4.0 Slope Stability

Geo-technical Engineering
[TCVG3711]
4.0 Slope Stability Analysis

Mr. Shade S. Muluti
smuluti@unam.na
School of Engineering & The Built Environment

Department of Civil and Mining Engineering
Learning Outcomes
▪ Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to
do the following:
✓ Assess the forces and activities that provoke slope failures.
✓ Understand the different principal modes of slope failure in soils.
✓ Understand the effects of geology, seepage, and porewater
pressures on the stability of slopes.
✓ Estimate the stability of slopes with simple geometry (i.e., Taylor’s
method) and geological features.
✓ Appraise the limit equilibrium methods of analysis (i.e., mass
methods & method of slices) used to estimate the factor of safety of
a slope.
✓ Devise mitigation measures to prevent failure of slopes.
✓ Simulate basic slope stability analysis using SLOPE/W in GeoStudio
software..
TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 2

Introduction
▪ A slope is an exposed ground mass whose surface forms an angle with
the horizontal.
▪ A slope can be a natural slope, or one created by excavation, or an
embankment created by engineering fill.
▪ Natural slopes are those that exist in nature and are formed by natural
causes and such slopes exist in hilly areas.
▪ The sides of cuttings, the slopes of embankments constructed for
roads, railway lines, canals etc. and the slopes of earth dam
construction are examples of man-made slopes.
▪ In geotechnical engineering, slope stability deals with:
o The engineering design of slopes of man-made slopes in advance.
o The study of the stability of existing or natural slopes of earthworks and
natural slopes.

Introduction
▪ Types of Slopes:
1) Natural slopes
o Hill sides
o Mountains
o Riverbanks
2) Man-made slopes
o Fill (Embankment)
o Earth dams
o Canal banks
o Excavation sides
o Trenches
o Highway Embankments

Slope Stability
▪ Slope stability is an extremely important consideration in the design
and construction of earth dams.
▪ The stability of a natural slope is also important.
▪ The stability of the slopes of the embankments or excavations depends
on three major factors:
o Height
o Slope angle
o Shear strength parameters (c, ϕ).
▪ Increasing the height or slope angle reduces the stability.
▪ Larger shear strength parameters, c and ϕ, result in increased shear
strength and improved stability.

Slope Stability Failure
▪ A slope failure is defined as the displacement of a portion
of the slope mass downward relative to the mass beneath
the sliding surface.
▪ The results of a slope failure can often be catastrophic,
involving loss of considerable property and many lives.
▪ Slope failures depend on the:
o Soil type
o Soil stratification
o Groundwater
o Seepage
o Slope geometry
Causes of Slope Failures
▪ Slope failures are caused, in general, by natural forces, human
misjudgment and activities, and burrowing animals.
▪ Some of the main factors that provoke slope failures are:
o Erosion
o Rainfall
o Earthquakes
o Geological Features
o External Loading
o Construction Activities
✓ Excavated Slopes
✓ Fill Slopes
✓ Rapid Drawdown

Source: Kalumba (2020)


Case Studies of Slope Failures
▪ Bolivia, 4 March 2003
o 14 people killed
o 400 houses buried

▪ Brazil, January 2003
o 8 people killed

▪ TAIPEI, Taiwan, April 2010
o Three cars buried by a massive landslide.

Modes of Slope Failure
▪ Principal modes of failure in soil or rock are:
a) Circular Rotational Failure
b) Non-Circular Failure
c) Translational Failure
d) Wedge Failure
e) Compound slip
f) Other modes of failure
o Toppling of rock slopes
o Falls
o Block slides
o Lateral spreading
o Earth and mud flow

a) Circular Rotational Failure
o Rotation on a curved slip surface approximated by a circular arc.
o Occurs in Homogenous soil.
o Circle tangent to base of weak horizon.
o Circle passes through bottom of tension crack (when present).

b) Non-Circular Failure
o Failure surface along boundary between materials with a significant
strength difference.
o Failure along discontinuities.

c) Translational Failure
o Translation on a planar surface whose length is large compared to depth
below ground.
o Translational slides - sometimes referred to an infinite slope slides.
o Failure surface characterized by a planar slip surface often lying parallel
to the slope of the ground surface (usually shallow).

d) Wedge Failure
o Displacement of a wedge-shaped mass along one or more planes of
weakness.
o Triangular blocks (or otherwise) sliding on natural discontinuity.
o Normally occurs in rigid soils like rocks.

e) Compound Slip Failure
o This is a combination of circular rotational and translational failures.
o It occurs where the form of failure surface is affected by the presence of
an adjacent stratum of different strength, and with the adjacent stratum
relatively deep.

f) Other Modes of Failure
o Failure includes toppling of rock slopes, falls, block slides, lateral
spreading, earth and mud flow in clayey and silty soils, and debris flows
in coarse-grained soils..
Flows

Types of Failure Surfaces
▪ Failure of slopes generally occur along surfaces known as failure surfaces.
▪ The main types of surfaces are:
o Planar Surfaces: Occurs in frictional, non-cohesive soils.
o Rotational surfaces: Occurs in cohesive soils.
o Compound Slip Surfaces: When there is hard stratum at some depth that
intersects with the failure plane.
o Transitional Slip Surfaces: When there is a hard stratum at a relatively shallow
depth.
▪ The failure surfaces whether rotational or translational may be:
1) Infinite slopes
o Used to designate a constant slope of infinite extent.
o For example, the long slope of the face of a mountain.
2) Finite slopes
o Used to designate a slope of limited in extent.
o For example, the slopes of embankments and earth dams.

Types of Failure Surfaces
Infinite Long Plane Failure

surface
Translational
(Planar)
Finite Plane Failure

surface
Above the toe

Rotational
Finite Through the toe
(Curved)
Deep seated

Concepts of Slope Stability Analysis
▪ The analysis of slope stability involves determining and comparing the shear
stress developed along the most likely rupture surface to the shear strength of
soil.
▪ In general, we need to check:
o The stability of a given existed slope.
o Determine the inclination angle for a slope that we want to build with a given height.
o The height for a slope that we want to build with a given inclination.
▪ There are methods used to expresses the relationship between resisting forces
and driving forces.
o Driving forces – forces which move earth materials downslope. Downslope
component of weight of material including vegetation, fill material, or buildings.
o Resisting forces – forces which oppose movement. Resisting forces include strength
of material.
o Failure occurs when the driving forces (component of the gravity) overcomes the
resistance derived from the shear strength of soil along the potential failure surface.

Methodology of Slope Stability Analysis
▪ In general, the stability of slopes ca be analyzed using the following
methods:
1) Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) Focus of this Chapter
2) Limit Analysis Method

3) Numerical Methods:
o Finite Difference Method (FDM)
o Finite Element Method (FEM)
▪ Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) is the most widely used method of

stability analysis.
▪ Therefore, for this chapter we will only consider the LEM method, since
it is the oldest and the mostly used method in practice.

Limit Equilibrium Method

▪ Slope stability analysis methods are typically based on the limit equilibrium.
▪ That is, the forces or moments that cause a slope failure (sliding) are at
equilibrium with the forces or moments that resist the slope sliding.
▪ This is referred to as the critical condition.
▪ The most common analytical methods of slope stability use a Factor of Safety
(FS) with respect to the limit equilibrium condition.
▪ We will concentrate on the limit equilibrium method in this chapter because of
its simplicity.
▪ The following assumptions apply for the LEM of slope stability analysis:
o The problem is considered in two-dimensions.
o The failure mass moves as a rigid body.
o The shear strength along the failure surface is isotropic.
o The factor of safety is defined in terms of the average shear stress and
average shear strength along the failure surface.

LEM Method – Factor of Safety
▪ A FS is used to quantify the slope stability and is based on the force or moment
equilibrium.
▪ FS is the ratio of resisting forces to the driving forces:
Shear strength (resisting movement) average shear strength of
𝜏𝑓 the soil.
𝐹𝑆 =
𝜏𝑑 Shear stress (driving movement) average shear stress developed
along the potential failure surface.
Where:
𝜏𝑓 = The maximum shear stress at failure, which is equal to the shear strength.
𝜏𝑑 = shear stress that causes the sliding of a failure portion, which is caused by external
loads such as gravity, foundation loading, seismic force, etc.
▪ Generally, FS ≥ 1.5 is acceptable for the

design of a stable slope.
tf (f ,c)
▪ For safe slopes, the minimum FS should
td H
be 1.3 for temporary conditions and 1.5
tf (f ,c) for permanent.
W tf (f ,c) ▪ If FS ≤ 1, the slope is considered in a

state of impending failure.
LEM Method – Factor of Safety
▪ The shear strength of a soil is expressed as:
𝜏𝑓 = 𝑐 + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
▪ Similarly, shear strength developed along a potential failure surface is:

𝜏𝑑 = 𝑐𝑑 + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙𝑑
▪ Therefore:
𝑐 + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
𝐹𝑆𝑠 =
𝑐𝑑 + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙𝑑
▪ In slope stability analyses, two “artificial” factors of safety are defined on the
basis of c and ϕ, respectively:
o FS < 1 → Unstable
𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
𝐹𝑆𝑐 = & 𝐹𝑆𝜙 = o FS ≈ 1 → Marginal
𝑐𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙𝑑
o FS >> 1 → Stable
Where:
𝑐𝑑 = cohesion that develops along the potential failure surface.
𝜙𝑑 = internal angle of friction that develop along the potential failure surface.
NOTE: When FS w.r.t. cohesion is equal to the FS w.r.t. friction, it gives the FS with respect to
strength. i.e., When 𝐹𝑆𝑐’ = 𝐹𝑆𝜙’ then 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = 𝐹𝑆𝑐 = 𝐹𝑆𝜙 .
▪ There are different slope stability analysis methods that can be used
based on the shape of the failure surface and the characteristics of a
slope.
▪ The following methods can be used for slope stability analysis:
1) Infinite Slopes
a) Mass Methods
2) Finite Slopes
a) Mass Methods
o Analytical Method
o Taylor’s Method Our Focus
b) Method of Slices
o Ordinary (Swedish or Fellenius) Method
o Bishop’s Simplified Method
LEM – Stability of Finite Slopes
▪ The fundamentals of the analysis of slope stability by mass procedure
and method of slices are given in the following sections.
▪ For simplicity, an assumption needs to be made about the shape of the
potential failure surface when analyzing the stability of a finite slope in a
homogeneous soil.
▪ The simplest approach is to approximate the surface of potential failure
as a planar failure surface.
▪ However, considerable evidence suggests that slope failures usually
occur on curved failure surfaces.
▪ Therefore, to simplify the analysis of slope stability, a curved slope
failure surface can be assumed to be an arc of a circle, also referred to
as a circular failure surface.

▪ In general, finite slope failure occurs in one of the following modes:
a) Slope failure
o Surface of sliding intersects the slope at or above its toe.
o The failure circle is referred to as a toe circle if it passes through
the toe of the slope
o The failure circle is referred to as a slope circle if it passes above
the toe of the slope.
b) Shallow Failure
o Under certain circumstances, a shallow slope failure can
occur.
c) Base Failure
o The surface of sliding passes at some distance below the toe
of the slope.
o The circle is called the midpoint circle because its center lies
on a vertical line drawn through the midpoint of the slope.

▪ Various procedures of stability analysis may, in general, be divided into
two major classes:
1) Mass Method
o In this case, the mass of the soil above the surface of sliding is taken as
a unit.
o This procedure is useful when the soil that forms the slope is assumed to
be homogeneous, although this is not the case in most natural slopes.
2) Method of slices
o In this method, the soil above the surface of sliding is divided into a
number of vertical parallel slices.
o The stability of each slice is calculated separately.
o It is a general method that can be used for analyzing irregular slopes in
non-homogeneous slopes in which the values of c' and ϕ' are not
constant and pore water pressure can be taken into consideration.

1. LEM – Mass Method
a) Undrained Clay Slope (ϕ = 0)
▪ For undrained clay, it is assumed ϕ = 0; the cohesion is referred to as
“undrained cohesion”, cu.
▪ For an assumed failure circle with center O and radius R, the weight of the
sliding portion that acts on the centroid is W.
▪ The rotational arm is l and thus, the total driving moment (MD) is given by:
𝑀𝐷 = 𝑊 ∙ 𝑙
▪ The total max. resisting moment (MR) is

caused by the cohesion along the slip circle
(as friction is zero):
𝑀𝑅 = [𝑐𝑢 ∙ (𝑅𝜃) ∙ (1)] ∙ 𝑅
▪ Therefore:
𝑀𝑅 𝑐𝑢 ∙ 𝑅2 ∙ 𝜃)
∴ 𝐹𝑆 = =
𝑀𝐷 𝑊∙𝑙
▪ Another widely used method to determine the factor of safety of undrained
clay slopes is Taylor’s chart.
▪ Taylor (1937) proposed some design charts to locate the critical circle in
undrained clays (ϕu = 0).
▪ He identified three groups of failure circles:
o Toe circles
o Slope circles
o Base (mid-point) circles.
Toe Circles Slope Circles Midpoint (base) Circles

▪ The type of failure circles depends on the slope angle and the depth of a
stiff stratum beneath the slope, which is represented by nd H.
▪ H is the clay slope height.
▪ When the slope angle β > 53°, the failure occurs along a circular arc
passing through the toe; such a circle is known as a toe circle.
▪ For a slope with an angle β < 53˚:
o When nd ≥ 4, the critical circle reaches the region beneath the toe, with
the center directly above the middle of the slope. The failure mode is
known as base failure, and the critical circle is known as a midpoint or
base circle.
o When nd < 4, it is possible that the critical circle exits on the face of the
slope. Such circles are known as slope circles.
▪ When nd < 4, depending on the stiff stratum’s depth and the value of β, it is
possible to have a toe, slope, or midpoint-critical circle.
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
∴ 𝑛𝑑 =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
▪ Fellenius (1927) and Taylor (1937) have analytically solved for the
minimum factor of safety and critical circles.
▪ They expressed the developed cohesion (cd) as:
𝛾𝐻
𝑐𝑑 =
𝑁𝑠
Where:
𝑁𝑠 = Stability Number
▪ Thus, the minimum FS can be expressed as:

𝜏𝑓 𝑐𝑢 𝑐𝑢
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = = =
𝑐𝑑 𝑐𝑑 𝛾𝐻𝑁𝑠
▪ Given the slope angle β and the depth of a stiff stratum (if any), 𝑁𝑠 can be
obtained from Taylor’s Chart.
▪ Knowing the soil’s unit weight (𝛾), and the slope height (𝐻), the developed
cohesion (𝑐𝑑 ) can be calculated.
▪ Given 𝑐𝑢 , the 𝐹𝑆𝑠 can be calculated using the above equation.
1. Get Ns from chart.
2. Calculate cd from:
𝛾𝐻
𝑐𝑑 =
𝑁𝑠
3. Calculate FSs from:
Source: Sivakugan & Das (2010)

𝑐𝑢
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 =
𝑐𝑑
NOTE 1: Taylor’s chart is easy

to use, and it gives the
minimum FS.
NOTE 2: However, this method

has a disadvantage in that it
does not give the location of
the critical slip surface.
Taylor’s Chart for Undrained Clay with ϕ = 0.

Example – LEM: Mass Method
EXAMPLE 1: Undrained Clay Slope (ϕ = 0)
▪ A saturated and undrained clay slope is 25-m high; the slope angle is 35˚.
Subsurface investigation found that the subsoil is homogeneous clay with
undrained cohesion of 90 kPa and a saturated unit weight of 19 kN/m3. A
rock formation was found to be at 50 meters below the ground surface.
Ground Level
Clay
25 m
cu = 90 kPa
β = 35°
γsat = 19 kN/m3
Source: Xiao (2015)

50 m
Bedrock
REQUIRED:
o Determine the Factor of Safety using Taylor’s Chart.
SOLUTION:
Given:
𝐻𝑐 = 25 𝑚; sat =19 kN/m3; β = 35º; cu = 90 kPa
o The depth of the rock layer from the top of the slope is: 𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑐 = 25 + 50 = 75𝑚
o Thus: ∴ 𝑛𝑑 = 3.0
o From the Figure: 𝑁𝑠 = 5.65

𝛾𝐻
o Recall: 𝑐𝑑 =
𝑁𝑠
(19)(25)
𝑐𝑑 = = 84.1 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
(5.65)
o Therefore:
𝑐𝑢 90
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = = = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟕
𝑐𝑑 84.1
∴ The FS is barely larger than 1.0. Therefore, the slope is considered unstable.

EXAMPLE 2: Undrained Clay Slope (ϕ = 0)
▪ A six-meter-deep excavation is made at a 35° slope in a 9 m-thick clay
deposit as shown in the figure. The clay is underlain by bedrock. The unit
weight of the clay is 20 kN/m3.
Ground Level
Excavation Clay
6.0 m
cu = 30 kPa
β = 35°
γ = 20 kN/m3
3.0 m
Bedrock
Source: Sivakugan & Das (2010)
REQUIRED:
a) Find the Factor of Safety for slope failure along the critical slip circle.
b) What type of slip circle is it?
SOLUTION:
Given:
𝐻𝑐 = 6.0 𝑚;  = 20 kN/m3; β = 35º; cu = 30 kPa
o The depth of the rock layer from the top of the slope is: 𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑐 = 6 + 3 = 9 𝑚
o Thus: ∴ 𝑛𝑑 = 1.5
o From the Figure: 𝑁𝑠 = 5.9

𝛾𝐻
o Recall: 𝑐𝑑 =
𝑁𝑠
(20)(6)
𝑐𝑑 = = 20.3 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
(5.9)
o Therefore:
𝑐𝑢 30
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟖
𝑐𝑑 20.3
∴ The type of slip circle is a base (mid-point) circles..

b) c – ϕ soils (both c ≠ 0 and ϕ ≠ 0)
▪ Taylor (1937) provided a chart to obtain the FS for a slope with non-zero c
and ϕ (or c′ and ϕ′).
▪ The chart can be used for both total and effective stress analysis.
▪ From the chart, the stability number (𝑁𝑠 ) is defined as:
𝛾𝐻
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑐′𝑑
▪ Assuming that the degree of mobilization is the same in cohesive as well
as frictional resistances, the factor of safety can be defined as:
𝜏𝑓 𝑐 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = = =
𝜏𝑑 𝑐′𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙′𝑑
▪ Through an iterative process using Taylor’s (1937) stability chart, 𝑐′𝑑 and
𝜙′𝑑 can be determined such that 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = 𝐹𝑆𝑐 = 𝐹𝑆𝜙 .

b) c – ϕ soils (both c ≠ 0 and ϕ ≠ 0)
Given: H, b, , c', f' Find: FSs
1. Assume 𝜙′𝑑 (Generally start with
= 𝜙′, i.e., full friction is mobilized).
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙
2. Calculate: 𝐹𝑆𝜙′ =
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙′𝑑
3. With 𝜙′𝑑 and b , use chart to get
stability number (𝑁𝑠 ).
𝛾𝐻
4. Calculate: 𝑐𝑑 =
𝑁𝑠
𝑐
5. Calculate: 𝐹𝑆𝑐′ =
Source: Xiao (2015)

𝑐′𝑑
6. If 𝐹𝑆𝑐′ = 𝐹𝑆𝜙’ , then:
𝐹𝑆𝑠 ≈ 𝐹𝑆𝑐′ ≈ 𝐹𝑆𝜙′
7. If 𝐹𝑆𝑐′ ≠ 𝐹𝑆𝜙′ re-assume 𝜙′𝑑 and

repeat steps 2 through 5 until 𝐹𝑆𝑐′
≈ 𝐹𝑆𝜙′ .
Taylor’s Chart for c – ϕ soils (both c ≠ 0 and ϕ ≠ 0).

EXAMPLE 3: c – ϕ soils (c ≠ 0 & ϕ ≠ 0)
▪ A natural slope is 25 m high, and the slope angle is 35˚. Subsurface
investigation found that the subsoil is homogeneous with effective cohesion
of 90 kPa, effective internal friction angle of 30 ˚, and unit weight of 19 kN/m3.
Ground Level
c' = 90 kPa
25 m ϕ' = 30˚
γ = 19 kN/m3
β = 35°
Source: Xiao (2015)
REQUIRED:
o Determine the Factor of Safety.

SOLUTION:
Given:
𝐻𝑐 = 25.0 𝑚;  = 19 kN/m3; β = 50º; c' = 90 kPa; ϕ’ = 30º
1) Assume 𝜙′𝑑 = 10˚
2) Calculate:
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (30)
𝐹𝑆𝜙′ = = = 3.27
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙′𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (10)
3) From the Figure: 𝑁𝑠 = 8.4
4) Calculate:
𝛾𝐻 (19)(25)
𝑐′𝑑 = = = 56.5
𝑁𝑠 (8.4)
5) Calculate:
𝑐′ 90
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑐′ = = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 ≠ 𝟑. 𝟐𝟕
𝑐′𝑑 56.5

SOLUTION:
Given:
𝐻𝑐 = 25.0 𝑚;  = 19 kN/m3; β = 50º; c' = 90 kPa; ϕ’ = 30º
o The following table is developed for the iterative calculation.
𝝓′𝒅 𝑭𝑺𝝓′ 𝑵𝒔 𝒄′𝒅 𝑭𝑺𝒄′

10˚ 3.27 8.4 56.5 1.59
15˚ 2.15 10.7 44.4 2.02
17˚ 1.89 11.6 40.9 2.20
17˚ 2.01 11.2 42.4 2.12
15.5˚ 2.08 11.0 43.2 2.08
Conclusion:
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟖, the slope is stable.
2. LEM – Method of Slices
▪ In this method, the soil mass above an assumed failure surface is divided into
vertical slices, and the force and moment equilibriums for each slice are
calculated.
▪ Then all the slices are combined to derive the factor of safety of the slope for
the assumed failure surface.
▪ To obtain the true factor of safety of the slope, numerous trial surfaces are
analyzed that provide the minimum factor of safety.
▪ The method can be used for analyzing irregular slopes in non-homogeneous
soils in which the values of c' and ϕ' are not constant.
▪ The base of each slice is assumed to be a straight line.
▪ It is the basis of all numerical analysis programs
▪ There are two methods of slices, namely:
a) Ordinary (Swedish or Fellenius) Method
b) Bishop’s Simplified Method

▪ Also referred to as the Swedish or Fellenius method of slices.
▪ It is the simplest and earliest of the different methods of slices.
▪ The method ignores both shear and normal interslice forces and considers
only moment equilibrium.
▪ The method assumes the failure surface is circular.
▪ Both total and effective stress analysis can be used in this method.

Source: Xiao (2015)

Slices and failure circle. Forces on the ith slice.

▪ The ith slice is separated out and the forces on the slice are analyzed.
▪ Tis slice is in equilibrium under the following forces:
o Self-Weight Wi
o Tangential force resisting the slide Ti
o Reaction force Ri
o Normal force from the upslope slice Ni
o Shear force from the upslope slice Si
o Normal force from the downslope slice Ni+1
o Shear force from the downslope slice Si+1
▪ This method assumes that the interslice forces on
Source: Xiao (2015)

both sides of each slice cancel each other:
𝑁𝑖 + 𝑆Ԧ𝑖 = 𝑁𝑖+1 + 𝑆Ԧ𝑖+1
NOTE: The arrows indicate the forces are vectors that comprise direction and magnitude.

▪ The total driving moment that causes the slice to slide (rotate) per unit
length of the slope is:
𝑀𝐷 = 𝑊𝑖 (𝑅 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 )
▪ The total maximum resisting moment per unit

length of the slope is because of the cohesion and
friction at the slip surface:
𝑀𝑅 = [ 𝑐′ + 𝜎′𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′ ∆𝑙 1 ] 𝑅
Where:
∆𝑙 = The length of the straight-line CD, which is to
approximate the length of arc CD.
Source: Xiao (2015)

𝑏𝑖
∆𝑙 =
cos 𝛼𝑖
Where:
𝑏𝑖 = width of the ith slice; the widths of different slices can be different.
𝛼𝑖 = the angle of the ith slice selected.

▪ The overburden stress (σ′) is caused by the normal force Pi that is
perpendicular to the line CD:
𝑃𝑖 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼𝑖
𝜎′ = = =
(∆𝑙)(1) 𝑏𝑖 𝑏𝑖
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖
▪ Substitute into 𝑀𝑅 equation we get:
2 𝛼 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′
𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑖
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑐′ +
𝑏𝑖 cos 𝛼𝑖
Source: Xiao (2015)

𝑐′𝑏𝑖
𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′
cos 𝛼𝑖
▪ Therefore, the total resisting and driving moment of
the n slices in the slope is:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
෍ 𝑀𝐷 = 𝑅 ෍(𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 ) & ෍ 𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅 ෍ 𝑐′∆𝑙 + 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

▪ The factor of safety of the slope on the assumed circular slip surface is:
o Total Stress Analysis: 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖
𝑛
෍ 𝑐∆𝑙 + 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙

𝑖=1
∴ 𝐹𝑆𝑠 = 𝑛
෍(𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 ) Ui = ui + ∆li

𝑖=1
o Effective Stress Analysis: 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃′𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖

P'i
𝑛
෍ 𝑐 ′ ∆𝑙 + (𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 − 𝑢𝑖 ∆𝑙) ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′

𝑖=1
෍(𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 )
𝑖=1

▪ The ordinary method of slices assumes that the interslice forces on both
sides of each slice cancel one another.
▪ Therefore, the factor of safety derived from this method is overconservative
and is lower than other methods of slices.
▪ The ordinary method of slices is only used as a learning tool because its
results are too conservative.
▪ Bishop (1955) proposed a more refined solution to the ordinary method of
slices known as Bishop’s Simplified Method of slices.
▪ This method is incorporated into most computer programs because it
provides better results.
▪ In this method, the effect of forces on the sides of each slice are accounted
for to some degree.
▪ Therefore, this method yields factors of safety which are higher than those
obtained with the Ordinary Method of Slices.
Note: The value of 𝛼𝑖 may be either positive or negative. The value of 𝛼𝑖 is positive when the slope of the arc is in
the same quadrant as the ground slope.

▪ Bishop (1955) proposed a method where he assumed ∆𝑆𝑖 = 0 at each slice.
▪ Thus, 𝑇𝑖 can be written as:
𝜏𝑓,𝑖 1 ′ Recall:
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑙𝑖 = 𝑐 ∆𝑙 + 𝑃′𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′
𝜏𝑓
𝐹𝑆 𝐹𝑆 𝐹𝑆 =
𝜏 𝑑
▪ From the force polygon we get:
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 + 𝑃′𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖
▪ Substituting 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑢𝑖 𝑙𝑖 , and for 𝑇𝑖 in the above equation:

1 ′
𝑊𝑖 = 𝑐 ∆𝑙 + 𝑃′𝑖 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 + 𝑃′𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 + 𝑢𝑖 𝑙𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖
𝐹𝑆
P'i
▪ Re-arranging we get:
𝑐 ′ ∆𝑙 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖
𝑊𝑖 − 𝐹𝑆 − 𝑢𝑖 𝑙𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖
𝑃′𝑖 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 + 𝐹𝑆
▪ Substituting ∆𝑙 and 𝑃′𝑖 into the FS Equation:
𝑛 Recall: 𝑏𝑖
∆𝑙 =
෍ 𝑐 ′ ∆𝑙 + (𝑊𝑖 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑖 − 𝑢𝑖 ∆𝑙) ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′ cos 𝛼𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑖=1
▪ Therefore, we get:
𝑛
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼𝑖
෍{𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑖 + (𝑊𝑖 −𝑢𝑖 𝑏𝑖 )𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′} ∙ P'i
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑖 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 ′
𝑖=1 1+ 𝐹𝑆
𝑖=1

▪ Let: 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼𝑖
𝑚𝑖 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼𝑖 ∙ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 ′
1+ 𝐹𝑆
▪ Therefore: 𝑛
P'i
෍{𝑐 ′ 𝑏𝑖 + (𝑊𝑖 −𝑢𝑖 𝑏𝑖 )𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙′} ∙ 𝑚𝑖

𝑖=1
𝑖=1
▪ It is noted that the 𝐹𝑆𝑠 exists on both sides of the equation.

▪ Therefore, the trial-and-error method is used: for an assumed failure surface,
assume an 𝐹𝑆𝑠 and calculate 𝑚𝑖 , then calculate the new 𝐹𝑆𝑠 .
▪ If the new calculated 𝐹𝑆𝑠 is different from the assumed 𝐹𝑆𝑠 , the calculated 𝐹𝑆𝑠
can be used in the next iteration.
▪ This process is repeated until the calculated 𝐹𝑆𝑠 is equal to the assumed 𝐹𝑆𝑠 .

Example – LEM: Method of Slices
EXAMPLE 4: Swedish & Bishop’s Simplified Method of Slices
▪ An embankment is to be constructed on a founding soil as shown in the
following figure. The respective soil properties for each material has also
been provided. 7.0 m
O
6.0 m
Source: CIV3042F Ass 1 (2019)

Backfill
sat =20 kN/m3
10.0 m c’ = 0 kPa
f' = 21º
35°
Foundation Soil
sat =22 kN/m3
c’ = 4 kPa
REQUIRED: NOTE: Use 8 slices. f' = 32º
For the given trial circular failure surface, determine the factor of safety using the:
a) Ordinary (Swedish) Method
LEM – Effect of Tension Cracks
▪ Tension cracks must be considered, and the possibility that these cracks may
fill with water.
▪ Water in the tension crack will significantly reduce Factor of Safety.
▪ With a slip in a cohesive soil there will be a tension crack at the top of the slope
along which no shear resistance can develop.
O
C B

LEM – Effect of Tension Cracks
▪ Cohesive soil can support a vertical face, C-D, to a maximum height, zc.
▪ For both undrained and drained state, the depth of the crack, zc, is given by:
2𝑐𝑢 2𝑐′ ϕ′
o Undrained State: 𝑧𝑐 = o Drained State: 𝑧𝑐 = tan 45˚ +
𝛾 𝛾 2
▪ The effect of the tension crack is to shorten the arc AB to AD.
▪ If the crack is to be allowed for, the angle AOD, must be used instead of
AOB in the formula for 𝐹𝑆𝑠 , and the full weight W of the sector is still used in
order to compensate for any water pressures that may be exerted if the crack
fills with rainwater.

Limit Equilibrium Methods
▪ For analyzing slope stability and for determining the factor of safety of a soil or
rock slope, there are several limit equilibrium methods available.
▪ Further extensions to the method of slices were proposed by several others.
▪ Some of these methods allow for non-circular slip surfaces.
Slope Analysis Methods Based on Limit Equilibrium.
Equilibrium
Failure
Method Equation Solution by
Surface
Satisfied
Swedish (Fellenius, 1927) Circular Moment Calculator
Bishop's Simplified Method (Bishop, 1955) Circular Moment Calculator
Bishop’s Method (Bishop, 1955) Circular Moment Calculator/Computer
Morgenstern and Price (1965) Any Shape All Computer
Spencer (1967) Any Shape All Computer
Bell’s Method (Bell, 1968) Any Shape All Computer
Janbu (1973) Non-circular Horizontal Forces Calculator
Sarma (1975) Any Shape All Computer
Source: Budhu (2015)

Mitigation Measures of Slope Failures
▪ Slope stabilization and repair fall largely into two categories:
o Preventive treatments that are applied to currently stable but potentially unstable
slopes.
o Remedial or corrective treatments that are applied to currently unstable, moving, or
already failed slopes.
▪ Many factors should be considered in assessing slope stabilization measures, namely:
o Consequences of the failure: is the slope failure acceptable or must it be fixed?
o Time constraint: is a quick repair needed?
o Cost of the slope repair.
o Subsoil conditions.
o Current or potential failure mode: surficial, shallow and rotational, or deep-seated
failure.
o Present and required future topography of the slope.
o Physical constraints, such as property line, existing building, right of way.
o Availability of materials, equipment, and expertise.
o Accessibility of materials and equipment to the site.
▪ There are essentially two ways to repair a slope that is getting close to failure:
o Increase Resisting Forces - Increase the resisting moment (e.g., soil
improvement, inclusions).
o Reduce Driving Forces - Decrease the driving moment (e.g., shallower
slope).
▪ The following are some of the measures to mitigate the failure of slopes:
o Flatten the slopes or create benches (also known as terracing).
o Provide berms at the toe of the slope to increase the resistance to sliding.
o Protect toe against erosion.
o Lower the GWT to reduce the PWP in the slope.
o Use driven or cast in place piles to increase the resisting forces.
o Use retaining walls or sheet piling.
o Use of geosynthetics to reinforce slopes.
o Use of soil nailing or micropiles – attach unstable slope face soil to deep stable zone.



Numerical Methods

Introduction to Numerical Methods
▪ Today, computer programs/software incorporating the different methods are
available for analyzing slope stability problems.
▪ The two most common methods of numerical analysis are:
o Finite Difference Method (FDM)
o Finite Element Method (FEM)
▪ The FEM and FDM methods are more flexible and general the LEM methods.
▪ There are several examples of software that can used to analyze slopes:
o GeoStudio (SLOPE/W) Our Focus
o Slide 2D/3D
o FLAC
o Plaxis 2D/3D
o Geo-Slope,
o Geo5,
o SVSlope

Slope Stability Using SLOPE/W
▪ SLOPE/W is a slope stability software that is used in more than 100 countries.
▪ It works on the basis of limit equilibrium principles and incorporates several
different methods of analysis.
▪ Its user-friendly interface and versatility make it one of the most popular
software packages worldwide when it comes to slope stability analysis.
▪ It is part of the GeoStudio 2021 suite of software.
▪ SLOPE/W 2021 accommodates a few of the LE methods, (i.e.,,
Swedish/Fellenius, Bishop, Morgenstern-Price, etc.).
▪ This section describes how to use the Student Edition of SLOPE/W in solving
slope stability problems.
▪ The student version has a few limitations that make it suitable mainly for
learning and evaluation.
▪ The Student Edition is adequate to try out a wide range of simpler problems
and to get a feel for a versatile slope stability analysis software.

Getting Started with SLOPE/W

References
▪ Kalumba, D. (2020), Geotechnical Engineering II - Lecture Notes,
University of Cape Town (UCT).
▪ Xiao, M. (2015), “Geotechnical Engineering Design”, First Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 978-0-4706-3223-9.
▪ Das, B. M. (2014), “Principles of Geotechnical Engineering”, Eighth
Edition, CENGAGE Learning, ISBN-13: 978-1-133-10867-2
▪ Smith, I. (2014) “Elements of Soil Mechanics”, Ninth Edition, John Wiley
& Sons. ISBN: 978-0-470-67339-3.
▪ Sivakugan, N., Das, B. M.(2010) “Geotechnical Engineering: A Practical
Problem-Solving Approach”, First Edition, J. Ross Publishing. ISBN:
978-1-60427-016-7.
▪ Murphy, V.N.F. (2002), “Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and
Practices of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering”, Frist Edition.
Spon Press, ISBN: 978-0-824-70873-3.

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Geo-technical Engineering

4.0 Slope Stability Analysis

School of Engineering & The Built Environment

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 2

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 3

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 4

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Source: Kalumba (2020)

Source: Kalumba (2020)

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 10

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Source: Kalumba (2020)

Source: Kalumba (2020)

Source: Kalumba (2020)

Source: Kalumba (2020)

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 18

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TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 20

Infinite Long Plane Failure

Finite Plane Failure

Above the toe

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 21

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 22

2) Limit Analysis Method

▪ Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) is the most widely used method of

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 23

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 24

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 25

▪ Generally, FS ≥ 1.5 is acceptable for the

W tf (f ,c) ▪ If FS ≤ 1, the slope is considered in a

▪ Similarly, shear strength developed along a potential failure surface is:

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 29

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 30

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 31

▪ The total max. resisting moment (MR) is

Toe Circles Slope Circles Midpoint (base) Circles

▪ Thus, the minimum FS can be expressed as:

Source: Sivakugan & Das (2010)

NOTE 1: Taylor’s chart is easy

NOTE 2: However, this method

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 36

Source: Xiao (2015)

o From the Figure: 𝑁𝑠 = 5.65

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 38

o From the Figure: 𝑁𝑠 = 5.9

∴ The type of slip circle is a base (mid-point) circles..

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 40

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Source: Xiao (2015)

7. If 𝐹𝑆𝑐′ ≠ 𝐹𝑆𝜙′ re-assume 𝜙′𝑑 and

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 42

Source: Xiao (2015)

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 43

1) Assume 𝜙′𝑑 = 10˚

3) From the Figure: 𝑁𝑠 = 8.4

TCVG3711 – Mr. S.S. Muluti 44

o The following table is developed for the iterative calculation.

𝝓′𝒅 𝑭𝑺𝝓′ 𝑵𝒔 𝒄′𝒅 𝑭𝑺𝒄′

15˚ 2.15 10.7 44.4 2.02

17˚ 1.89 11.6 40.9 2.20

17˚ 2.01 11.2 42.4 2.12