Vision and endocrine system

The Human Eye

 Structure & Function
• IRIS
– coloured part of eye
– controls light entering

• PUPIL
– black hole in iris
– where light enters
 Structure & Function
• SCLERA
– whites of the eye
– supports eyeball
– provides attachment
for muscles

• LENS
– converging lens
– allows us to see
objects near and far
 Structure & Function
• CORNEA
– transparent bulge over
pupil
– focuses light (refracts) onto
retina

• RETINA
– internal membrane
– contain light-receptive cells
(rods & cones)
– converts light to electrical
signal
 Structure & Function

• RODS
– 120 million cells
– detect brightness
(black & white)
– for night vision
• CONES
– 6 million cells
– detect colour (RGB)
– GANGLION CELLS
– Detect movement and
patterns
 Vision
• The sensory cells in the eyes respond to changes in the
flow of light energy.

• Light-sensing cells are found in the retina.

– At the back of the eye
– The other parts of the eye are designed to focus light
onto the retina

• Light-sensing cells are called rods and cones.

– Rods are very sensitive and can detect dim light but
not color.
– Cones are less sensitive, but can detect different
wavelengths of light (color).
– This is why we cannot see color at night.
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 Optic system of eyeball
• Cornea allows light to enter the eyeball.
• Aqueous humor fills anterior and posterior chambers
in front of lens.
• Crystalline lens is a transparent elastic and biconcave
lens, which refracts light and focuses it on retina.
• Vitreous body is a transparent gel enclosed by
vitreous membrane, which fills eyeball behind lens.
 Aqueous humor circulation
• Ciliary processes in posterior chamber secrete
aqueous fluid. It flows between the ligament of the
lens and then through the pupil into the anterior
chamber of the eye.

• Functions of aqueous humor: 1) maintains

intraoccular pressure; 2) maintains shape of eyeball;
3) acts as refractory medium; 4) supplies nutrition; 5)
drains metabolic end products.
 Focusing Problems
PRESBYOPIA
• Form of far-sightedness
• Harder for people to read
as they age
• Lens loses elasticity
• Corrected by glasses with
converging lenses
 Focusing Problems
MYOPIA
• Near-sightedness
• Problem seeing objects
far away
• Distance between lens
and retina too large
• Light focused in front of
retina
• Correct with diverging
lenses
 Light and dark adaptation
• If a person remains in bright light for a long time:
photochamicals in rods and cones reduce to all-transretinal
and opsins. Most all-transretinal converts to all-transretinol
(vitamin A). So, sensitivity of eye to light gets decreased. This
is light adaptation.

• If a person remains in dark for a long time:

all vitamin A convert to 11-cis retinal and than to
photochemicals. Sensitivity of eye to light gets increased. This
is dark adaptation.
 Endocrine System
• The Endocrine system
– A collection of glands that communicate with one another and with body
tissues through the release of hormones.
• Hormones
– Chemical signals released by one organ that are transported to another
organ where it triggers a change in activity
• Glands
– Organs that make and release specific chemicals
– Endocrine glands
• Lack ducts
• Secrete hormones in to the circulatory system
– Exocrine glands
• Have ducts
• Release their products into the digestive tract or onto the skin
• Digestive glands, sweat glands

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 Endocrine Glands

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 Endocrine System Function
• Hormones released by endocrine glands travel
throughout the entire body.
– However, they only bind to and affect target cells that
have receptors.

• Target cells respond by

– Releasing products that have been previously made
– Making new molecules or increasing metabolic activity
– Dividing and growing

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 Some Examples of Hormone Action
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine
– Released by the adrenal medulla during emergency
situations
– Acts quickly
• Increases heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate
• Shunts blood to muscles

• Antidiuretic hormone
– Released from posterior pituitary in response to dehydration
– Acts more slowly
• Targets kidney cells
• Increases the re-absorption of water
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 Some Examples of Hormone Action
• Insulin
– Works rapidly
– Produced and released from the pancreas
– Stimulates cells to take in glucose
– Is released in response to high glucose levels in the blood
• Would occur after a high carbohydrate meal
– Diabetes is a lack of insulin
• Cells don’t take in glucose

• Growth-stimulating hormone
– Works over a period of several years during childhood
– Produced by the anterior pituitary
– Stimulates growth
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 Integration of Nervous System and Endocrine System Function

• The pituitary gland links the endocrine system to the nervous

system.
– Located at the base of the brain
– Divided into two parts
• Anterior pituitary
– An endocrine gland
– Produces hormones that trigger other glands to release
their hormones
– Receives commands from the chemicals released from
the hypothalamus
• Posterior pituitary
– Part of the brain
– Holds the axons from cells in the hypothalamus
– Releases specific hormones into the bloodstream
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 Hormones of the Pituitary

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 Integration of Nervous System and Endocrine System Function

• Example: In songbirds, the length of day causes hormonal

changes that prepare them for reproduction.
– Length of day is sensed by the pineal body in the brain.
– The pineal gland controls the release of chemicals from the
hypothalamus.
– The chemicals released by the hypothalamus trigger the
pituitary to release hormones into the bloodstream.
– These pituitary hormones stimulate the reproductive organs
to secrete reproductive hormones.
– These reproductive hormones trigger courtship and mating
rituals in birds.

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 Interaction Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems

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 Sensory Input
• The nervous and endocrine systems respond to sensory input.
– Some sense organs detect external stimuli.
• Vision, hearing, touch
– Other sense organs detect internal stimuli.
• Pain and pressure
• The sense organs detect changes; the brain is responsible for
perception.

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 Chemical Detection
• All neurons have chemical receptors on their surface.
– When chemicals bind to these receptors, the activity of the
cell changes.
– Usually results in depolarization and the generation of a
nerve impulse.

• Other types of cells have chemical receptors as well.

– The aorta can sense and respond to changes in hydrogen
ions, carbon dioxide and oxygen in the blood.

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