry heavy vehicles for long periods. Click here to find out when to
use dowels.

When dowels are not used, joint depend solely upon aggregate interlock for load transfer.
Aggregate interlock is the mechanical locking which forms between the fractured surfaces along the
crack below the joint saw cut. Reliance on aggregate interlock without dowels is acceptable on low-
volume and secondary road systems where truck traffic is low and slabs are less than 8 inches thick.

Ordinarily, transverse joints with dowel bars provide better load transfer than those relying
strictly on aggregate interlock.

Aggregate Interlock Deformed steel tie bars are used in longitudinal joints primarily to
prevent lanes from separating. Also, by holding slabs tightly together, they promote aggregate
interlock and consequently load transfer.

Subbases and Subgrades

A reasonably uniform subgrade or subbase, with no abrupt changes in support, is ideal for
any concrete pavement. Most native soils are not too uniform and thus require some improvement
or additional layers to compensate.

A subbase is a thin layer of material placed on top of the prepared subgrade. Subbase provide
uniform support to the pavement and a stable platform for construction equipment’s. Subbase also
help prevent movement of subgrade soils at transverse pavement joint in roads subject to a large
volume of truck traffic. Subbases may be gravel, stone, cement-modified soil, asphalt, or econo-
concrete (low-strength concrete)

Factors Affecting the Design of Rigid Pavements

The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of rigid pavements as
presented in the 1993 guide are:

• Pavement performance
• Subgrade strength
• Subbase strength
• Traffic
• Concrete properties
• Drainage
• Reliability

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 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
Factors Affecting the Design of Flexible Pavements

The factors considered in the AASHTO procedure for the design of flexible pavement as
presented in the 1993 guide are:

• Pavement performance
• Traffic
• Roadbed soils (subgrade material)
• Materials of construction
• Environment
• Drainage
• Reliability

Empirical Pavement Design Formulas

Thickness of Rigid Pavement

Older’s Theory

Without dowels or Tie Bars:

3W
Thickness at edge, t = √ f
cT

With dowels or Tie Bars:

3W
Thickness at edge, t = √2f
cT

3W
Thickness at center, t = √4f
cT

Where:
W = wheel load in lbs. or N
fcT = allowable tensile strength of concrete in psi or MPa
t = thickness of concrete slab in inches or mm

AASHTO Rigid Pavement Design Equation

ΔPSI
log ( )
4.2-1.5
log W18= (ZR)(SO) + 9.36 log (SN + 1) – 0.20 + 1094 + 2.32 log MR – 8.07
0.4+
(SN+1)5.19

Where:
W18 = 18,000 lb (80 kN) equivalent single axle loads predicted to pt.
ZR = Z-statistic associated with the selected level of design reliability

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 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
SO = overall standard deviation of normal distribution of errors associated with traffic prediction
and pavement performance.
SN = Structural Number (essentially a Thickness Index)
ΔPSI = overall serviceability loss = po – pt
po = initial serviceability index following construction
pt = terminal serviceability index; and
MR = resilient modulus of the roadbed soil(s)

Thickness of Flexible Pavement

Cone Pressure Distribution (45˚)

W
t = √ πf – r
Where:
W= weight load in lb or N
f = bearing strength of subgrade or base in psi or MPa
r = radius of contact of wheel to pavement in inches

McLeod’s Method

W
t = k log f
Where:
W= weight load
f = subgrade pressure
K = constant

Hveem (California Highways)

t = 0.0032 (TI) (100 – R)

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 MARIANO MARCOS STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Engineering
𝐸𝑊𝐿
TI = 9.0 ( 106 )0.119

Where:
t = thickness of pavement in feet
TI = Traffic Index
R = resistance value, normally determined at an exudation pressure of 300 lb./in.2
EWL = equivalent wheel load
K = 0.095 (coefficient depending on design wheel load and tire pressure with a factor of safety)

Although the above equation encompasses parameters for the bound maters (c value) and
the underlying unbound materials (R–value) as well as the traffic index (TI), it is based on a 5000
lb (22 kN) wheel load with a tire pressure of overtime and the formula shown above was an early
form of the procedure.

U.S. Corps of Engineers

1.75 1
t = √𝑊 [CBR – ]
π pt
Unit Load at 0.10inch penetration
CBR = x 100
1000 𝑝𝑠𝑖

Where:
W = wheel load in kg
CBR = California Bearing Ratio
pt = tire pressure in kg/cm2

Stiffness Factor of Pavement

3 𝑘
Stiffness Factor, S = √𝐸
Where:
k = modulus of elasticity of subgrade (MPa or psi)
E = modulus of elasticity of pavement (MPa or psi)

Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

𝐹 𝑃
K =0.125 , where F = 𝐴

Where:
P = load in kg causing 0.125 cm settlement
A = area of standard plate (with 75 cm diameter)

#16S Quiling Sur, City of Batac, Ilocos Norte

 coe@mmsu.edu.ph  +63(77)600-34-58 www.mmsu.edu.ph