Agro Climatic Conditions in India

Agriculture is closely dependent on the endowment of natural resources and environmental conditions
of soil and climate. India is a land of many climates and varieties of soils, affording scope for much
diversity in agriculture. It is therefore meaningful to understand the physiographic and agro climatic
conditions of India and the various other factors that largely determine the cropping patterns in
different regions of the country. Such understanding shall go a long way in optimizing farm production
by selectively adopting appropriate cropping patterns and agronomic practices to suit the region. It is
also important to gain perceptive knowledge and a pulse feel of the market drivers that promote
diversification based on demand and changing dietary regimes of the society. This note is an attempt to
put together information on the above aspects.

The climatic, edaphic ( determined by soil) and socio-economic diversity of the Indian crop-production
scene is dotted with many cropping patterns. With a geographic area of 328.76 million hectares,
stretching between 8oN and 36oN latitude and between 68oE and 98oE longitude, its altitude varying
from the mean sea-level to the highest mountain ranges of the world, India presents a range and
diversity of climate, flora and fauna, with a few parallels in the world. The country presents a paradox of
containing in it the station with the highest mean annual rainfall in the world (Cherrapunji in Assam )
and also dry, semi-desert area in Rajasthan. The variability of rainfall is most important in all the states,
but especially where rainfall is low. In parts of Rajasthan and the Deccan , the variability is more than
100 per cent of the mean. Years of drought account for a frequent a history of crop failures, whereas the
years of flood also cause very considerable loss of agricultural production. Temperatures also vary
greatly, both geographically and seasonally. Northern and central parts of India in January have
temperature comparable with those in Europe in July, though with a greater daily range, but in these
places in the pre-monsoon months the maximum temperatures of over 40oC are reached over a large
area. Frost may occur in winter in the plains, as far south as a line drawn through Madhya Pradesh and
may be heavy in Kashmir and areas north of Punjab .

Socio-economically, the peasantry ranges from the relatively affluent farmers in Punjab, Western UP etc
who operate with a high input intensity in agriculture to the subsistent farmers of eastern and central
India . They even today, sometimes practice shifting cultivation. Between these two extremes, various
intensities of cultivation are practised. The outstanding fact on the socio-economic is the smallness of
holdings, the average farm-size in most areas being lower than that is in most tropical countries. Crops
production, therefore, presents such an enormous diversity owing to differences in latitude, altitude and
variability of rainfall and edaphic diversity.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS

General
India is a land of many rivers and mountains. Its geographical area of about 328 M.ha is criss crossed by
a large number of small and big rivers, some of them figuring amongst the mighty rivers of the world.
The rivers and mountains have great significance in the history of Indian cultural development, religious
and spiritual life. A major part (72%) of India ’s population of 1027 millions (2001 census) is rural and
agriculturally oriented for whom the rivers, land and climate are the source of their prosperity.

Physiography

The classification of the country based on the physiography is one attempt that will help us to
understand the division based on the physical characteristics. Physiographically, India may be divided
into seven well defined regions.

These are: The Northern Mountains , comprising the mighty Himalayan ranges;

II. The Great Plains, traversed by the Indus and Ganga Brahmaputra river systems. As much as one third
of this lies in the arid zone of western Rajasthan. The remaining area is mostly fertile plains;

III. The Central Highlands , consisting of a wide belt of hills running east-west starting from Aravalli
ranges in the west and terminating in a steep escarpment in the east. The area lies between the Great
Plains and the Deccan Plateau;

IV. The Peninsular Plateaus comprising the Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats , North Deccan Plateau, South
Deccan Plateau and Eastern Plateau;

V. The East Coast, a belt of land of about 100- 130 km wide, bordering the Bay of Bengal land lying to the
east of the Eastern Ghats ;

VI. The West Coast, a narrow belt of land of about 10- 25 km wide, bordering the Arabian Sea and lying
to the west of the Western Ghats, and

VII. The islands, comprising the coral islands of Lakshadeep in Arabian Sea and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands of the Bay of Bengal .

Climate

The presence of the great mountain mass formed by the Himalayas and its spurs on the North and of the
ocean on the South are the two major influences operating on the climate of India . The first poses an
impenetrable barrier to the influence of cold winds from central Asia , and gives the sub-continent the
elements of tropical type of climate. The second, which is the source of cool moisture-laden winds
reaching India , gives it the elements of the oceanic type of climate.

India has a very great diversity and variety of climate and an even greater variety of weather conditions.
The climate ranges from continental to oceanic, from extremes of heat to extremes of cold, from
extreme aridity and negligible rainfall to excessive humidity and torrential rainfall. It is, therefore,
necessary to avoid any generalization as to the prevalence of any particular kind of climate, not only
over the country as a whole but over major areas in it. The climatic condition influences to a great
extent the water resources utilisation of the country.

Rainfall

Rainfall in India is dependent in differing degrees on the South-West and North-East monsoons, on
shallow cyclonic depressions and disturbances and on violent local storms which form regions where
cool humid winds the sea meet hot dry winds from the land and occasionally reach cyclonic dimension.
Most of the rainfall in India takes place under the influence of South West monsoon between June to
September except in Tamil Nadu where it is under the influence of North-East monsoon during October
and November. The rainfall in India shows great variations, unequal seasonal distribution, still more
unequal geographical distribution and the frequent departures from the normal. It generally exceeds
1000 mm in areas to the East of Longitude 78 degree E. It extends to 2500 mm along almost the entire
West Coast and Western Ghats and over most of Assam and Sub-Himalayan West Bengal. On the West
of the line joining Porbandar to Delhi and thence to Ferozpur the rainfall diminishes rapidly from 500
mm to less than 150 mm in the extreme west. The Peninsular has large areas of rainfall less than 600
mm with pockets of even 500 mm .

Temperature

The variations in temperature are also marked over the Indian sub-continent. During the winter seasons
from November to February, due to the effect of continental winds over most of the country, the
temperature decreases from South to North. The mean maximum temperature during the coldest
months of December and January varies from 29 degree centigrade in some part of the peninsula to
about 18 degree centigrade in the North, whereas the mean minimum varies from about 24 degree
centigrade in the extreme South to below 5 degree centigrade in the North. From March to May is
usually a period of continuous and rapid rise of temperature. The highest temperature occurs in North
India , particularly in the desert regions of the North-West where the maximum may exceed 48 degree
centigrade. With the advent of South West Monsoon in June, there is a rapid fall in the maximum
temperature in the central portions of the country. The temperature is almost uniform over the area
covering two thirds of the country which gets good rain. In August, there is a marked fall in temperature
when the monsoon retreat from North Indian in September. In North-West India , in the month of
November, the mean maximum temperature is below 38 degree centigrade and the mean minimum
below 10 degree centigrade. In the extreme North, temperature drops below freezing point.

Evaporation

Evaporation rates closely follow the climatic seasons, and reach their peak in the summer moths of April
and May and the central areas of the country display the highest evaporation rates during this period.
With the onset of monsoon, there is a marked fall in the rate of evaporation. The annual potential
evaporation ranges between 150 to 250 cm over most parts of the country. Monthly potential
evaporation over the Peninsula increases from 15 cm in December to 40 cm in May. In the North-East, it
varies from 6 cm in December to 20 cm in May. It rises to 40 cm in June in West Rajasthan . After the
onset of monsoon potential evaporation decreases generally all over the country.

Rivers

India is blessed with many rivers. As many as 12 of them are classified as major rivers whose total
catchment area is 252.8 million hectare (M.ha). Of the major rivers, the Ganga - Brahmaputra Meghana
system is the biggest with catchment area of about 110 M .ha which is more than 43 percent of the
catchment area of all the major rivers in the country. The other major rivers with catchment area more
than 10 M .ha are Indus ( 32.1 M .ha.), Guava ( 31.3 M .ha.), Krishna , ( 25.9 M .ha.) and Maharani ( 14.2
M .ha). The catchment area of medium rivers is about 25 M .ha and Subernarekha with 1.9 M .ha.
catchment area is the largest river among the medium rivers in the country.

Water Bodies

Inland Water resources of the country are classified as rivers and canals; reservoirs; tanks & ponds;
beels, oxbow lakes, derelict water; and brackish water. Other than rivers and canals, total water bodies
cover all area of about 7 M .ha. Of the rivers and canals, Uttar Pradesh occupies the First place with the
total length of rivers and canals as 31.2 thousand km, which is about 17 percent of the total length of
rivers and canals in the country. Other states following Uttar Pradesh are Jammu & Kashmir and Madhya
Pradesh. Among the remaining forms of the inland water resources, tanks and ponds have maximum
area ( 2.9 M .ha.) followed by reservoirs ( 2.1 M .ha.).

Most of the area under tanks and ponds lies in Southern States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu. These states along with West Bengal , Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, account for 62 percent of
total area under tanks and ponds in the country. As far as reservoirs are concerned, major states like
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra , Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh account for larger portion of area under reservoirs. More than 77 percent of area under beels,
oxbow, lakes and derelict water lies in the states of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and Assam . Orissa ranks first
as regards the total area of brackish water and is followed by Gujarat, Kerala and West Bengal . The total
area of inland water resources is, thus, unevenly distributed over the country with five states namely
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka and West Bengal accounting for more than half of the
country's inland water bodies.

Surface Water Resources

The annual precipitation including snowfall, which is the main source of the water in the country is
estimated to be of the order of 4000 cu.km. The Country has been divided into 35 meteorological sub-
division based on rainfall s. The Resources potential of the country, which occurs as natural run off in the
rivers is about 1869 cu.km. as per the basin wise latest estimates of Central Water Commission,
considering both surface and ground water as one system. Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is the
major contributor to total water resources potential of the country. Its share is about 60 percent in total
water resources potential of the various rivers. Based on 199l census, the per capita availability of water
works out to 220 cubic metre cu.m.). Due to various constraints of topography, uneven distribution of
resource over space and time, it has been estimated that only about 1122 cu.km. of total potential of
1869 cu.km. can be put to beneficial use, 690 cu. km. being due to surface water resources. Again about
40 percent of uitlisable surface water resources are presently in Ganga-Brhamputra-Meghna system. In
majority of river basins, present utilisation is significantly high and is in the range of 50 percent to 95
percent of utilisable surface resources. But in the rivers such as Narmada and Mahanadi percentage
utilisation is quite low. The corresponding values for these basins are 23 percent and 34 percent
respectively.

The distribution of water resources potential in the country shows that as against the national per capita
annual availability of water as 2208 cu. m . the average availability in Brahmaputra and Barak is as high
as 16589 cu m. while it is as low as 360 cu.m. in Sabarmati basin. Brahmaputra and Barak basin with 7.3
percent of geographical area and 4.2 percent of population of the country has 31 percent of the annual
water resources. Per capita annual availability for rest of the country excluding Brahmaputra and Barak
basin works out to about 1583 cu.m. Any situation of availability of less than 1000 cu. m . per capita is
considered by international agencies as scarcity conditions. Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati, East flowing
rivers and West flowing rivers are some of the basins which fall into this category.

Agro-climatic Zones

The Planning Commission after examining the earlier studies at the regionalisation of the agricultural
economy has recommended that agricultural planning be done on the basis of agro climatic regions. For
resource development, the country has been broadly divided into fifteen agricultural regions based on
agro climatic features, particularly soil type, climate including temperature and rainfall and its variation
and water resources availability as under:

I. Western Himalayan division

II. Eastern Himalayan division

III. Lower Gangetic plain region

IV. Middle Gangetic plain region

V. Upper Gangetic plain region

VI. Trans-Gangetic plain region

VII. Eastern plateau and hill region

VIII. Central plateau and hill region

IX. Western plateau and hill region

X. Southern plateau and hill region

XI. East coast plain and hill region

XII. West coast plain and hill region

XIII. Gujarat plain and hill region

XIV. Western plain and hill region

XV. Island region.

AGRO -ECOLOGICAL REGIONS OF INDIA

Another classification that is relevant in understanding the cropping patterns and agricultural practices
of the country is that based on the ecological features of different regions. This classification also takes
into account the period for which crops can be grown naturally in the region. The classification is given
below:

Arid Ecosystem

1. Western Himalayas, cold arid ecoregion, with shallow skeletal soils & length of Growing Period (GP)
<90 days

2. Western Plain, Kachchh and part of Kathiawar Peninsula , hot arid ecoregion, with desert & saline soils
& GP <90 days

3. Deccan Plateau, hot arid ecoregion, with Red & Black soils & GP <90 days

Semiarid Ecosystem

4. Northern Plain and Central Highlands including Aravallis, hot semi-arid ecoregion, with Alluvium
derived soils & GP 90-150 days

5. Central (Malwa) Highlands, Gujarat Plains & Kathiawar Peninsula , hot semi-arid ecoregion, with
medium & deep Black soils & GP 90-150 days

6. Deccan Plateau, hot semi-arid ecoregion with shallow and medium (with inclusion of deep) Black soils
& GP 90-150 days

7. Deccan (Telangana) Plateau and Eastern Ghats , hot semi-arid ecoregion, with Red & Black soils & GP
90-150 days

8. Eastern Ghats , TN uplands and Deccan (Karnataka) Plateau, hot semi-arid ecoregion with Red loamy
soils & GP 90-150 days

Subhumid Ecosystem

9. Northern Plain, hot subhumid (dry) ecoregion, with Alluvium-derived soils & GP 150- 180 days
10. Central Highlands (Malwa, Bundelkhand & Satputra), hot subhumid ecoregion, with Black and Red
Soils & GP 150-180 (to 210) days

11. Eastern Plateau (Chhatisgarh), hot subhumid ecoregion, with Red & Yellow soils, & GP 150-180 days

12. Eastern (Chhotanagpur) Plateau and Eastern Ghats , hot subhumid ecoregion, with Red & Lateritic
soils & GP 150-180 (to 210) days

13. Eastern Plain, hot subhumid (moist) ecoregion, with Alluvium-derived soils & GP 180 - 210 days

14. Western Himalayas, warm subhumid (to humid with inclusion of perhumid ecoregion with Brown
forest and Podzolic soils, & GP 180-210 + days

Humid-Perhumid Ecosystem

15. Bengal and Assam Plain, hot subhumid (moist) to humid (inclusion of perhumid) ecoregion, with
Alluvium-derived soils & GP 210 + days

16. Eastern Himalayas , warm perhumid ecoregion, with Brown and Red hill soils, & GP 210 + days

17. North-eastern Hills (Purvachal), warm perhumid ecoregion, with Red and Lateritic soils & GP 210 +
days . Coastal Ecosystem

18. Eastern Coastal Plain, hot subhumid to semi-arid ecoregion, with Coastal Alluvium- derived soils &
GP 90-210 + days

19. Western Ghats & Coastal Plain, hot humid perhumid ecoregion, with Red, Lateritic and Alluvium-
derived soils and GP 219 + days

Island Ecosystem
20. Islands of Andaman-Nicobar and Lakshadweeo hot humid to perhumid island ecoregion, with Red
loamy and Sandy soils and GP 210+ days

SOIL TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION

As in the case of physiographic characteristics, climate etc, the country has a vast diversity in the soil
types. The soil groups and its distribution is given in the table below:

Soil Groups of India with Extent And Distribution

S.No.

Soil Group

Extent (km2)

Distribution (States)

Red loamy soils

2,13,271

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa

2

Red Sandy Soils

3,30,590

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh

Laterite Soils

1,30,066

Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Goa, Assam

Red and Yellow Soils

4,03,651

Madhya Pradesh, Orissa

Shallow Black Soils

31,532
Maharashtra

Medium Black Soils

4,30,383

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat

Deep Black Soils

1,12,060

Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat

Mixed Red and Balak Soils

1,62,255

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh

9
Coastal Alluvium Soils

54,403

Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa

10

Coastal Sands

4,534

Orissa

11

Deltaic Alluvium Soils

87,045

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal

12

Alluvial Soils Khadar (recent alluvium) Bhangar (old Alluvium)

3,56,720

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam

13

Alluvium Soils (highly calcareous)

13,611

North-eastern states, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar

14

Calcareous sierozemic soils

45,080

Punjab

15

Grey Brown Soils

1,01,572

Gujarat, Rajasthan

16

Desert Soils Rhegosolic

1,54,423

Rajasthan

17

Desert Soils Lithosolic

18

Terai Soils

28,919

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal

19

Brown Hill Soils (over sandstones and shales)

81,242

Uttar Pradesh, Bhutan Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh

20
Sub-montane Soils (Podsolic)

76,695

Uttar Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir

21

Mountain Meadow Soils

59,790

Kashmir including Ladakh

22

Saline and Alkali Soils

17,377

Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

23

Peaty and Saline Peaty Soils

2,720
Kerala

24

Skeletal Soils

79,151

Madhya Pradesh

25

Glaciers and Eternal Snow

29,335

Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY BASED ON TYPOLOGY

While the agro climatic zones as described above have been used for macro planning, another attempt
to closely look at cropping patterns with emerging changes in the cropping patterns was made based on
three decisive parameters, viz. Net Sown Area (NSA), Land Available for Cultivation (LAC) and Net
Irrigated Area (NIA) in the region[1]. The various state regions were delineated into different Typologies
by taking into consideration the above parameters. It may be appreciated that the develop0ment
strategies for agriculture shall depend on availability of land resources of varying types which is
indicated by the LAC, the status of water and or moisture availability which in turn points to the
potential productivity and growth as indicated by the NIA and the existing level of cultivation which is
the NSA.
Various typologies emerge on examination of above parameters. The details of the classification based
on the typologies of resource use by state regions is given in table below:

Typology Region

Type

State Regions

Mountainous

All Regions of Assam and Other Eastern States, Himachal Pradesh, and Western U.P Hills ( Uttranchal).

Hilly

Chhotanagpur Hills, (Bihar ) Southern Gujarat Hills, Northern Hills of M P, Konkan, SW Hills
( Maharashtra) and West Coast Hills (Karnataka and Maharashtra, Hills of Orissa,, Nilgiris (TN ) and
Darjeeling (WB).

Plateaus

Bihar Plateau (Bihar), Highlands of Kerala, Keymore and Vindhya Plateaus (MP), Satpura Hills and
Plateau (MP), Bundelkhand, Arid and Malwa Plateau (MP), Vidarbha (Maharashtra), Northern Plateau
and Hills of Orissa and Hills of Rajasthan.
D

Plains - Irrigated

North and South Coastal Andhra, Telangana, Bihar Plains, North Gujarat, Plains of Haryana, and Punjab,
North Rajasthan, Coastal, Delta, Kanyakumari and Central Plains of Tamilnadu, NW U.P. Plains, Barind
and Rarh Plains and Alluvial Plains of W. Bengal

Plains – Arid/

Semi Arid

Rayalaseema and Southern Telangana, South and Middle Gujarat, and Saurashtra, Northern and Central
Plains of Karnataka, Chhatisgadh (MP), Central Plains of Maharashtra, Southern and Northern Arid
Rajasthan Dharmapuri-Salem of Tamil Nadu, Eastern, Central and Western UP Plains and Coastal Plains
of W. Bengal,

Coastal

Coastal Andhra, Kerala, Orissa and Delta of Tamil Nadu

Analysis of Typologies.

These typologies and issues related with development of these regions are as follows.

Typology A
Mountainous covering Himalayan states in the Western and Eastern plains. High altitudes and slopes,
large forests areas, perennial rivers leading to floods, soil erosion, silting up of down stream rivers.
Inadequate roads and communication infrastructure and Jhum cultivation resulting in soil erosion are
characteristics of this typology. Paddy dominated crop System.

Main issues are use of land according to slopes, soil erosion control, forest protection, and infrastructure
building.

Typology B

Hilly covering central, Southern and Eastern regions with high rainfall (> 1000 mm ), severe runoff,
different quality forests and cereals based cropping due to shallow to medium soils. Under developed
infrastructure of roads and markets.

Arresting of runoff, water harvesting, soil conservation, fodder and livestock development and logistic
support for marketing are the main issues of growth.

Typology C

Plateaus covering plateau and hills regions of Bihar , MP ( Vindhya, Satpura and Malwa), Orissa north,
and hills of Rajasthan, normally having high rainfall with hill mounds and valleys interspersed with rivers
and nallahs having surface runoff. Tanks form significant source of irrigation. Coarse cereals and pulses
dominate cropping. Infrastructure for supplies and logistics is poor.

Main issues are control of runoff erosion, strengthening of tank irrigation, wasteland development
covering fruits, fodder and fuel, and improvement of communication support.

Typology D

Plains-Irrigated represents the most important crop production area. Irrigation by Gangetic network and
peninsular rivers in the South supplemented with tube-wells and shallow wells to fertile alluvial soils
giving rise to extensive cultivation of paddy and wheat as well as high value crops like sugarcane are the
main features. The infrastructure of marketing and transport is well developed and urbanization is
higher (urban population 22%) compared to other types. Productivity levels of crops is quite high.
Reclamation of problem soils, water management through conjunctive use of canal and ground water,
are the major issues.

Typology E

Plains-Arid/semi-arid covers areas of Central AP, Saurashtra and middle and north Gujarat, North and
Central Karnataka, Central plains of Maharashtra, Southern and North arid Rajasthan, UP plains and
Dharmapuri -Salem of Tamil Nadu having rainfall around 800 mm . Low land productivity and poor soil
fertility giving rise to low value cereals based cropping are characteristics of the regions of this type.

The major development issues are lack of long-term investment is land and water resources,
horticulture, livestock and fodder.

Typology F Coastal represents regions of East and West Coasts covering coastal AP,

Kerala, Orissa and delta of Tamilnadu usually having high irrigation. Rice and horticultural crops
dominate along with large fishery activity.

Development of infrastructure for fish processing, packaging and export, and distribution of fish seed
and training of personnel in production and management of brackish water aquaculture are the prime
issues of development.

Strategies

Development of state regions varies in their context of location specific problems and with resource
base of the regions. Other activities of crops, livestock, forests,

fodder, horticulture, and fishery are compliments to or dependent on the pace of resource
development, particularly, if land and water problems of land use and management, across the
typologies do differ with the complexion of resource endowment and the con-committal investment
needs. One has to list the strategies and involvement pattern, evaluate with reference to short and long
tern prospects of and their development linkages, and prioritize the strategies. This would be task of
regional planning bodies under the auspices of Panchayat Raj Institutions. Note, however, they are
bound to be necessarily fine tuned in consonance with the problem focus and decision environs. The
strategies could be broadly classified as follows:
1. Land development and management is basically meant to alter the land characteristics in order to
render resource utilization productive, viable and sustainable. The component strategies include
development of wastelands, reclamation of problem soils such as usar, diara. khar. chaur. saline, alkaline
and sodic soils, management of farming along slopes in hilly regions and soil conservation. One has to
refer to these strategies on the regional context.

2. Water resource development and management handles issues of water resource development as a
productive infrastructure in terms of river dams. tanks and tube-wells for which large investment is
necessary, management is related to on-farm and in system water management effecting maximum
efficiency in water distribution and delivery duly recognizing the need for maximum conservation and
fair degree of equity. This could be a complement to the strategy.

3. Integrated watershed development mainly for the rainfed lands in medium to high rainfall regions.
The components are soil conservation, water harvesting, designing suitable farming systems of
integrated crop, livestock, horticulture and forestry activities. They vary in their importance with the
needs of resources of regions. Infrastructural development for long-term investment, employment and
income during the gestation period and assets structure are prerequisites for sustainable development.
The degree of integration and its pattern depends much on policy intervention and participatory
development.

4. Crops and crop development is based primarily on crop research and improvement through genetic
engineering and biotechnology besides the traditional approaches in plant breeding and crop selection
responsive to various stresses of moisture, biotics and environment. There is another dimension of crop
choice and substitution to suit the resource pattern for optimum crop mix, choice of high value crops of
horticulture and floriculture, the growing export needs of trade, and with focus on productivity and
environment.

5. Horticultural development involves large investment in horticultural crops of export importance such
as fruits and spices, flowers and orchids, high value vegetables, coffee and tea plantations in new areas
of developed land resources. There are issues of crop complementarity, and substitution under irrigated
cropping systems, crop introduction, establishment and management in rainfed areas and watersheds.
Plant improvement, biotechnology and nursery management, large waiting periods, financing
development are the areas of focus for R & D and information support as well.

6. Livestock development becomes significant in relation to income elastic demand for livestock
products such as dairy, poultry and meat and domestic market has huge potentials. The pattern of
livestock development depends upon crops and the complementarities with fodder availability and
development, and in scope for trade. The components are determined on the basis of land and water
resources and the pattern of their utilization. Management focus warrants for R & D on animal breeding,
animal nutrition and feeding, and animal health care, and institutional support for effective introduction
and organization of activities.

7. Fisheries development is confined to inland fisheries- both freshwater and brackish water
aquaculture, in the state regions. Marine fisheries are excluded by choice in our concern for
development. The vast stretches of water bodies spread over riverine and coastal areas provide
opportunities. Reclamation of derelict water bodies along river courses and tanks improvement offer
scope for development of inland fisheries. There are certain environmental and social issues emerging
which must be addressed. Establishment of hatcheries, distribution of seeds and information about
fishery management, production and marketing and technology transmission are the operational issues
for detailed study and policy formulation.

8. Farming system is a composite intervention package of all strategies discussed so far. Its uniqueness
for special emphasis lies in its distinctive focus on optimization of the land use and water resource, with
respect to income or employment or both. A high level management orientation and institutional
support is involved. There are two variations in the approach, One is based on an activity which is the
major around which complementary activities are specified. Paddy based farming system of paddy
crops, ducks and fishes, and dairy based farming system of cows, fodder, feed grains and vegetables, are
some of the examples. Another is resource based and depending upon demand and prices for products,
supply responds in a mix of crop and non-crop activities, with no constraints on activity mix, It manifests
in as a long run solution of growth and development of the regions. There can be options for farming
systems choice for decisions in response to preference functions of farm family households, Intensive
R&D is required.

9. Forest development has three dimensions of protecting and qualitative upgradation of existing
forests; establishment of new forest cover to widen the base of forestry of regions; and introduction of
forest components as silvipasture or agro and/or social forests. Regional needs would determine the
components of forest development strategies.

10. Infrastructure development could be grouped under three categories which are (i) commodity
improvement and value addition such as processing, packaging and storage, (ii) supportive road and
communication services, and (iii) facilitating information and inputs delivery system, including finance
and trade. Infrastructure supports all the nine strategies specified above in varying.

The analysis of the strategies for agricultural development based on the typology of the State Regions
has special significance from the point of view of financial commitments and the inter departmental
cooperation that is required at the State and district levels. This understanding, therefore has special
significance for the banking community as well as other development functionaries.

References:

i. Basu, D.N. and Guha, G.S (1996). Agro-climatic Regional Planning in India –Vol I & II, New Delhi :
Concept Publishing Company.

ii. Bhalla, G.S and Singh, Gurmail (2001) Indian Agriculture: Four Decades of Development, New Delhi ,
Sage Publications.

iii. Deshpande, R.S, Bhende, M.J, Thippaah, P and Vivekananda, M(2004) State of the Indian Farmer Vol.
9: Crops and Cultivation, New Delhi , Academic Foundation

iv. --------, Handbook of Agriculture, New Delhi , ICAR

v. Hazra, C.R. Crop Diversification in India . http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6906e/x6906e06.htm

vi. http://www.krishiworld.com for material on cropping patterns.

vii. http://wrmin.nic.in/resource for material on physiography.

viii. Velayutham & Bhattacharyya, (2000) NBSS&LUP, ICAR, Nagpur :

http://www.faidelhi.org/general/statistics/soil-group.htm for material on Soil groups and distributio