Applications of Levelling

Surveying 1
May 2008
Topic 4 – Applications of Levelling

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 1

Applications of Levelling

Calculating Grades.

Grades are frequently used in many fields of engineering, surveying and science,
particularly for setting out batters in earthworks. Grades can be defined in a number
of different ways.

1) Ratio, e.g. 1:2, which represents a grade of 1 metre rise for every 2 metres
horizontal

2) As an angle (from horizontal), i.e sin  = h/dist

From this information we can calculate h or the distance d, if one other

component is known. This can also be used to calculate contx our values.

3) % Grades, e.g. +3% or –1.8%. Note that the sign tells us if it is a rising (+)
or negative (-) grade. % grades are typically used for railways, crossfalls,
pipes etc.

e.g. +3% grade, means a rise of 3 metres vertically over a horizontal distance
of 100 m.

e.g. if h = -3.0 metres over a distance of 120 metres corresponds to a % grade

of;

-3/120 *100 = -2.5%

Calculating Reduced Levels (RL’s) from grades

If the grade is known, it is possible to calculate reduced levels.

Typical Engineering plan showing utilities.

Example 1: AB has a grade of –2%. If A has and RL = 100.00 , what is the Reduced
Level (RL) of B if the horizontal distance between A and B is 1657.5m? What is the
RL of C if the horizontal. distance from A to C is 500m?

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 2

Applications of Levelling

Example 2: AB has a rising grade of 15, if the horizontal distance between A and B
is 74.553, calculate HAB.

HAB

Example 3: Calculate the percentage grade AB if RLA = 55.6 and the RLB = 40.0 and
the horizontal distance between A and B is 250.000m

Applications of Levelling

1. Section levelling for roads, sewers, railways etc

2. Area levelling for contours, spot heights, earthwork volumes, etc
3. Setting out levels for construction works

Section Levelling

a) Longitudinal sections – ground profile along the longitudinal line and

any proposed construction. May include actual ground levels,
formation levels, invert levels, gradients, cut and fill data.
b) Cross-sections – Ground profile at right angles to the longitudinal line
of the construction. Generally both same scales both vertically and
horizontally.

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 3

Applications of Levelling

Typical longitudinal section

Contours

The best method of graphically representing terrain on paper is through the use of
contours. A contour is a line connecting points of equal elevation above mean sea
level or an arbitrary datum. The vertical distance between contour lines is referred to
as the contour interval. On a map or plan, contour lines are shown at regular intervals
according to the difference in vertical height and the scale and purpose of the plan.

Contouring is considered the best method of showing relief as when it is well done it
conveys a clear impression of the terrain. Horizontal distances between contours
indicates the nature of the slope; if the contours are close together it indicates a sharp
rise or fall: if they are wide apart a gentle or comparatively level surface.

Contour plans are extensively used for engineering design and information can be
deduced from them to produce longitudinal and cross sections, profiles and the
calculation of volumes.

Contours may be determined by:

1. Grid levelling
2. Spot heights

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 4

Applications of Levelling

Contour Map

Grid Levelling

A grid is placed over the area of interest and each point of that grid is included in the
level run.

Spot Heights (Trigonometric Heighting)

Unlike grid levelling, the method of spot heighting involves the levelling of non-
equally spaced points on the natural surface. This method is typically used in
topographical surveying with a total station or similar equipment. Through basic
trigonometric relationships, the reduced levels of each point can be calculated (This
technique is often referred to as trig levelling).

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 5

Applications of Levelling

In these circumstances, we have:

∆H = D sinhi – ht

If we make the height of the target (i.e. a prism on a prism pole) the same as the
height of the instrument, then this relationship simplifies to:

∆H = D sin

The Laser Level

Laser levels project visible (or invisible) reference lines that are used in horizontal or
vertical alignment applications such as tunnelling, pipe placement and building
construction. Rotating-beam lasers are single beam lasers with spinning optics that
rotate the beam in the horizontal plane, creating planes of reference.

Laser Levelling

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 6

Applications of Levelling

Digital Level

Applications of Levelling: Setting out design levels

Example 1:

BM# 10
RL = 100.0
Assumed

What is the staff reading on the concrete slab?

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 7

Applications of Levelling

Example 2:

RL = 102.0

What are the staff readings to set out the floor and the roof?

Errors in Levelling

Whenever we use a level we must be aware of the potential sources of error, and must
take the appropriate steps to eliminate or minimise such errors.

Instrumental errors

• Instrument out of adjustment

- determined by a two peg test - a systematic error which is
eliminated by keeping backsights & foresights equal.
Natural Errors

• Curvature & refraction

- Negligible over short sights. Eliminated with equal BS and FS
distances.

• Temperature
- variations cause expansion in staves. Differential heating of
the bubble in tilting levels causes levelling of the bubble.
• Wind
- vibrations in instrument & staff cause uncertainties in
readings.

Personal Errors

• Not centering bubble

- variable, potentially large effect (particularly with tilting
levels).
• Faulty staff readings
- due to , for example: parallax, poor conditions, long sights,
bad staff location, mistakes in reading, booking, etc.

Source: http://www.ci.west-jordan.ut.us/engineering/samplePlans.cfm#FinalComSite

GEOM 2088 Surveying 1 8