ME572: Analysis of Manufacturing Processes

Introduction
Dr. S. Sohail Akhtar
Mechanical Engineering Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia

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 Chapter 1

Review of
Machining
Operations

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 Machine tools and machining operations
• The principle used in machine tools is one of generating or
forming the surface required by providing suitable relative
motions between the cutting tool and workpiece.
• The cutting tool edge or edges remove a layer of work material;
the removed material is called chip.

Forming

Generation
Combination
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 Relative motions provided by a machine tool
Primary motion:
Causes relative motion between tool and workpiece so
that the face of the tool approaches the workpiece
material.

Feed motion:
When added to primary motion, leads to repeated or
continuous chip removal and creation of machined
surface of desired geometric characteristics.

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 Machine tool groups
o Those using single-point tools
o Those using multipoint tools
o Those using abrasive wheels

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What are the three fundamental machining parameters?
Cutting speed is the largest of the relative velocities of a cutting tool or
workpiece. In turning it is the speed of the workpiece while in drilling and
milling, it is the speed of the cutting tool. In turning, it is given by the surface
speed of the workpiece,

Depth of cut is the distance the cutting tool penetrates into the workpiece. In
turning, for example, it is given by:
ap = (dw- dm)/2

Feed is the movement of the tool per revolution. In turning, it is the distance the
tool travels in one revolution of the workpiece and is given the units of
mm/rev or in./rev.
 Process factors to be evaluated
o Time to perform the operation
o Metal removal rate
o Power and energy required

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 Major independent variables
• Tool material, coating, and condition
• Tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness
• Cutting parameters: speed, feed, depth of cut
• Metalof Cutting
Characteristics the machine tool—stiffness & damping
• Work-holding, fixturing etc.
•
Processes
Use of cutting fluid

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 Major dependent variables
• Types of chips produced
• Force and energy dissipated in the cutting process
• Temperature rise in the workpiece, chip and tool
• Wear and failure of the cutting tool
• Surface finish produced on the workpiece

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 Machines using single-point tools
The engine lathe

(a) Holding the work between centers, (b) chuck, (c) collet, and (d) face plate
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 Machines using single-point tools
The engine lathe

(a) An engine lathe; (b) cylindrical turning on an engine lathe

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 Machines using single-point tools

For most practical operations η is very small

Resultant
cutting
motion in
cylindrical
turning

Resultant cutting motion in cylindrical turning

Typical single-point tool
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 Machines using single-point tools

(a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool (The designation “right hand”
means that the tool travels from right to left) for turning. (a) solid tool-steel bars, (b)
Inserts of carbide or other tool material

Right Hand Tool Geometry (for Turning Operation)

 Machines using single-point tools

Rake Angles: To control the direction of the chip flow and strength of tool tip.
• Positive angles result in small included angle at tool tip.
Relief Angle: To control interference and rubbing at the tool-workpiece interface.
Cutting edge angle : Affect chip formation, tool strength, and cutting forces at
various angles.
Nose Radius: Affects surface finish
• Small angle: Rough surface and improved tool strength,
•Large angle: Tool chatter
 Machines using single-point tools
ac is given by af sin κr
For single-point cutting
operations af is equal to the feed f,
and therefore

The cross-sectional area Ac of the

layer of material being removed
(cross-sectional area of the uncut
chip) is approximately given by

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 Machines using single-point tools
Undeformed chip thickness ac
The thickness of the layer of material
being removed at the selected point on
the cutting edge, known as the
undeformed chip thickness ac,
significantly affects the power required
to operate. Strictly, this dimension
should be measured both normal to the
cutting edge and normal to the
resultant cutting direction.
However, for all practical purposes,
since η is small, as described above, can
be ac measured normal to the direction
of primary motion.
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Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal Cutting
 Typical Lathe Operations
Cylindrical-turning operation
The cutting speed at the tool corner,
The average, or mean, cutting speed vav is given by

The metal removal rate Zw is the product of the mean cutting

speed and the cross sectional of the uncut chip, Ac. Thus

The same result could have been

obtained by dividing the total volume
of metal removed by the machining
time tm

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 Typical Lathe Operations
Cylindrical-turning operation
For operations where the back engagement ap is small compared to the
diameter of the machined surface dm, the metal removal rate is approximately
given by

The power Pm required to perform any machining operation can be obtained

from

Finally, if the overall efficiency of the machine tool motor and drive systems is
denoted by ηm, the electrical power Pe consumed by the machine tool is given by

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 Typical Lathe Operations
Facing operation

The machining time tm is given by

The maximum cutting speed vmax

The maximum metal removal rate Zwmax are given by

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 Other Lathe Operations

2O boz
is
boring
for enlarging
the hole .

(c) boring; (d) external threading; (e) parting and cutoff

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Vertical-boring Machine (Vertical Borer)

Facing on a vertical-boring machine.

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Horizontal-boring Machine (Horizontal Borer)

Facing on a horizontal-
boring machine.

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Shaping Machine (Shaper)

Production of flat surfaces on a shaper.

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 Shaping Machine (Shaper)

o Using a shaper a single-point

cutting tool travel along a straight
path while the workpiece is held
stationary
o In Horizontal Usually cutting occurs
when a reciprocating ram is in the
forward movement (push cut).
Other in the “draw cut”
o Vertical shaper (slotters) for
notches and keyways.
o Complex shapes are also produced

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Shaping Machine (Shaper)

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 Shaping operations
(a)Horizontal surface;
(b) vertical surface;
(c) inclined surface.

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Mechanical Shaper Drive

Quick-return mechanism for a mechanical shaper.

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 Mechanical Shaper Drive

o Cutting tool is held in the

tool post that reciprocates
over the work with:
• Forward stroke velocity, v
• Backward stroke velocity, vR
o Drive crank rotates at nr (no. of
strokes per second)

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Stroke ratios : Shaping operations

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Cutting velocity: Shaping operations

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 tm and Zw : Shaping

For a surface of width bw the machining time tm is given by

where nr is the frequency of reciprocation or cutting strokes, and f is the

feed

The metal removal rate Zw during cutting will be given by

where v is the cutting speed, and ap is the back engagement

The undeformed chip thickness ac will be given by

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 Planing Machine (Planer)

Production of flat surfaces on a planer.

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 Planing Machine (Planer)

o Using a machine called planner a large workpiece is placed on

a reciprocating table moving the part past a single point
cutting tool.
o Produce flat surface, grooves, slots, gear teeth
o Disadvantage: No cutting on return stroke, limited capability

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Drilling Machine (Drill Press)

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tm and Zw : Drilling

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 Two Basic Types of Milling Machines:
Based on Spindle orientation
• (a) Horizontal and (b) vertical
 Two Forms of Milling
• (a) Peripheral milling and (b) face milling

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 Types of Peripheral Milling
(a) Slab milling,
(b) Slotting,
(c) Side milling,
(d) Straddle milling
(e) Form milling

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 Types of Face Milling
(a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, and (c) end milling

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 Types of Face Milling
(d) Profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface contouring

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 Face Milling
• High speed face milling
operation using indexable
inserts (photo courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.)

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Horizontal-milling Machine

Slab milling on a knee-type horizontal-milling machine

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Slab Milling/Peripheral Milling/plain milling

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 Horizontal-milling Machine

Geometry of a slab-milling operation, where

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 Horizontal-milling Machine

-
>
·
L

-
-
total
feed

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Horizontal-milling Machine

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 tm and Zw : Horizontal Milling
Relative motion between a slab-milling cutter and the workpiece
during machining time.

The metal removal rate Zw will be equal to the product of the feed speed and the cross-
sectional area of the metal removed, measured in the direction of feed motion. Thus,
since the back engagement ap is equal to the workpiece width,
- Feed
rate

↳ width
in
milling
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 Vertical milling

Face milling on a knee-type vertical milling machine.

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 Vertical milling

Geometry of face milling,

where acmax = (vf/Nnt)
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 Vertical milling

Relative motion between face-milling cutter and the workpiece during machining time
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 Other Classifications of Milling Machines
Other than spindle orientation, milling machines
can be classified into the following types:
• (1) knee-and-column
• (2) bed type
• (3) planer type
• (4) tracer mills
• (5) CNC milling
 Other Classifications of Milling Machines

Special types of knee-and-column milling machine: (a) universal—overarm, arbor, and

cutter omitted for clarity: and (b) ram type.
 Other Classifications of Milling Machines

Simplex bed-type milling machine horizontal spindle.

Machines Using Abrasive Wheels

Common shapes of abrasive wheels. (a) Cylindrical; (b) disk; (c) cup.

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Horizontal-spindle Surface-grinding Machine
Surface grinding on a
horizontal-spindle surface
grinder

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Horizontal-spindle Surface-grinding Machine

http://www.starequipment
.net/picture/108902%20ok
amoto.html

Horizontal-spindle surface-
grinding operations. (a) Traverse
grinding; (b) plunge grinding.
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 tm and Zw : Surface Grinding
Traverse grinding
f = cross-feed per cutting stroke
ap = back engagement
vtrav = traverse speed

nr = frequency of reciprocation
bw = width of the workpiece

Plunge grinding

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 tm and Zw : Surface Grinding
Plunge grinding

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Vertical-spindle Surface-grinding Machine
Surface grinding on a vertical-spindle surface grinder

http://www.jlsmt.com/DCM_R
otary_Surface_Grinders.htm
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Vertical-spindle Surface-grinding Machine

For vertical-spindle surface grinders with a horizontal, rotary worktable on which

several workpieces can be mounted the machining time is given by

where nw is the rotational frequency of the worktable.

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Cylindrical Grinding Machine
Cylindrical grinding

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 Cylindrical Grinding Machine

In traverse grinding, the maximum

metal removal rate is closely given
by

where
dw = diameter of the work surface
vtrav = traverse speed
f = feed per stroke of the machine
table (usually extremely small
compared to dw)

and the machining time will be

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 Cylindrical Grinding Machine

In the plunge-grinding operation, the wheel is fed into the

workpiece, without traverse motion applied, to form a groove.
If vf is the feed speed of the grinding wheel, dw the diameter of the
work surface, and ap the back engagement (the width of the
grinding wheel), the maximum metal removal rate is given by:

Machining time

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Internal Grinding Machine

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 Internal Grinding Machine

Internal-grinding operations. (a) Transverse grinding; (b) plunge grinding

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Summary of Equations for Cutting Operations

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Summary of Equations for Cutting Operations

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