Appendix A

EXPONENTIAL DECAY

Figure A.1 illustrates the exponential decay of the dependent variable y,

from an initial value Yo, as the independent variable x increases. Exponential
decay is characterised by the fact that in each given x interval, y always de-
clines by the same factor. In particular, it declines by a factor of 0.7 in the
characteristic interval, xc' Thus, a large value of Xc would indicate a gradual
decay while a small value of Xc would indicate an abrupt decay.
The exponential decay may also be written algebraically thus

(A.I)

where e (=2.7183 ... ) is the base of natural logarithms, a constant.

'. -- -- - - - --

:,7"
, Jo
,
:·7(·71.
, 0
)

x
Figure A.I The exponential decay of the dependent variable y as the independent
variable x increases. In each characteristic increase in x, xc' y falls by a factor of about
0.7
Appendix B

LOGARITHMS

The logarithm x of a number A to the base lOis written thus:

x=logloA (B.l )
and is defined through equation (B.2),
A= lOX (B.2)
Logarithms to base e, where e (=2.718 ... ) is the base of natural logar-
ithms, are also widely used. Tables of values of logarithms to the base 10
and to the base e are available.
The usefulness of logarithms may be illustrated as follows. Consider
logarithms to the base 10 of the two numbers Al and Al as shown in equa-
tions (B.3) and (B.4).
Xl =10g lo A I , Al = lOx) (B.3)

Xl =loglOA 1 , Az = lOxz (B.4)

The product of Al and Az ' B, is then
B=Al x A z
=lOxlxlOx2 (B.5)
= 10(x1+xZ)

The logarithm to the base of 10 of this product:

loglo B=x l +x 2
=loglo Al +loglo A z (B.6)
The logarithm of the product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the
two quantities which are multiplied together. So, in converting to logarithms
the product operation becomes addition.
When the two quantities, Al and A z , are divided one into the other thus
C=AdA z
= lOxl/IOX 2 (B.7)
= 10(xl-x2)
196 APPENDIX B: LOGARITHMS

The logarithm of the quotient C is given by

logio C=X I - X l
=loglO Al -iogio Al (B.8)
The logarithm of A I divided by A 1 is equal to the difference between the
logarithm of A I and the logarithm of A l. Thus, in converting to logarithms
the division operation is transformed into subtraction.
Appendix C

MECHANICAL ENERGY AND VIBRATIONS

Mechanical energy occurs in two distinguishable forms, kinetic and potential.

If an object of mass M kg has a velocity of v mis, it possesses an amount of
kinetic energy E k , given by the following equation:
Ek =~ M 1,2 (C.l)
The unit of energy is the joule (J).
A mass can possess gravitational potential energy if it is held at some
height, h m above the ground. The amount of such potential energy E p ' is
given by the following equation,
(C.2)
in which M kg is the mass and g is a constant, the acceleration due to gravity.
A spring may also possess potential energy E ps ' when it is either compressed
or extended. As shown in figure C.1, the force required to stretch a spring

F(N)

Figure C.I The force F on a spring is directly proportional to the extension x of the
spring. The slope of the graph, C, is called the spring constant. The area under the
graph up to a given extension, shown cross-hatched, is the work done in stretching the
spring and also the energy stored in the spring
198 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

depends on the amount of the extension x (increase in length) of the spring

and on the spring constant C thus:
F=Cx (C.3)
This is Hooke's Law for a spring. The potential energy stored in the spring
is equal to the area (cross-hatched in the figure) under the graph. This is
given by equation (C.4):
Eps =~ Fx
=~CX2 (C.4)
Mechanical work is done when a force is moved through a distance. An
example of this is when a weight is lifted up from the ground. In fact, in this
case the work done equals the weight of the object multiplied by the height
through which it had been lifted. Energy is ability, or capacity, to do work.
Thus the potential energy that the mass possesses when it is lifted through
height h m, is in fact equal to the amount of work that had to be done to
raise the object. Likewise, when a spring is being stretched, work has to be
done, and the amount of work is equal to the amount of energy stored in the
spring. Work, therefore, has the same unit as energy, the joule (1).
It takes time to do work. For instance, it takes time to lift a weight to
some height. The rate at which the work is done or the rate at which the
energy is being stored (the amount of energy being stored every second) is
called the power and is measured in watts (W), which are joules/second
or l/s.
Consider a mass resting on a surface as shown in figure C.2. If one tries to
move this mass along the surface, it is necessary to apply an amount of force
to first get the object into motion. This is because between the mass and the
surface there occurs a force called the frictional force, Fp which tends to
prevent the relative movement. At one level, this frictional force may be

Figure C.2 A mass M, acted upon by a force F horizontally along the table, is pre-
vented from being accelerated by an oppositely-directed frictional force, Ff

considered to arise from molecular attraction and simple mechanical inter-

locking between the top surface of the table and the bottom surface of the
object and these effects tend to prevent the relative movement. Once the
object has acquired some velocity the friction tends to reduce this velocity.
Friction therefore tends to reduce the kinetic energy of the object. In fact,
friction transforms the kinetic energy into a different and non-mechanical
form of energy, namely heat.
 APPENDIX C: MECHANICAL ENERGY AND VIBRATIONS 199

Consider the simple mechanical system shown in figure C.3(a), which

consists of a mass resting on a flat table attached to one end of a spring
whose other end is attached to a fixed vertical support. If the mass is set in
motion, it will oscillate back and forth and one can graphically display its
movement as shown in figure C.3(b). At the furthest limit of the movement
of the mass (R), it possesses no velocity and hence no kinetic energy, but the
spring is maximally extended and so does have potential energy. At the mid-
point of the movement of the object (Q), the mass has its maximum velocity
and hence its maximum kinetic energy. But, at that point the spring is
neither extended nor compressed and, therefore, possesses no potential
energy. Then, when the object is at its furthest excursion to the left (P), it
again possesses no velocity and no kinetic energy. But, then the spring is
maximally compressed and has the maximum potential energy. Thus, the
energy picture is such that it is constantly being changed between kinetic and
potential forms during the vibration of the object.
The result of the intrusion of friction into this system is to gradually
reduce the amplitude of movement of the object as shown in figure C.3(c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure C.3 A mechanical system consisting initially of a mass M and a spring of

constant C, as shown at (a), which when disturbed executes simple harmonic motion
as in (b). If the viscous dashpot be connected, the motion of the mass after being
disturbed is a damped simple harmonic motion as in (c)
200 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

In fact, what friction does is to gradually convert the mechanical energy of

the system into heat. This latter damped type of vibration is of much wider
occurrence in real systems than the undamped vibration described above. If
the damping is very severe, with much friction, a very small number of
oscillations of the object will happen before the movement decays appreci-
ably to zero.
Appendix D

HEAT

When heat energy is given to an object, it causes the temperature of the

object to rise. The magnitude of the resulting temperature rise AT, depends
on the amount of heat donated. H J, but also on the mass of the object. M.
and an intrinsic property of the material of the object called the specific heat
capacity, c. The relationship is shown in the following equation:
H=Mc(A1) (D.I)
Heat can be obtained in a number of ways, most commonly by combustion,
but also from electrical heaters, and through friction from mechanical
energy.
Appendix E

ELECTRICITY

Electricity is another form of energy, from which mechanical energy (by

means of a motor), heat (by means of heating elements) and light may be
derived. Electricity is commonly used in one of two forms, (a) direct current
(D.C.), and (b) alternating current (A.C.).

(a) D.C.

A simple D.C. circuit is shown in figure E.l. On the left is a source of electrical
current and on the right is a resistor which tends to reduce the current flow.
The current flowing consists of electrons, tiny negatively-charged particles,

Figure E.1 A simple D.C. circuit consisting of a battery source of electromotive

force (electrical potential difference) and a single resistor. A current I A flows around
the circuit

moving through the wires of the circuit. The current flowing is the amount of
electrical charge flowing in each second, arid is measured in units of amperes
(A). The source of current, which might be a battery, is characterised by the
electrical pressure, called the potential difference, E, which it develops. For
a particular potential difference, E, and a given circuit resistor of resistance,
R, the amount of current, I, which flows is determined by Ohm's law shown
in equation (E.l)
I=E/R (E.1)
Potential difference is measured in volts (V), while resistance is measured in
Ohms (Q).
 APPENDIX E: ELECTRICITY 203
Every electrical appliance has a value of resistance. A lamp or fire element,
a motor or cooker, each a characteristic value of resistance.
The current flowing constantly carries energy to the resistive load. The
amount of energy carried each second is the power delivered to the re-
sistor. The power, P, in watts (W) is given by equation (E.2):
P=EI
=R PeW) (E.2)
If the current flows for some length of time, t, then the amount of energy,
EE' in joules delivered to the load is the product of power and the time taken,
indicated by equation (E.3):
EE=Pt
=Elt (E.3)
=RPt
The flow of current in a wire is also associated with magnetism. F or instance,
a coil of wire caIled a solenoid, as shown in figure E.2, carrying current, has
a magnetic field which is equivalent to that of a bar magnet. The strength of
the magnetic field is proportional to the current I. The polarity of the field,
which end of the equivalent magnet is north and which is south, depends on
the direction of flow of the current.

N s

Figure E.2 A solenoid carrying an electrical current acts like a bar magnet

Certain materials which are ferromagnetic, such as soft iron, if placed in

the solenoid, strengthen the magnetic field and also become magnetised
themselves.

(b) A.C.

In an A.C. circuit the source of potential difference, the electrical pressure

causing the current flow, is not constant but is alternating with time as shown
in figure E.3. This alternating potential difference or alternating voltage, (e),
may be described by equation (E.4):
e = E m • x sinwt (E.4)
In every so-caIled period, T s, where
T=2n/w (E.5)
204 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

e(V) E:f!1?X.

(a)

. p'
I(A)~.q(s)
T(5) ,

(b)

p(W)F~T\~
(c)
t(s)
Figure E.3 (a) The sinusoidal variation of voltage with time in an A.C. voltage source.
(b) The A.C. current which flows in a resistive circuit when the voltage in (a) is applied
across it. (c) The instantaneous power delivered to the resistor in this A.C. circuit

the pattern of the potential difference change is repeated. The number of

such periods repeated each second is called the frequency, f~ where
f= liT
=wl2n (E.6)
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
As the voltage varies, so also does the current according to Ohm's Law as
shown in equations (E.7) and (E.8):

i=elR
= (Emaxl R) sin wt (E.7)
= I max sin wt

where
(E.8)
As shown in figure E.3(b), the current varies in step with the voltage.
Therefore, for half of the time the current is moving in one direction in the
circuit while for the other half of the time it is moving in the opposite direction.
Nevertheless, power, p, is delivered to the resistive load as indicated by the
following equation:

p=ei
(E.9)
 APPENDIX E: ELECTRICITY 205
As shown in figure E.3(a), the power, the rate at which energy is being
delivered to the resistor, is constantly changing. The average power, P AV' a
constant power which would deliver the same amount of energy as the A.C.
power, is given by equation (E.IO):

P _ Emax Imax
AV- 2

Emax Imax
(E.lO)

where the so-called root mean square (rms) values are:

(E.II)

Some materials, such as metals, are good conductors of electricity. Such

materials present low values of resistance, thereby allowing large currents
to flow according to Ohm's Law. Other materials. such as plastics and
ceramics tend to be poor conductors. They offer very high resistance values
and are commonly referred to as insulators.
If an A.C. current flows through the solenoid of figure E.2, the associated
magnetic field is also alternating. Such local fluctuating electromagnetism
can initiate an electromagnetic wave which propagates at the speed of light.
This is the basis of radiotelemetry.
Appendix F

ELECTRONICS

Electronics is a sub-section of electricity in which the concern is to manipu-

late and control the flow of current, usually low values of current, in various
desired ways. The central elements used in electronic circuits are semi-
conductors. In their electrical conducting properties, semiconductors lie
between insulators and conductors. It is possible at the manufacturing stage
to impart, by appropriate added impurities, various desirable properties to
the semiconductor material. These materials are usually based on either
silicon or germanium.
A simple such device is the semiconductor diode which allows current to
flow in one direction but not in the opposite direction. If such a device is
included in an A.C. circuit as shown in figure F.1(a) the current flowing
through the resistance is as shown in figure F.l(c). It flows only half of
the time.
Another important semiconductor device is the transistor, depicted sym-
bolically in figure F.2(a). Transistors have found many and varied applica-
tions, but one of the most important is as amplifiers. A simple transistor
amplifier is shown in figure F.2(b). Note that the transistor is a three-terminal
device. One small voltage, the so-called input signal, ein , is connected be-
tween the base terminal and the emitter terminal. The output voltage, eout' is
developed across the load resistance R or between the collector and the earth
of the circuit. The basic point about the amplifier is that the ratio of the
output voltage to the input voltage can be greater than unity. This ratio is
known as the gain or the amplification factor (A) of the amplifier. Thus
(F.1)
An amplifier may be schematically represented as in figure F.2(c).
Transistors also act as key components in many other circuits such as
electronic switches, filters, oscillators and other wave/pulse shaping circuits,
voltage level detectors and comparators, analogue-to-digital as well as
digital-to-analogue converters, counters, demodulators, etc.
With the development of micro-miniat uris at ion, it has become possible to
drastically reduce the size of these semiconductor devices and to incorporate
 APPENDIX F: ELECTRONICS 207

(a)

(b)

(c) i~
t
Figure F.l The rectifying action of a diode in an A.C. circuit. (a) The resistive circuit
with the diode in series with the resistor. (b) The sinusoidal A.C. supply voltage. (c) The
current flows only during the positive or forward phases of the A.C. voltage. Zero
current flows during the negative phases

(a)
~
base
Ollector
eml.tt er

eout
(b)

(c)
~OU\
Figure F.2 (a) The usual symbolic representation for a transistor. (b) A simple circuit
for a common-emitter transistor amplifier. ein is the input signal voltage and eOU ! is the
output voltage. (c) A schematic or functional representation of the amplifier as a four-
terminal device. ein is the input voltage, eOU ! is the output voltage and A, the ratio of
these two voltages, is the gain or amplification factor of the amplifier
208 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

many of them in an interconnected fashion into a single small module or

chip, of dimensions of the order 0.5 cm. These small modules, called in-
tegrated circuits, may incorporate a wide variety of different interconnections
between the basic semiconductor devices. Many electronic functions may be
included in one very small device. Then, a number of these integrated circuits
may be used to implement the many desired functions in an overall instru-
ment such as a television set or an ultrasound scanner.
Appendix G

CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

A very useful device for visually displaying time-varying voltage waveforms

is the cathode-ray oscilloscope. At the heart of the cathode-ray oscilloscope
is the cathode-ray tube shown schematically in figure G.1.
The tube is generally an evacuated glass bottle. The inner face of the right
hand rectangular end of the bottle is coated with a fluorescent phosphor
which when it is struck by a beam of electrons, emits light which can be seen
through the glass. This is the front face or screen of the tube where the
voltage waveforms are displayed. The light emitted is not persistent. When
electrons are not impinging on the phosphor, no light is emitted and when
the electrons stop striking the phosphor the light emitted quickly decays.

SCREEN
.. -

Figure G.t A schematic diagram of a cathode-ray tube, comprising an evacuated

glass vessel, an electron gun which has a control grid to control the intensity of the
electron beam, the two deflection plates and the screen with a coating oflight-emitting
phosphor

The beam of electrons used to essentially write on the screen is formed in

the electron gun portion of the tube. The electron gun consists of a cathode,
heated with an electrical element, and an anode, or set of anodes, which are
arranged to be at a higher D.C. voltage than the cathode. The difference in
voltage between cathode and anode can be hundreds of volts.
210 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

Located between the cathode and this first anode is a metallic screen with
multiple perforations, the so-called control grid. Varying the fairly small
voltage of this grid relative to the cathode varies the flow of electrons to the
anode and in turn controls the brightness of the light produced at the screen.
Normally there is an external connection or input to this grid which is called
the 'Brightness Modulation' or Z input of the osciIIoscope.
The first anode in the electron gun has a perforation in its centre. The
electrons are drawn from the cathode at a high speed towards the anode.
Some of these electrons manage to pass through the hole in the centre of the
anode of the gun. They continue to be accelerated towards the screen by a
final anode which is evaporated on to the inside of the phosphor of the
screen. This anode is at a stiII higher voltage relative to the cathode. Thus, the
electron gun focusses the electrons into a sharp collimated beam which is
then drawn to the screen.
Between the electron gun and the screen, there are located two sets of
electron-beam deflection plates, one set arranged horizontally and the other
set arranged vertically with the electron beam passing between the two pairs
of plates. When a voltage is impressed between the two horizontal plates,
with the upper plate positive and lower plate negative, the beam of electrons
is repelled from the lower plate and attracted towards the upper plate. Con-
sequently, the beam arrives at the screen at a higher vertical position than
previously (see figure G.2). The greater the voltage between the plates, the
greater the vertical deflection of the bright spot on the screen. If the polarity
of the voltage between the plates is reversed, the deflection of the light spot
is vertically downwards, i.e. reversed. The two horizontal plates, are there-
fore used to produce vertical deflection of the bright spot on the screen, i.e.
deflection in the Y direction. Similarly, the pair of vertically-arranged plates
may be used to produce deflection of the bright spot along the horizontal or
X direction on the screen. Because the beam of electrons has so very little
mass, it may be caused to move around the screen very rapidly by appropriate
rapidly changing voltages between the pairs of deflection plates .

...
~~~C.I~N___ : __ ........
BEAM -
VERTICAL
DEFLECTION
PLATES

SCREEN
Figure G.2 The deflecting action of the charged deflection plates on the beam of
negative electrons
 APPENDIX G: CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE 211

In most oscilloscopes, the voltages applied to the horizontal deflection

plates are internally generated (i.e. within the oscilloscope electronics) saw-
tooth voltages, often referred to as the time-base voltages. These voltages
would vary as shown in figure G.3. Each consists of a linearly increasing
voltage, drawing the bright spot across the screen at a steady rate, followed
by a very abrupt drop in voltage drawing the bright spot back rapidly to the
left-hand side of the screen. Usually, also, the brightness of the spot is
diminished during the fly-back period so that it is not visible during fly-back.
The rate at which the bright spot travels from left to right may be varied by
varying the slope of the saw-tooth voltage as shown in the figure. If an
external time-varying voltage is simultaneously applied to the vertical de-
flection plates, the bright spot experiences vertical deflections as well as the
steady time-base horizontal deflection. The motion of the bright spot on the
screen is then an image of the voltage versus time graph of the time-varying
voltage to be monitored.
Depending upon the setting of the time-base, i.e. the rate of rise of the
ramp of the saw-tooth voltage, the time taken for the bright spot to travel
from left to right on the screen can be controlled and consequently the
duration of the display of the time-varying voltage can also be varied.
The main controls on a cathode-ray oscilloscope are the following:
(a) The time-base setting as described above.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure G.3 Saw-tooth voltage variations with time, which are used to sweep the
electron beam horizontally across the viewing screen at different steady speeds. The
horizontal scale is then a time base with from (a) through (c) a decreasing time for the
sweep across the screen width
212 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

(b) The sensitivity of the vertical deflection. This setting controls the
amount of amplification applied to the time-varying voltage of interest before
it is applied to the vertical deflection plates.
(c) The brightness or luminance of the bright-spot display. This controls
the steady voltage of the control grid and thereby controls the amount of
electrons in the beam reaching the screen.
(d) The focus-control varies the voltages on the electrodes in the electron
gun and thereby helps to collimate the electron beam and to ensure that a
narrow beam reaches the screen.
(e) The triggering of the time-base. Sometimes, it is adequate for the
time-base voltages to be a free-running saw-tooth. But, often it is desirable
for the sweep of the saw-tooth of the time-base to start simultaneously with
portion of the voltage being examined. In such cases, instead of the saw-
tooth being free-running, it can be triggered to start when desired, i.e. when
the voltage of interest reaches a particular level or else by some other ex-
ternally-applied trigger signals.
Appendix H

STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE

In the conventional oscilloscope, the phosphor chosen for coating the screen
usually has a short persistence. This means that the light from the phosphor
continues to be emitted for only a short period of time after the electrons
have stopped impinging on the phosphor. Longer persistence phosphors are
available and the effect with these phosphors is for the light to much more
gradually fade away, i.e. they possess a certain amount of short-term
memory. This memory can be greatly extended by use of storage oscillo-
scope tubes. Such a tube is shown schematically in figure H.!.
This oscilloscope tube differs from the conventional tube in two main
ways. First of aIL it possesses a coating of a dielectric or insulating material
inside the phosphor coating on the screen. When the electron beam is made
to move over the screen, the rapidly-moving high energy electrons in the
beam knock electrons off the insulator, leaving a pattern, or latent image,
of positively-charged regions on the insulator layer.
The second point of difference between the conventional and the storage
tube is the fact that the latter possesses extra electron guns. One of these
guns, when activated. is made to flood the full screen with medium energy
electrons. This means that it does not produce a collimated beam but rather

= DO
STORAGE MESH
Figure H.l The main elements in a storage oscilloscope tube, showing, in addition to
the features of a simple CRT, the storage and collector meshes or grids and the addi-
tional electron guns, the read flood gun and the erase flood gun
214 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

a divergent beam which covers the whole screen. These medium-energy

electrons can only reach the phosphor and produce light by passing through
the positively-charged regions on the insulator layer. They are not energetic
enough to punch through the insulator alone. In this way, light is emitted
from the screen only where the original high-energy electron beam originally
travelled over the screen. As long as this medium energy supply of electrons
falls on the screen, the originally-stored pattern can be viewed on the screen.
The latent image or pattern on the screen can be erased by using the
second extra electron gun which produces very low-energy electrons to flood
the screen. These electrons have just enough energy to replace those origin-
ally knocked off the insulator layer and thereby erase the pattern on the
screen.
Thus the 'Write' mode of this tube consists of the high-energy electron
gun imprinting a pattern on the insulator layer. The 'Read' mode consists of
the medium-energy electron gun constantly flooding the screen with elec-
trons. The 'Erase' mode consists of the low-energy electron gun flooding the
screen and replacing the charges originally displaced by the high energy
electron beam.
The image displayed on the storage oscilloscope screen is bi-stable. This
means that the trace is visible at a constant brightness or else is not visible
at all. If the writing voltage signal is less than a fixed level, then the electron
beam is not energetic enough to write on the insulating layer in the tube. If
the signal is greater than this set writing level, it will punch a conducting hole
in the dielectric layer. Thus in the 'Read' mode, the brightness of the trace is
not related to the strength of the original writing signal.
A storage oscilloscope can also be used in a variable persistence mode by
having the writing and erasing processes occurring simultaneously. By vary-
ing the balance between 'Write' and 'Erase', a variable persistence can be
achieved.
In some variable persistence tubes, the layer of dielectric insulator is
separate from the phosphor layer and the greater the number of electrons in
the writing beam, the greater the number of electrons knocked off the in-
sulating layer. Consequently, in the 'Read' mode, more electrons can pass
through the insulator and therefore write a brighter trace on the phosphor.
Thus, the brightness of the display can be made proportional to the strength
of the original writing voltage signal. In this device, an image containing a
scale of greys is possible.
Appendix I

TV MONITOR

The central component in a TV monitor is the picture or display tube. This

is illustrated in figure 1.1. It is basically a specially shaped cathode-ray tube
in which the face or screen is as large as possible. The wide part of the tube
is called the bowl while the narrow part is the neck. The deflection angle or
angle of divergence of the bowl in a normal 'full performance' tube is 110°.
The electron beam is formed and focussed in the electron gun and is
accelerated to the phosphor screen by the second, and final, anodes at high
positive voltages, 16--20 kV with respect to the cathode. The phosphor is
chosen to have a short time constant and a spectral or colour range output
to suit the viewing or photography use of the display.

NECK

ELECTRON
GUN

Figure 1.1 The basic construction of a television viewing tube

The magnitude of the electron current which determines the brightness of

the spot written on the screen, is set by relatively slight variations of voltage
of a control grid within the electron gun.
The deflection of the electron beam within TV monitors is usually by
electromagnetic coils-not by electrostatic plates as in many oscilloscopes.
There is a Y - or vertical- deflection coil and an X - or horizontal- de-
flection coil. These coils are mounted outside the tube, where the neck joins
the bowl.
216 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

The orderly sequence of the electron beam deflection, the so-cal1ed raster
scanning action , is illustrated in figure 1.2. The point of impact of the
electron beam with the screen, the bright spot, starts at the top left-hand
corner (as viewed from the front). As the spot is slowly deflected vertical1y
downwards by means of a slowly rising ramp current drive to the Y-coil, it
is simultaneously deflected horizontal1y to the right , by means of a more
rapidly-rising ramp current drive to the X-coil. As the spot thus describes a
line across the screen, the Z - or brightness - modulation signal increases or
decreases the luminance of the writing spot, in keeping with the image
information for that slice of the picture.
When the spot reaches the right-hand side of the picture the horizontal
deflection current abruptly drops to zero, the spot quickly flicks back to the
left-hand side of the picture to resume its smooth progress from left to right
along a second line. During the line fly-back shown in dotted lines in figure
I.2, the brightness is reduced below the visible so that no writing then occurs.
Continuing with this raster scanning action down to the bottom of the
picture or frame, there is produced on the screen a pattern of almost hori-
zontal writing lines and the brightness of the spot registered at each location
in the two dimensions is determined by the image information. In the normal
use of television, this image information comes from a camera but in ultra-
sound displays it comes from a scan converter.

~ -.-.:;....... -
-.: . . . - 3- ( -
.. - - --
----:3_ _...:._
- - - ',,-- -- -.......... . -. ..
...
,
... ~ "',
(a) (b)
Figure 1.2 The raster scanning action of the electron beam in a TV viewing tube . (a)
A simple sequential raster scan. (b) An interlaced raster scan

The image information signal which controls the brightness or luminance

of the display at each point along each line is cal1ed the video signal and
consists of a voltage which varies during the period of each line as indicated
in figure I.3(a). The signal information is contained between the 30% and
100% levels of the overall video signal , with the maximum or 100% level
producing the maximum brightness (white) on the screen, and the 30% level
producing the minimum brightness (black) level on the screen. Just before
this picture information there is a brief pulse which is called the line syn-
chronisation pulse which acts to trigger the line ramp current drive . Levels
of video signal between the 30% and the 100% levels produce the various
shades of grey.
When the bright spot reaches the bottom right-hand corner of the screen
 APPENDIX G: CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE 217

E E
······WHITE·········

~) (W
t t
Figure 1.3 The video voltage signal for one line of a raster scan in (a) a white-on-black
display and (b) a black-on-white display

it must be returned to the top left-hand corner, i.e. there must be a frame
fly-back at that juncture. During this fly-back also, writing must be sup-
pressed.
In practical high-resolution systems an interleaved, or interlaced, raster
scanning system is used as shown in figure I.2(b). In this type of scan an
initial frame is written with the lines more widely spaced and then during the
second half of the frame write period, the lines in between the first set are
written.
In most European countries each single partial pass through the field, or
frame, is repeated fifty times each second and, so, the complete interlaced
scan is repeated 25 times each second. In the European standard the inter-
laced scan has 625 lines. From this it can be seen that each second some
15625 lines are written or, as shown in figure 1.3, each line takes 64 flS. In
American systems, interlaced frames of 525 lines are repeated 30 times each
second.
When the bright-up pulse reaches the bottom right-hand corner of the
screen, the vertical deflection current drive drops to zero. The video signal
possesses coded frame synchronisation pulses which signal to the vertical or
frame drive to initiate a new frame from the top. Normally, the synchronisa-
tion signals are generated in the television camera electronics and the video,
or picture information, is generated by having the scene to be imaged pro-
duce a pattern of brightnesses in the light-sensitive surface in the camera. In
the ultrasound system all of these signals are generated in the scan converter,
the synchronisation pulses in the electronics and the video or picture signal
from the ultrasound image pattern stored in the memory.
The video signal of figure I.3(a) produces a white/grey image on a black
background. The inverted version of the same image consisting of black/grey
on a white background may be produced with an 'inverted video' signal such
as that of figure I.3(b). Inversion of the video signal may be readily achieved
electronically, for instance by using an inverting amplifier.
Appendix J

ANALOGUE SCAN CONVERTERS

An analogue scan converter is a device which stores the B-mode ultrasound

picture in the form of a two-dimensional array of continuously variable
levels of electrical voltage or charge . The device accepts the picture data in a
manner similar to the storage oscilloscope , while the beam from the trans-
ducer is swept through the tissues (see figure 1.1). It is capable of retaining
the amplitude variation information (destined to determine the luminance)
in the form of an analogue or continuously variable signal such as the amount
of electrical charge stored in each location of the two-dimensional storage or
memory surface . The stored image can be electronically read and presented
in a raster format to a TV monitor, as indicated in figure 1.1.
Broadly, there are two classes of such devices, the single-ended types in
which the reading/ picture-presentation mode cannot be done simultaneously
with the writing/ storage mode , and the double-gun types which allow reading
and writing to be done simultaneously.
Both of these types are basically non-viewing cathode-ray tubes with
many of the features of the tubes described in Appendixes G and H.

~ - ... . . - ~ . - . -

PUT OUTPUT
Figure J.t The data build-up on the scan converter storage screen (INPUT) occurs in
the fairly random fashion in which they are acquired during the scanning action of the
ultrasound probe. The read-out of the data (OUTPUT) is achieved in an orderly
raster pattern
 APPENDIX J: ANALOGUE SCAN CONVERTERS 219

(a) Single-ended Scan Converter

Figure J .2 is a schematic diagram of a single-ended scan converter tube. It

is an evacuated vessel with an electron gun and deflection plates . What is
novel about it is the storage assembly. There is no phosphor screen for direct
viewing , only a final anode which is at high positive voltage relative to the
cathode. Interposed between the anode and the rest of the tube is the target
storage surface and the so-called collector electrode.

lSTORAGE SCREEN
0 :
b :

Do
b :
0 :
b :
b :
b :
b :
b :
b :

~b :\:~
0 :

"-
COLLECTOR GRI D
Figure J.2 The main features of a non-viewing analogue scan converter

There are a number of types of storage surface, and a commonly used one
is the barrier grid . This consists of a thin metal backing electrode coated
with a thin layer, in the form of a mosaic of small capacitor elements, of a
dielectric material. This is illustrated in figure J.3 . There can be up to 1000
by 1000 of these elements in the complete storage screen . Finally, there is a
metal grid interposed between the screen and the electron gun , the so-called
collector grid.
When the electron beam strikes the target , secondary electrons are knocked

0: DODD
tJ t DODD
O[ DODD
oi DO
(a)
0: (b)
o
~\ (.10kV)
TA~GET (.5V)
COLLECTOR (.120V)
Figure J.3 The details of the region near the storage screen of an analogue scan con-
verter, showing the final anode, the target or storage screen and the collector grid. The
actual storage screen is a two-dimensional array of elemental capacitors as in (b)
220 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND
off the target. The voltage on the collector grid controls this secondary
emission as indicated in figure J.4. At low values of this voltage fewer
electrons are emitted than strike the target and so this becomes negatively
charged. At the critical voltage, there is no net storage of charge. At still
higher collector voltages, there are more electrons emitted than are incident
and so the target becomes positively charged. Furthermore over a range of
collector grid voltages, the amount of charge is approximately proportional
to the change in the grid voltage above Ec.

COLLECTOR
VOLTAGE
Figure J.4 The effect of the collector grid voltage on the production of secondary
electrons. R, the vertical ordinate, is the ratio of the number of electrons emitted by the
target to the number of electrons incident upon it

Initially, the electron beam is raster scanned over the target with the
screen voltage held below the critical voltage value. An even distribution of
charge is spread on all of the little capacitors making up the storage target.
For writing/storage, the screen voltage is raised above the critical voltage
so that when the electron beam strikes the surface, there is net emission. As
the writing electron beam moves over the surface, depending upon the
collector grid voltage (controlled now by the echo signal voltage), more or
less secondary emission happens and more or less positive charge is stored
on the elemental capacitors. The orientation of the writing line or vector on
the storage surface is controlled by the orientation of the probe which pro-
duces X and Y deflection signals for the scan converter. Consequently, the
pattern of stored charge is an analogue representation of the pattern of strong
and weak echoes produced as the ultrasound beam scans through the cross-
section of the tissues.
For reading/presenting the stored pattern for viewing on the TV monitor
the grid voltage is reduced to the critical value. The electron beam is raster
scanned over the storage target, and depending upon the charge stored on
the different elemental capacitors, more or less secondary electrons are
emitted to form the current through to the collector grid. Therefore, the
collector current depends directly on the charge stored on the screen and so
constitutes a video signal which can be used to produce the image on the TV
monitor.
 APPENDIX J: ANALOGUE SCAN CONVERTERS 221

The single-ended scan converter can be used in one mode at a time and is
therefore suitable only for static B-mode scans. Even for these, it is not
totally satisfactory in that it takes some seconds to acquire a scan, and it is
desirable and necessary to view the scan as it is being acquired. But this scan
converter is not capable of performing in this way. Usually, a compromise
is used. What is done is to electronically switch between writing and reading
for equal intervals some ten times each frame. What results is a venetian
blind effect which allows a rough viewing of the image as it is being con-
structed. Thus, when the operator is doing the scanning, the scan converter
operates in this dual mode. When the operator is not moving the transducer
it operates in the read/view mode only.
There is one further mode of operation in the scan converter, the erase
mode, in which an even distribution of charge is established on all the
elemental capacitors. Erasing is achieved by setting the grid voltage below
the critical voltage and allowing the electron beam to raster scan over the
screen. Under these conditions the secondary emission of electrons is less
than the number of incident electrons and the capacitors charge up to a
steady voltage. The target is then essentially a tablet ready to receive another
array of charges, the analogues of the luminance pattern of the image.

(b) Double-ended Scan Converter

Figure J.5 is an illustration of a double-ended scan converter tube. It is very

much like two of the tubes of figure J.2 butt-joined together. However, in
this tube there is only one storage target, one of the tubes acts in the read
mode only while the second side acts in the write/store mode only. The
storage screen can be a barrier grid as described previously or any of a
number of other modes of charge storage. The important point about this
type of tube however, is that the reading and writing can occur simultane-
ously. Such a scan converter tube is suitable for static B-mode imaging and
even more importantly, for dynamic (real-time) scanning. There is no
venetian blind effect.
Erasing can be done with the writing electron gun in exactly the same

c:: 0== ==D~

READ GUN WRITE GUN
& DEFlEClDRS & DEFLECTORS
READ
COLLECTOR COLLECTOR
Figure J.S The basic structure of a double-ended analogue scan converter
222 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

fashion as for the single-ended device. The position of the writing vector is
controlled by the beam orientation. The locations where charges must be
stored are set by the pulse echo information while the amplitudes of the
echo signals determine the amounts of charge stored. The reading electron
beam is raster scanned over the target to generate the video signals for the
TV monitor.
Appendix K

DIGITAL COMPUTERS

A digital computer is an electronic device which has the general schematic

arrangement shown in figure K.1. The computer is capable of performing a
number of elementary arithmetical tasks on numbers--addition, subtrac-
tion, multiplication, division, comparison. It can do these operations very
rapidly. But it will only do them as instructed by the operator, who controls
the sequence of operations of the computer and the kinds of operations, by
means of a programme.
The computer is also capable of storing or memorising large series of
numbers, letters and words. and of recalling any of these on command. It

CONTROL
UNIT

INPUT !-------.,t>I
OUTPUT
DEVICE DEVICE

ARITHMETIC
UNIT

Figure K.l The basic organisational and functional blocks of a digital computer
showing the interconnections between them

does this task by pigeon-holing the numbers/letters in specific addressed

locations in its memory. The contents of any address can be examined or
added to or replaced any time the operator requires.
As well as the computer being programmable by the operator, and the
programme is usually first installed in the memory of the control unit of the
computer, the computer also has permanently in this memory many in-
224 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

ternal rules or control instructions which help to expedite the operation of

any programme.
To communicate with the computer there must be some input device(s)-
a teletypewriter, a paper tape reader, a punch card reader, a magnetic tape
or disc reader, an analogue-digital converter, etc. By means of such devices
the programme is inserted into the computer and the data or numbers on
which the programme is to operate are also inserted. There must also be an
output device with which the computer communicates its results with the
outside world. Many of the same types of devices that act as input devices
also act as output units. Oscilloscopes and TV monitors act as visual display
units (VDU) for this task. If the output is needed in analogue or continuous
form a digital-analogue converter is needed. With such an output device an
oscilloscope or paper chart recorder may be the final stage in the output.
Digital computers do not work in decimal arithmetic based on 10, but in
binary numbers, i.e. numbers to the base 2. Table K.1 shows the correspond-
ence between some of the decimal numbers and binary numbers.
In the binary scale only O's and 1's are used. The larger the decimal number
the more binary digits or bits are needed to represent it. Indeed at every
decimal number 2n , the number of binary digits rises by one to n + 1. When
numbers are inserted into the computer they must be coded into binary and
then at the output they must be decoded back into decimal numbers.
The process of analogue to digital conversion is of particular interest. In
this process an analogue or continuous signal, such as a time-varying voltage,
is sampled at regular intervals and the amplitude at the end of each interval
is measured and expressed as a number or quantised. Figure K.2 illustrates
the process. Sampling is a major step in this conversion. It is necessary that
the sampling be done often enough to obtain good representation of the
analogue signal. After conversion, the analogue signal is changed into a
sequence of numbers, binary numbers, stored in the memory of the computer.
The wider the range of signal amplitudes to be quantised, the more binary
digits or bits are needed to completely cover the range. Also, since the
binary numbers only increment in whole number units, the quantisation can
only be to the nearest whole number so that there results a possible quantisa-
tion error of ± half of one binary digit value.
Digital to analogue conversion consists of the electronic generation of the
envelope of the amplitudes of the sampled numbers strung out in orderly
sequence and separated from each other by the sampling interval. This
process is shown in figure K.3.
The memory devices in computers which can store data and from which
the data from specific memory locations or pigeon-holes can be readily
and rapidly recalled are commonly called random access memories (RAM).
The other form of memory device which is used to store computer rules and
permanent programming elements are called recall only memories (ROM).
The portions of programmes stored in ROM's cannot be altered after they
have been installed in them.
 APPENDIX K: DIGITAL COMPUTERS 225
Table K.l Corresponding Representations of Numbers in Decimal and Binary

Decimal Binary

o o
1 1
2 10
3 11
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111
16 10000
17 10001
18 10010
19 10011
20 10100
21 10101
22 10110
23 10111
24 11000
25 11001
26 11010
27 11011
28 11100
29 11101
30 11110
31 11111
32 100000
33 100001

t l Least significant bit

Most significant bit
226 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

(a)

(b) III I III III IIII IIIIII

t
E

t
(c)

(d) 0.12,25,35,22,30,35,18,-17, -20, -9, -7, -10,0,

12,15,3, -6, -5, -1
Figure K.2 (a) A time-varying analogue voltage signal. (b) The sampling intervals of
the analogue-to-digital (A-D) converter. (c) The sampled and quantised version of the
analogue signal in (a). (d) The digitised version of the signals in (c) and (a), as produced
by the A-D converter

Figure K.3 Comparison of the analogue and quantised digital versions of a voltage
signal
Appendix L

DIGITAL SCAN CONVERTER

The central component in a digital scan converter is a digital memory which

stores the picture data. The cross-section through the body defined by the
ultrasound beam scan is to be mapped on to the image plane shown in
figure L.l through the intermediate stage of the memory. To facilitate this
mapping, the picture is divided into picture elements-pixels-with a typical
frame consisting of 512 x 512 such pixels. Each of these pixels is alloted a

MAPPING

~:
y X
xx .XIX x~
IXIX

X
X
IX
IX

XIX IX IX ,IX IX
iXiX

CROSS-SECTION IMAGE PLANE

OF BODY
Figure L.t The process of mapping data about a cross-section of the tissues into pixel
addresses in an image memory plane

unique address in the memory into which a number representing the ampli-
tude of the echo from the corresponding tissue location can be stored. This
number will also determine the luminance of the corresponding pixel in the
image. The more binary bits can be fitted into the address the wider the
dynamic range of the converter. Thus, 2 bits would accommodate 6 dB, 3
bits 9 dB, 4 bits 12 dB, 5 bits 15 dB, 6 bits 18 dB, 7 bits 21 dB, 8 bits 24 dB,
9 bits 27 dB and 10 bits 30 dB.
The scan converter must also be equipped with means of getting the
228 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

appropriate data into the correct addresses and of reading the data out and
converting them into analogue video signals for viewing on a TV monitor.
Figure L.2 is an overall scheme for achieving these tasks.
On the input or storing side, the A-mode echoes from a given beam orienta-
tion are sampled, digitised and held temporarily in a buffer memory. Simul-
taneously the set of memory addresses for that beam orientation must be

PROBE
COORDINATE
SIGNALS

TX

MASTER
CLOCK

TV

Figure L.2 The main functional elements in a digital scan converter

worked out from the transducer position and orientation measurement

devices. Then the sequence of binary numbers representing that A-mode
echo train are stored, as indicated in figure L.3 (a) and (b), in the set or so-
called vector of memory locations.
On the output or reading side of the scan converter, the binary numbers
in the memory are read non-destructively, row by row, with each row being
temporarily held in a buffer before passing into a digital to analogue con-
verter. This latter component generates line video signals to drive the TV
monitor. The order of sampling the rows, the generation of the line syn-
chronisation pulses and frame synchronisation pulses is controlled by a
master clock electronic timer.
 APPENDIX L: DIGITAL SCAN CONVERTER 229

11 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 If: ~

2 t 121 12.3 21 ~
31 32 3YJ

41 .:t
~
lJ.\i
I~
1/
(a)

(b)
1,6 2,6 3,5 ',5 5,5 6,' 7,' t (or U
Figure L.3 The assignment of quantised and digitised data from the echo train in an
A-mode scan, to memory locations appropriate to the probe vector and hence to pixels
in the image plane

The processes of reading and writing in the memory are not interactive
and can be done simultaneously. This scan converter is suitable therefore
for dynamic as well as static B-mode scanning.
However , to achieve a dynamic range even comparable to an analogue
scan converter - 6 bits and 512 x 512 pixels ~ .. requires some 1.6 million bits or
locations of memory, a large memory , and can consequently be expensive.
Among the special advantages of the digital scan converter are the possi-
bilities of digital processing of the signals either before the memory (pre-
processing) or after the memory and before display (post-processing). These
are capabilities that have not been much exploited as yet but some of the
potential processing steps are listed in figure LA. Among the pre-processing
steps possible are some now done in instruments by analogue methods -
setting suppressor and limiter levels, setting the time gain compensation
_. and some not now done such as corrections for the different sensitivities
of transducer with different focussing, or compensation for the possible
non-linear amplifier gain. Many of these processes could be done auto-
matically as determined by the operator through computer programmes.
 Altl1Jth
230 BASIC PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY OF ULTRASOUND

(a)

Aldl DJJ
z

(b)
z

(C)
Ah n I!hTGC
llltr1--I--l1
ALt-LhJ1h
z

Ahi1Jtb
(d)
z

(e)
z
Figure L.4 A simplified representation of the preprocessing steps possible in a digital
scan converter. The quantised A-mode signal is shown in (a). The application of
suppression ofiow amplitude signals and ofiimiting or peak clipping of high amplitude
signals is indicated in (b). Implementing a given TGC is shown in (c). Modification of
the sensitivity to COrrect for beam focussing might result in the quantised signal of (d).
Removal of the effects of analogue TGC and correction for the different sensitivities
along the beam may result in the true amplitudes shown in (e)

Post-processing refers to the mUltiplicity of analyses and image modifica-

tions which can be implemented on the digitally swred image information in
the computer.
A keyboard allows access to the computer to insert programme instructions
and to cause alphanumeric inscriptions such as patient data and details of
the examination, to be written on the display. A so-called 'light pen' allows
the operator to mark landmark points and even lines or boundaries on the
displayed image. The computer can readily compute distances between
pairs of such marked points, lengths of curved marked lines and areas en-
closed by marked boundaries.
Programmes can also be written to modify the display. Multiplication of
each stored number in the memory by a constant can expand or contract the
 APPENDIX L: DIGITAL SCAN CONVERTER 231

grey scale. Thus, the effective gamma of the display can be chosen to match
the photographic film or to match the human vision.
Various spatial operations can also be implemented on the displayed
image by numerical manipulations on the data on the memory. Zooming--
magnifying or minifying a portion of the picture can be achieved by
assigning numbers to larger or smaller groups of pixel addresses in the
output buffer memory. Picture inversion from black on white to white on
black requires a subtraction operation on all pixel data. Any pixels which
may be empty due to an artifact while all surrounding pixels contain picture
information, may be filled with a number which is the average of the numbers
in the surrounding pixels.
Abrupt increases in image luminance can be smoothed out by averaging
the numbers stored in the adjacent pixel addresses. Likewise, increases or
decreases in luminances, stored as increasingly greater or smaller numbers in
the relevant memory locations, can be detected and enhanced. In this way
boundaries may be detected and highlighted. Furthermore the length of
such boundaries and the areas included within them may be computed.
Many of the procedures suggested in section 10.10 for tissue characterisa-
tion may also be implemented on the digital intermediate or stored image.
Index

abdomen I, 5, 105 cage, Faraday 33

absorption 12, 23, 25, 185 caliper 51,63,71
adaptation camera 97,139,145,146
dark 141,155 carcinoma 171
light 155 cardiology I, 79, 80
amplifiers cavitation 186, 187
receiver (rf) 55, 56, 61, 76, 85, 112, cells, red blood 187
113, 123, 124, 129, 133 characterisation, tissue 177, 231
summing (mixing) 114, 116 circuit, integrated 208
analyser, frequency 123, 125, 127, 134 clipping, peak- see limiter
aneurysm 131 coefficient, attenuation 25~28, 56, 181
aorta 118 compensation, time gain see TGC
arrays compressibility 15, 16
concentric 173, 174 compression 14, 15
multi-element 29, 43, 44, 108, computer 163, 223~225, 228~231
IIO~113, 116, 118, 165~167, 173, contours, iso-echo 49, 70, 71
175 contrast 97,140,141,157,161,175
phased 115, 117 converters
artifacts analogue to digital 206, 226, 228
incomplete trace 79 digital to analogue 206, 226, 228
multiple path 66, 99 co-ordinates
patient movement 101, 106 Cartesian 87, 88
refraction 66, 67, 99, In polar 87,88
reverberation see reverberation probe 84,85,93,118,167
transmission 54, 58 coupling, acoustic 68,69, 104, 105, 135,
aspiration 105, In, 173 175
attenuation 12, 24-26, 168, 169 crystals
attenuator, transmitter 59, 64, 102 liquid 29, 46, 47
piezoelectric 30, 39, 40, 43--45, 48,
balance, radiation 29,46,47,49,185 55,61,97,98
bats 53 current 41, 202~205
beam 29, 35, 191 curve, characteristic 150, 151, 153, 156
guidance 113~ 116 cycle 15
bioeffects 187
biopsy 105
bladder 166 damping 29,34,35,41,43,45,63, 123,
gall 105, 118 133,200
blood flow 1,2,5, 129, 131, 137, 177, decay, exponential 25, 26, 194
187 decibel (dB) 12, 18, 26, 59, 60, 92, 145,
breast I, 4, 104, 164, 170-171 157, 161
brightness see brilliance delay 57, 60, 133, 136
brilliance 63, 97, 175 demodulator 55, 57, 62, 75, 76, 85, 93,
see also luminance 112, 113, 133,206
234 INDEX

density 15, 16, 185 forces

optical 149,152,178, 179 Bernoulli 186
detectors 29-31, 44 Oseen 186
quadrature-phase 128 radiation 46, 185, 186
zero-cross 125-127, 131, 134, 135, Stokes 186
162 frame, freeze- 110, 117, 161
developing 147-149, 151-153 frequency 27, 28, 34-38, 41, 102, 121,
diode 206 122,204
discriminator 123-125, 129, 133, 162 pulse repetition 40, 55, 59-61, 112,
DNA 187 133, 192
dolphins 53 resonant 32
dosimetry 191 spatial 143, 144
friction 24, 198-201
function, modulation transfer 139, 142,
144
earphone 125, 130, 134
echoencephalography 69
echo location 53 gain, swept see TGC
echo-ranging 51, 52, 56 see also factors, amplification
effects gamma 150, 151,231
Doppler 120--122 gate 41, 133
ill 184, 190, 191 range 132-134
piezoelectric 29, 30 generator, pulse 56, 76, 93, 113
electrocardiogram (ECG) 77, 78, 81 grid, barrier 219
emulsion 147 gynaecology 1
energy
kinetic 197-199
mechanical 13, 17, 197 heart I, 69, 74, 79, 80, 118, 130, 138,
potential 197-199 192
enhancement, image or echo 99 heat 24, 198-201
epidemiology 184, 190 housing, probe 33, 43, 47
exposure 146, 156, 158 hydrophone 48
eye 140, 170, 171, 192

image, bistable 83,90--92, 156,214

factors image labelling 83, 88, 89
amplification 56, 206, 207 imaging, incomplete 101
scale 97,111,142 impedance, acoustic 12, 16, 19,20, 34,
fatigue 186 141
fields incidence, angle of 20, 21, 121, 122
far 29, 37, 43, 98, 117 index, pulsatility 131
near 29, 37,42,43,98, 112 intensity 12, 17, 18, 29, 45, 48, 49, 59,
film 109, 117, 139, 141, 145, 147, 149, 171,175,185,186,188-191
151, 157 intensity level 18, 26 (see also decibel)
filter 128, 206 iodine blue 46
fixing 149 isolator 43
f-number 146, 156, 157
focussing 22,29, 38, 39,44,47,98,99 kidney 5, 91, 95, 105, 118
102, 108, 113, 114, 116, 117, 167
173
internal 39, 44 latitude, exposure 150, 151
foetus 5,69, 118, 130, 188, 190, 191 laws
fog, basic 150, 151 Ohm's 202, 204, 205
fogging, post- 156 Snell's 21
 INDEX 235
lens 38 phantom 164, 179, 192
light 140 phonocardiogram (peG) 79, 81
ultraviolet 78, 140, 160 photography, time-exposure 92
limiter 60,61,65, 102,229,230 piezoelectricity 30
line, delay 114-116 see also effects, piezoelectric
liver 3, 5,91, 100, 105, 118, 187 pixel 95,96, 168, 169,227-229,231
lobes planes
main 38 coronal 90
side 37,38 longitudinal (sagittal) 89
see also fields, far scan 95
loop, phase-locked 127 transverse 89
loudspeaker 123, 125, 130, 134 platelet 187
luminance 63, 140, 143, 146, 148, 149, Polaroid 69, 78, 153-155, 158
152, 155, 158, 175, 178, 212, 214, power 17, 198,203-205
216,217,231 pressure, acoustic 15, 16,45, 185
print, positive 139, 151
matching, quarter-wavelength 34, 45, probe, transducer 33,45,47,52,55,61,
47, 123 76,84,85,87,88,93, 102, 110, 123,
129, 133, 135, 165-167, 173, 176,
materials
ferroelectric 31, 39 182
process, xiphoid 89
piezoelectric 31
processing
memory 95, 102, 160, 161, 223, 224,
227-229 post- 229, 230
pre- 229, 230
random access (RAM) 161, 224
profile, beam 48, 49
read only (ROM) 224
meter, frequency 129, 130 prostate 166
pulse duration (width) 29, 41, 42, 63,
microstreaming 186
191
monitor, TV 93, 96, 108, 112, 113, 117,
139, 141, 145, 157, 158, 161,
215-218 radionuclide 1, 2
muscle 188 range, dynamic 60, 61, 70, 118, 145,
150,153,154,157,179,227,229
rarefaction 14, 15
neck 170 raster 157,216-218,222
neurology rays, gamma 140
notch, sternal 89 record
paper chart 140, 162
obstetrics 1 photographic 69, 83, 101, 102, 117
ophthalmology 1, 69 recorders
optics, fibre 78, 158, 159 magnetic disc 160, 161
oscillator 123, 124, 129, 133 video tape 117,160,161
oscilloscopes reflection 12, 19,24, 25, 46, 52,90, 185
cathode-ray 54, 63, 69, 75, 78, 84, 90, angle 20,21
92, 96, 108, 113, 117, 139, 140, coefficient 19,20,90
145, 154-159,209-214 refraction 12, 19,20,66,67, 172
storage 78,88, 165,213,214,218 angle 21
output, spectral 154 registration, electronic 101, 102, 104,
118
reject
paper, photographic 77, 151-154 see suppressor
parenchyma 90, 178 relaxation 24, 185
pattern recognition 177 resolution
pen, light 230 axial 51,63,64, 72, 83, 118
period 13, 203 lateral 65,83,97-99,102,117,118
236 INDEX

resonance 32, 35, 45 TGC (time gain compensation) 55-57

half-wavelength 29, 33 59, 60, 68, 70, 71, 76, 85, 93, 96:
response, spectral 154 ISS 100-102, 104, 112, 113, 124, 172,
retina 140,171,192 ' 175, 229, 230
reverberation 65, 71, 99, 100, 104 thermistor 45
reversibility 185 thermocouple 45
thermometer 29
thickness, half-value 25
threshold 187
scale, grey 77,92,93,95, 128, 140 157
177 ' , thyroid 1. 4, 104, i72
time, transit 132
scan converters
tomography
analogue 83,92,93,216,218-222
attenuation 168, 169
digital 83,95,96,112,113,117,136,
time-of-flight 168-170
142, 145, 157, 179, 182,227-231
transmission 164, 168-170
scanner, duplex 164, 176, 177
transceiver 52, 55, 110
scanning transducer 29,32-35,38,43--45,47--49,
automatic 167, 174-176 109, 110, 121, 123, 124, 164, 172,
compound 83, 85-87, 172
173, 175, 182
contact 68, 83, 104 transfer, diffusion 153
linear 83, 85, 86, 172
transform, fast Fourier 128
sector 83, 85, 86, 108, 115, 116, 165
transistor 206, 207
water-path 104, 105 transmission angle 21
scattering 12, 23-25, 177, 178 transmission coefficient 20
semiconductor 206
sensitivity 44, 45, 49, 51, 65, 71, 90, 118
shadowing 67,99, 100 ultrasound 15, 17
shift, Doppler 121, 122, 124-127 134
135 ' , umbilicus 89
sidelobe see lobes, side
signal processing 75, 76, 125, 126, 128,
vibration 199, 200
166, 175, 182 vibrator, electromagnetic 79, 80
signal video 158-161, 217, 220, 228 viscosity 185, 186
solenoid 203 voltage 30-35, 40--42, 44, 45, 125,
sound 12, 122 202-207, 209-214, 219, 220
speed
offilm 151,154
of propagation 12,15-17,20,51-53,
water bath 104,105,171,172,175
66,67, 172, 180
waves 12,45, 185
average 53, 54, 62
longitudinal 14
spleen 118
transverse 14
starch 46 wavelength 15-17,45,121,122
stenosis 131 work 198
suppressor 60,61,65,90,102,229,230
symphysis pubis 89
x-rays 1,2,4, 140, 142, 149

tape recorder 125, 128, 162

tape recording, video 102, 108, 117, 160 zones
technique, open-shutter 157 Fraunhofer 36
temperature 46, 185,201 see also fields, far
Curie 33 Fresnel 36
test object, AlUM 71, 103 see also fields, near
testing, non-destructive 53 zoom 321