VIJAYALAKSHMIiDINESH

2214101657

MASTERiOFiCOMPUTERiAPPLICATIONi(MCA)

SECONDiSEMESTER

DCA6201

OPERATINGiSYSTEM

SET1i&iSETi2
 SET-1
1. WhatiareitheitypesiofiOperatingiSystem?iDiscussitheiapplicationiareasiofiRe
alitimeisoftware.
Answer
1.BatchiOS
2.Time-sharingiorimultitaskingiOS.i...
3.DistributediOS.i...
4.NetworkiOS.i...
5.Real-timeiOS.i...
6i.MobileiOS.
Aireal-timeioperatingisystemi(RTOS)iisiaispecial-
purposeioperatingisystemiusediinicomputersithatihasistrictitimeiconstraintsiforianyijo
bitoibeiperformed.iItiisiemployedimostlyiinithoseisystemsiiniwhichitheiresultsiofithei
computationsiareiuseditoiinfluenceiaiprocessiwhileiitiisiexecuting.iWheneverianieven
tiexternalitoitheicomputerioccurs,iitiisicommunicateditoitheicomputeriwithitheihelpio
fisomeisensoriuseditoimonitoritheievent.iTheisensoriproducesitheisignalithatiisiinterp
retedibyitheioperatingisystemiasianiinterrupt.iOnireceivingianiinterrupt,itheioperatingi
systemiinvokesiaispecificiprocessioriaisetiofiprocessesitoiserveitheiinterrupt.
ApplicationsiofiReal-timeiSystem:
Real-
timeiSystemihasiapplicationsiinivariousifieldsiofitheitechnology.iHereiweiwillidiscus
sitheiimportantiapplicationsiofireal-timeisystem.
1.iIndustrialiapplication:
Real-
timeisystemihasiaivastiandiprominentiroleiinimoderniindustries.iSystemsiareimadeire
alitimeibasedisoithatimaximumiandiaccurateioutputicanibeiobtained.iIniorderitoisuchi
thingsireali-
timeisystemsiareiusediinimaximumiindustrialiorganizations.iTheseisystemisomehowil
eaditoitheibetteriperformanceiandihighiproductivityiinilessitime.iSomeiofitheiexampl
esiofiindustrialiapplicationsiare:iAutomatediCariAssemblyiPlant,iChemicaliPlantietc.
2.iMedicaliScienceiapplication:
Initheifieldiofimedicaliscience,ireal-
timeisystemihasiaihugeiimpactionitheihumanihealthianditreatment.iDueitoitheiintrodu
ctioniofireal-
timeisystemiinimedicaliscience,imanyilivesiareisavedianditreatmentioficomplexidisea
sesihasibeeniturnedidownitoieasieriways.iPeopleispeciallyirelateditoimedical,inowifee
limoreirelaxedidueitoitheseisystems.iSomeiofitheiexamplesiofimedicaliscienceiapplic
ationsiare:iRobot,iMRIiScan,iRadiationitherapyietc.
3.iPeripheraliEquipmentiapplications:
Real-
timeisystemihasimadeitheiprintingiofilargeibannersiandisuchithingsiveryieasier.iOnce
itheseisystemsicameiintoiuse,itheitechnologyiworldibecameimoreistrong.iPeripheralie
quipmentiareiusediforivariousipurposes.iTheseisystemsiareiembeddediwithimicroichi
psiandiperformiaccuratelyiiniorderitoigetitheidesirediresponse.iSomeiofitheiexamplesi
ofiperipheraliequipmentiapplicationsiare:iLaseriprinter,ifaximachine,idigitalicameraiet
c.
4.iTelecommunicationiapplications:
Real-
timeisystemimapitheiworldiinisuchiaiwayithatiiticanibeiconnectediwithiniaishortitime
.iReal-
timeisystemsihaveienableditheiwholeiworlditoiconnectiviaiaimediumiacrossiinternet.i
Theseisystemsimakeitheipeopleiconnectiwithieachiotheriininoitimeiandifeelitheirealie
nvironmentiofitogetherness.iSomeiexamplesiofitelecommunicationiapplicationsiofirea
l-timeisystemsiare:iVideoiConferencing,iCellularisystemietc.
5.iDefenseiapplications:
Initheinewieraiofiatomiciworld,idefenseiisiableitoiproduceitheimissilesiwhichihaveith
eidangerousipowersiandihaveitheigreatidestroyingiability.iAllitheseisystemsiareireal-
timeisystemiandiitiprovidesitheisystemitoiattackiandialsoiaisystemitoidefend.iSomeio
fitheiapplicationsiofidefenseiusingirealitimeisystemsiare:iMissileiguidanceisystem,ian
ti-missileisystem,iSatelliteimissileisystemietc.
6.iAerospaceiapplications:
Theimostipowerfuliuseiofirealitimeisystemiisiiniaerospaceiapplications.iBasicallyihar
direalitimeisystemsiareiusediiniaerospaceiapplications.ihereitheidelayiofievenisomein
anoisecondiisinotiallowediandiifiitihappens,isystemifails.iSomeiofitheiapplicationsiofi
real-
timeisystemsiiniaerospaceiare:iSatelliteitrackingisystem,iAvionics,iFlightisimulationi
etc.
2. WhatiisiPreemptiveiandiNon-
preemptiveiScheduling?iDiscussianyithreeiCPUischedulingialgorithms.
Answer
PreemptiveiScheduling
PreemptiveiSchedulingiisiaischedulingimethodiwhereitheitasksiareimostlyiassignediwithi
theiripriorities.iSometimesiitiisiimportantitoiruniaitaskiwithiaihigheripriorityibeforeianot
heriloweripriorityitask,ieveniifitheiloweripriorityitaskiisistillirunning.
Atithatitime,itheiloweripriorityitaskiholdsiforisomeitimeiandiresumesiwhenitheihigheripr
iorityitaskifinishesiitsiexecution.

Non-PreemptiveiScheduling
Inithisitypeiofischedulingimethod,itheiCPUihasibeeniallocateditoiaispecificiprocess.iThei
processithatikeepsitheiCPUibusyiwillireleaseitheiCPUieitheribyiswitchingicontextioriter
minating.

Itiisitheionlyimethodithaticanibeiusediforivariousihardwareiplatforms.iThat’sibecauseiiti
doesn’tineedispecializedihardwarei(foriexample,iaitimer)ilikeipreemptiveiScheduling.

CPUiSchedulingiAlgorithms
FirstiComeiFirstiServe
Itiisiaisimpleischedulingialgorithm.iTheiideaiisithatitheiprocessithaticomesifirstimustiuse
itheiresourceifirst.

Itischedulesiaccordingitoitheiarrivalitimeiofitheiprocess.iItistatesithatiprocessiwhichirequ
estitheiCPUifirstiisiallocateditheiCPUifirst.iItiisiimplementedibyiusingiFIFOi(FirstiCom
eiFirstiServe)iqueueiandiisiaiNon-Preemptiveischedulingialgorithm.
Example

TURNI
PROCESS BURSTITIME WAITINGITIME AROUNDITIME
P1 8 0 8
P2 3 8 11

P3 5 11 16
P4 3 16 19

Analysingitheigiveniprocesses,ifirstitheiprocessiP1iwillibeiexecuted.iTherefore,iwaitingit
imeiofiprocessiP1iwillibei0.
As,iprocessiP1itakesi8iunitsiofitimeiforicompletion,isoiwaitingitimeiforiprocessiP2iwilli
bei8.
Likewise,iwaitingitimeiofiprocessiP3iwillibeiexecutionitimeiofiprocessiP1i+iexecutioniti
meiforiprocessiP2,ii.e.i(8i+i3)iunitsi=i11iunits.i
Furthermore,iforiprocessiP4iitiwillibeitheisumiofiexecutionitimesiofiP1,iP2iandiP3.

AdvantagesiofiFCFSi:
Simple
Easy,iusefuliandiunderstandable
Firsticome,ifirstiserved.
 2.iShortestiJobiFirst
Processiwithitheishortestiburstitimeiisischeduledifirst.iIfitwoiprocessesihaveisameiburstitime
,itheniFCFSiisiuseditoibreakitheitie.iItiisiaiNon-Preemptiveischedulingialgorithm.
Weiwilliunderstandiitibetteriusingithisiexample:

PROC ARRIVALi BURSTi WAITINGi TURNiAROUN

ESS TIME TIME TIME DiTIME

P1 1 7 0 7

P2 3 3 7 10

P3 6 2 2 4

P4 7 10 14 24

P5 9 8 4 12

Sinceiarrivalitimeiofianyiprocessiisinoti0,ithereiwillibeinoiexecutionioriallocationiofiCPUi
fromitimei0itoi1.
Followingitheialgorithmifurther,iprocessihavingitheileastiburstitimeiamongitheiavailableipro
cessesiwillibeiexecuted.iTillinow,iweihaveionlyioneiprocessiinitheireadyiqueueihenceitheipr
ocessiwillibeischeduledinoimatteriwhatitheiburstitimeiis.
Theiprocessiwillibeiexecuteditilli8iunitsiofitime.iTillithenithreeimoreiprocessesihaveiarrivediini
theireadyiqueueitherefore,itheiprocessiwithitheilowestiburstitimeiwillibeichoosen.iP3iwillibeiex
ecutedinextiasiitihasilowestiburstitime.iSoithat'sihowitheiprocessiwilligoioniinishortestijobifirsti
(SJF)ischedulingialgorithm.

AdvantagesiofiSJFi:
 HasiminimumiwaitingitimeiinicomparisoniwithiotheriSchedulingiAlgorithms.
3.iShortestiRemainingiTimeiFirst
ItiisitheipreemptiveimodeiofiSJFiCPUischedulingiiniwhichiresourcesiareiallocateditoiprocessesi
accordingitoitheishortestiremainingitime.

Weiwilliunderstandiitibetteriusingithisiexample:

PROCE ARRIVALITI BURSTITI WAITINGITI TURNIAROUNDIT

SS ME ME ME IME

P1 0 8 12 20
 PROCE ARRIVALITI BURSTITI WAITINGITI TURNIAROUNDIT
SS ME ME ME IME

P2 1 4 5 9

P3 2 2 0 2

P4 3 1 1 2

P5 4 3 6 9

P6 5 2 0 2

iSinceiarrivalitimeiofianyiprocessiisinoti0,ithereiwillibeinoiexecutionioriallocationiofiCPUifr
omitimei0itoi1.
Followingitheialgorithmifurther,iprocessihavingitheileastiburstitimeiamongitheiavailableiproces
sesiwillibeiexecuted.iTillinow,iweihaveionlyioneiprocessiinitheireadyiqueueihenceitheiprocessi
willibeischeduledinoimatteriwhatitheiburstitimeiis.
Theiprocessiwillibeiexecuteditilli8iunitsiofitime.iTillithenithreeimoreiprocessesihaveiarrivediini
theireadyiqueueitherefore,itheiprocessiwithitheilowestiburstitimeiwillibeichoosen.iP3iwillibeiex
ecutedinextiasiitihasilowestiburstitime.iSoithat'sihowitheiprocessiwilligoioniinishortestijobifirsti
(SJF)ischedulingialgorithm
AdvantagesiofiSJFi:
 HasiminimumiwaitingitimeiinicomparisoniwithiotheriSchedulingiAlgorithms.
RoundiRobiniScheduling
EachiprocessiisiassignediaiTimeiQuantumiiniaicycliciway.iItiisidesignedispeciallyiforiTime-
Sharingisystemisoitheiexecutioniofireadyiqueueimustibeiiniformioficirculariqueue.iCPUiisiallot
editoieachiprocessiforitimeiintervaliofioneitimeiquantum.iNewiprocessesiareiaddediatitheiendio
fireadyiqueue.iIfiprocessihasiburstitimeilessithaniaitimeiquantum,itheiprocessiwillireleaseiitselfi
ofiCPUivoluntarilyiafteriitsiexecution.iBut,iifiburstitimeiisigreaterithaniaitimeiquantum,itheniaf
teritheitimeiquantum,iinterruptiwillioccuriandiprocessiwillibeiputiatitheiendiofireadyiqueueibyi
executingiaiContextiSwitching.
Weiwilliunderstandiitibetteriusingithisiexample:
TIMEiQUANTUMi=i2i(forigiveniexample)

PROCESS BURSTITIME WAITINGITIME TURNIAROUNDITIME

P1 8 10 18
 PROCESS BURSTITIME WAITINGITIME TURNIAROUNDITIME
P2 3 4 7
P3 5 14 19
P4 3 11 14

Selectitheifirstiprocessiandistartiexecutingitheiprocessi(foriquantumitimeionly).iCheckiifianyiot
heriprocessirequestihasiarrived.
Inicaseianyiprocessiarrivesiduringitheiexecutionitimeiofifirstiprocessitheiprocessiwillibeiaddedit
oicirculariqueue.iAfteriexecutioniofitheiprocessiforitheiquantumitime,icheckiforitheiavailability
iofiprocesses.
Ifinoiprocessiisiinireadyiqueue,ithenicontinueiforitheipreviousiprocess.iIfinotiaddicurrentiproces
sitoitheiendiofitheireadyiqueue.
Takeinextiprocessifromireadyiqueueiandistartiexecutingiit(sameirules).iRepeatialliaboveistepsiti
llialliprocessesiareicomplete.
AdvantagesiofiRRi:
Priorityiisisameiforialliprocessesiasitheyiareiprovidediwithisameiresources.
Starvationidoesinotioccuribecauseiofiitsicyclicinature.
3. Discussitheiuseiofisemaphores.iWhatiareimonitors?
Answer
Semaphoresiareiintegerivariablesithatiareiuseditoisolveitheicriticalisectioniproblemibyiusingitw
oiatomicioperations,iwaitiandisignalithatiareiusediforiprocessisynchronization.
Theidefinitionsiofiwaitiandisignaliareiasifollowsi−

 Wait
TheiwaitioperationidecrementsitheivalueiofiitsiargumentiS,iifiitiisipositive.iIfiSiisinegativ
eiorizero,itheninoioperationiisiperformed.

wait(S)
{
iiiwhilei(S<=0);

iiiS--;
}
 Signal
TheisignalioperationiincrementsitheivalueiofiitsiargumentiS.
 signal(S)
{
iiiS++;
}

TypesiofiSemaphores
Thereiareitwoimainitypesiofisemaphoresii.e.icountingisemaphoresiandibinaryisemaphore
s.iDetailsiaboutitheseiareigiveniasifollowsi−

CountingiSemaphores
Theseiareiintegerivalueisemaphoresiandihaveianiunrestrictedivalueidomain.iTheseisemap
horesiareiuseditoicoordinateitheiresourceiaccess,iwhereitheisemaphoreicountiisitheinumb
eriofiavailableiresources.iIfitheiresourcesiareiadded,isemaphoreicountiautomaticallyiincr
ementediandiifitheiresourcesiareiremoved,itheicountiisidecremented.

BinaryiSemaphores
Theibinaryisemaphoresiareilikeicountingisemaphoresibutitheirivalueiisirestricteditoi0ian
di1.iTheiwaitioperationionlyiworksiwhenitheisemaphoreiisi1ianditheisignalioperationisu
cceedsiwhenisemaphoreiisi0.iItiisisometimesieasieritoiimplementibinaryisemaphoresitha
nicountingisemaphores.
Monitors
Bothisemaphoresiandimonitorsiareiuseditoisolveitheicriticalisectioniproblemi(asitheyiall
owiprocessesitoiaccessitheisharediresourcesiinimutualiexclusion)ianditoiachieveiprocessi
synchronizationiinitheimultiprocessingienvironment.

AiMonitoritypeihigh-
levelisynchronizationiconstruct.iItiisianiabstractidataitype.iTheiMonitoritypeicontainsish
aredivariablesianditheisetiofiproceduresithatioperateionitheisharedivariable.

Whenianyiprocessiwishesitoiaccessitheisharedivariablesiinitheimonitor,iitineedsitoiacces
siitithroughitheiprocedures.iTheseiprocessesilineiupiiniaiqueueiandiareionlyiprovidediac
cessiwhenitheipreviousiprocessireleaseitheisharedivariables.iOnlyioneiprocessicanibeiact
iveiiniaimonitoriatiaitime.iMonitorihasiconditionivariables.
i
SETi-2
Iiii
4.a)iWhatiisiaiProcessiControliBlock?iExplainiitsiuse.
Answer
ProcessiControliblockiisiusediforistoringitheicollectioniofiinformationiaboutitheiProcess
esiandithisiisialsoicallediasitheiDataiStructureiwhichiStoresitheiinformationiaboutitheipr
ocess.iTheiinformationiofitheiProcessiisiusedibyitheiCPUiatitheiRunitime.iTheivariousii
nformationiwhichiisiStorediintoitheiPCBiasifollowings:

1)iNameiofitheiProcess.
2)iStateiofitheiProcess.iMeansiReady,iActive,iWait.
3)iResourcesiallocateditoitheiProcess
4)iMemoryiwhichiisiprovideditoitheiProcess.
5)iSchedulingiinformation.
6)iInputiandiOutputiDevicesiusedibyitheiProcess.
7)iProcessiIDioriaiIdentificationiNumberiwhichiisigivenibyitheiCPUiwheniaiProcessiRe
questiforiaiService.

UseiofiProcessiControliBlock

It'sitheijobiofitheioperatingisystemitoiassigniaiCPUitoiaiprocessiasitheiprocessidoesn'tine
ediaiCPUiallitheitime.iLet'sitakeianiexampleiofitheiinput/outputiprocess,itheyiareionlyiu
sedibyitheiCPUiwhenitriggered.

Theiroleiofitheiprocessicontroliblockiarisesiasianiidentificationicardiforieachiprocess.iTh
eiOperatingiSystemidoesn'tiknowiwhichiprocessiisiwhich,iuntiliOperatingiSystemirefersi
throughitheiPCBiofieveryiprocess.

ForiExample:,ithereiareiMSiwordiprocesses,ipdfiprocesses,iprintingiprocesses,iandimany
ibackgroundiprocessesiareirunningicurrentlyionitheiCPU.iHowiwilliOSiidentifyiandiman
ageieachiprocessiwithoutiknowingitheiidentityiofieachiprocess?

So,ihereiPCBicomesiintoiplayiasiaidataistructureitoistoreiinformationiaboutieachiprocess
.

Therefore,iwheneveriaiuseritriggersiaiprocessi(likeiprinticommand),iaiprocessicontrolibl
ocki(PCB)iisicreatediforithatiprocessiinitheioperatingisystemiwhichiisiusedibyitheioperat
ingisystemitoiexecuteiandimanageitheiprocessesiwhenitheioperatingisystemiisifree.
ProcessiControliBlocki(PCB)iisiaidataistructureimaintainedibyitheioperatingisystemitoist
oreiinformationiofieachiprocess.
RoleiofiPCBiisitoigiveiidentityitoieachiprocessisoithatiOperatingiSystemicanieasilyidisti
nguishibetweeniprocesses.
PCBicontainsifieldsilikeiprocessiID,iprocessipriority,iprocessistate,iaccountingiinformati
on,ilistiofiopenifiles,ietc.
PCBsiareistorediinitheiformiofiLinkediListiinitheimemory.
Processitableicontainsiaireferenceitoieveryiprocessicurrentlyibeingiexecutediinitheisyste
m.iSo,iwheneveriOSiperformsicontextiswitchingiitirefersitoitheiprocessitableiforitheireq
uirediprocess.
4. b)iWhatiisithrashing?iWhatiareiitsicauses?
Answer
ThrashingioccursiwheniaiProcessispendsimoreitimeiinipagingioriSwappingiactivitiesirath
erithaniitsiexecution.
IniThrashing,itheiCPUiisisoimuchibusyiiniswappingithatiiticannotiresponditoitheiuseripr
ogramiasimuchiasiitirequired.i

CausesiofiThrashingiiniOperatingiSystem
ThrashingiiniOperatingiSystemiaffectsitheiperformanceiofiexecution.i
Initially,iwhenitheiCPUiutilizationiisilow,ithenitheiprocessischedulingimechanismiloadsi
manyiprocessesiintoitheiMemoryisimultaneouslyisoithatitheiDegreeiofiMultiprogrammin
gicanibeiincreased.
Inithisisituation,iweihaveimoreiprocessesithanitheiavailableinumberiofiframesiiniMemor
y.iAllocationiofitheilimitediamountiofiframesitoieachiprocess.
WhenianyihigheripriorityiProcessiarrivesiiniMemoryiandiifitheiframeiisinotifreelyiavaila
bleiatithatitime,ithenitheiotheriprocessithatioccupieditheiframeiwhichiresidesiinitheifram
eiwillimoveitoisecondaryistorage,iandithisifreeiframeiisinowiallocateditoiainewlyiarrived
ihigheripriorityiprocess.
Iniotheriwords,iweicanisayithatiasitheiMemoryifillsiup,itheiprocessistartsitoispendiailotio
fitimeiforitheirequiredipagesitoibeiswappediin;iagain,iCPUiutilizationibecomesilowibeca
useimostiofitheiprocessesiareiwaitingiforipages.

5ia)iDiscussitheidifferentiFileiAccessiMethods.
Answer
Aifileiisibasicallyiaisequenceiofibytesiorganizediintoiblocksithatiareiunderstandableibyianyi
machines.iIniotheriwords,itheicollectioniofirelatediinformationithatiisistorediiniaisecondaryi
storageideviceiisialsoicallediaifile.iTheifileiisiaicollectioniofilogicallyirelatedientities.iAccor
dingitoitheiusersiviewiaifileiisitheismallestiallotsispaceiofitheilogicalisecondaryistorage.iThe
iobjectithatistoresidata,iinformation,isettingsioricommandsiusediwithiaicomputeriprogramio
niaicomputeriisicalledifile.iInigraphicaliuseriinterfacei(GUI)isuchiasiMicrosoftiWindows,ifil
esidisplayiasiiconsithatirelateitoitheiprogramithatiopensitheifile.
Wheniaifileiisiused,iinformationiisireadiandiaccessediintoicomputerimemoryiandithereiareis
everaliwaysitoiaccessithisiinformationiofitheifile.iSomeisystemsiprovideionlyioneiaccessime
thodiforifiles.iOtherisystems,isuchiasithoseiofiIBM,isupportimanyiaccessimethods,iandichoo
singitheirightioneiforiaiparticulariapplicationiisiaimajoridesigniproblem.i

Thereiareithreeiwaysitoiaccessiaifileiintoiaicomputerisystem:iSequential-
Access,iDirectiAccess,iIndexisequentialiMethod.
SequentialiAccessi–i
Itiisitheisimplestiaccessimethod.iInformationiinitheifileiisiprocessediiniorder,ioneirecordiaft
eritheiother.iThisimodeiofiaccessiisibyifaritheimosticommon;iforiexample,ieditoriandicompi
leriusuallyiaccessitheifileiinithisifashion.i
Readiandiwriteimakeiupitheibulkiofitheioperationioniaifile.iAireadioperationi-readinext-
ireaditheinextipositioniofitheifileiandiautomaticallyiadvanceiaifileipointer,iwhichikeepsitrack
iI/Oilocation.iSimilarly,iforithei-writeinext-
iappenditoitheiendiofitheifileiandiadvanceitoitheinewlyiwrittenimaterial.
Dataiisiaccessedioneirecordirightiafterianotherirecordiinianiorder.i
Wheniweiuseireadicommand,iitimoveiaheadipointeribyionei
Wheniweiuseiwriteicommand,iitiwilliallocateimemoryiandimoveitheipointeritoitheiendiofith
eifilei
Suchiaimethodiisireasonableiforitape.

DirectiAccessi–i
Anotherimethodiisidirectiaccessimethodialsoiknowniasirelativeiaccessimethod.iAifiled-
lengthilogicalirecordithatiallowsitheiprogramitoireadiandiwriteirecordirapidly.iininoiparticul
ariorder.iTheidirectiaccessiisibasedionitheidiskimodeliofiaifileisinceidiskiallowsirandomiacc
essitoianyifileiblock.iForidirectiaccess,itheifileiisiviewediasiainumberedisequenceiofiblockio
rirecord.iThus,iweimayireadiblocki14itheniblocki59,ianditheniweicaniwriteiblocki17.iTherei
isinoirestrictionionitheiorderiofireadingiandiwritingiforiaidirectiaccessifile.i
Aiblockinumberiprovidedibyitheiuseritoitheioperatingisystemiisinormallyiairelativeiblockinu
mber,itheifirstirelativeiblockiofitheifileiisi0ianditheni1iandisoion.

Indexisequentialimethodi–i
Itiisitheiotherimethodiofiaccessingiaifileithatiisibuiltionitheitopiofitheisequentialiaccessi
method.iTheseimethodsiconstructianiindexiforitheifile.iTheiindex,ilikeianiindexiinitheiba
ckiofiaibook,icontainsitheipointeritoitheivariousiblocks.iToifindiairecordiinitheifile,iweif
irstisearchitheiindex,iandithenibyitheihelpiofipointeriweiaccessitheifileidirectly.i
Keyipoints:i

ItiisibuiltionitopiofiSequentialiaccess.i
Iticontrolitheipointeribyiusingiindex.i

5.b)iWhatiareiI/OiControliStrategies?
i
I/Oicontrollersicommunicateiwithiexternalidevicesiconnecteditoitheicomputer.iTheyiassi
stiwithidataitransferiandiexchangeidataibetweenitheiprocessoriandiothericomponentsiwit
hiniaicomputer.iThereiareifourimainitypesiofiI/O.
1. ProgramiControllediI/O
Thisiisitheisimplestitoiimplement.iiTheiexecutingiprogramimanagesieveryiaspectiofiI/Oi
processing.iiI/Oioccursionlyiwhenitheiprogramicallsiforiit.iiIfitheiI/Oideviceiisinotiready
itoiperformiitsifunction,itheiCPUiwaitsiforiititoibeiready;ithisiisi“busyiwaiting”.
TheiprogrammediI/Oimethodicontrolsitheitransferiofidataibetweeniconnectedidevicesian
ditheicomputer.iEachiI/Oideviceiconnecteditoitheicomputeriisicontinuallyicheckediforiin
puts.iOnceiitireceivesianiinputisignalifromiaidevice,iiticarriesioutithatirequestiuntiliitinoi
longerireceivesianiinputisignal.iLet'sisayiyouiwantitoiprintiaidocument.iWheniyouiselect
iprintioniyouricomputer,itheirequestiisisentithroughitheicentraliprocessingiuniti(CPU)ian
ditheicommunicationisignaliisiacknowledgediandisentioutitoitheiprinter.
TheinextitwoistrategiesiareibuiltiuponiprogramicontrollediI/O.
2. InterruptiDriveniI/O
Inithisivariant,itheiI/Oideviceicaniraiseiaisignalicallediani“interrupt”iwheniitiisireadyitoi
performiinputiorioutput.iiTheiCPUiperformsitheiI/Oionlyiwhenitheideviceiisireadyiforiit.
Foriexample,iifiyouistrikeiaikeyioniaikeyboard,itheiinterruptiI/Oiwillisendiaisignalitoithe
iCPUithatiitineedsitoipauseifromiitsicurrentitaskiandicarryioutitheirequestifromitheikeyb
oardistroke.
Inisomeicases,ithisiinterrupticanibeiviewediasianialarm,iindicatingianiundesirableievent.
DirectiMemoryiAccess
Theidataitransferibetweeniaifastistorageimediaisuchiasimagneticidiskiandimemoryiunitiis
ilimitedibyitheispeediofitheiCPU.iThusiweicaniallowitheiperipheralsidirectlyicommunica
teiwithieachiotheriusingitheimemoryibuses,iremovingitheiinterventioniofitheiCPU.iThisit
ypeiofidataitransferitechniqueiisiknowniasiDMAioridirectimemoryiaccess.iDuringiDMA
itheiCPUiisiidleiandiitihasinoicontrolioveritheimemoryibuses.iTheiDMAicontrolleritakes
ioveritheibusesitoimanageitheitransferidirectlyibetweenitheiI/Oidevicesianditheimemoryi
unit.
I/OiChannel
ThisiassignsiI/Oitoiaiseparateiprocessor,iwhichiusesioneiofitheiaboveithreeistrategies.

6)iExplainitheidifferentiMultiprocessoriInterconnectionsianditypesiofiMultiprocess
oriOperatingiSystems.
Answer
DifferentiMultiprocessoriInterconnectionsiandiitypesiofiMultiprocessoriOS
Theiprocessorsimustibeiableitoishareiaisetiofimainimemoryimodulesi&iI/Oidevicesiiniai
multiprocessorisystem.iThisisharingicapabilityicanibeiprovidedithroughiinterconnectioni
structures.iTheiinterconnectionistructureithatiareicommonlyiusedicanibeigiveniasifollows
i–

Time-sharedi/iCommoniBus
CrossibariSwitch
MultiportiMemory
MultistageiSwitchingiNetworki
HypercubeiSystem

1. Time-sharedi/iCommoniBus
Iniaimultiprocessorisystem,itheitimeisharedibusiinterconnectioniprovidesiaicommoni
communicationipathiconnectingiallitheifunctionaliunitsilikeiprocessor,iI/Oiprocessor,i
memoryiunitietc.iTheifigureibelowishowsitheimultipleiprocessorsiwithicommonicom
municationipathi(singleibus).
iiiiiiiii

2.iCrossbariSwitchi:
Aipointiisireachediatiwhichithereiisiaiseparateipathiavailableiforieachimemoryimodule,iifith
einumberiofibusesiinicommonibusisystemiisiincreased.iCrossbariSwitchi(forimultiprocessor
s)iprovidesiseparateipathiforieachimodule.

3.iMultiportiMemory:
IniMultiportiMemoryisystem,itheicontrol,iswitchingi&ipriorityiarbitrationilogiciareidistribut
edithroughoutitheicrossbariswitchimatrixiwhichiisidistributediatitheiinterfacesitoitheimemor
yimodules.

4.iHypercubeiInterconnection:
Thisiisiaibinaryin-
cubeiarchitecture.iHereiweicaniconnecti2ndiprocessorsiandieachiofitheiprocessorihereiforms
iainodeiofitheicube.iiAinodeicanibeimemoryimodule,iI/Oiinterfaceialso,inotinecessarilyiproc
essor.iTheiprocessoriatiainodeihasicommunicationipathithatiisidirectigoesitoiniotherinodesi(t
otali2ninodes).iThereiareitotali2nidistinctin-bitibinaryiaddresses.
Thereiareitwoitypesiofimultiprocessors,ioneiisicalledisharedimemoryimultiprocessoriandi
anotheriisidistributedimemoryimultiprocessor.iInisharedimemoryimultiprocessors,iallithei
CPUsisharesitheicommonimemoryibutiiniaidistributedimemoryimultiprocessor,ieveryiCPUi
hasiitsiowniprivateimemory.
shared-memoryimultiprocessor
Aishared-
memoryimultiprocessoriisianiarchitectureiconsistingiofiaimodestinumberiofiprocessors,iallio
fiwhichihaveidirecti(hardware)iaccessitoiallitheimainimemoryiinitheisystemiThisipermitsian
yiofitheisystemiprocessorsitoiaccessidataithatianyiofitheiotheriprocessorsihasicreatedioriwill
iuse.
distributedimemoryimultiprocessor
Inicomputeriscience,idistributedimemoryirefersitoiaimultiprocessoricomputerisystemi
iniwhichieachiprocessorihasiitsiowniprivateimemory.iComputationalitasksicanionlyio
perateionilocalidata,iandiifiremoteidataiareirequired,itheicomputationalitaskimusticom
municateiwithioneiorimoreiremoteiprocessors.

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