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A brief review on breccia: it's contrasting origin and diagnostic signatures

Matsyendra Kumar Shukla*, Anupam Sharma
Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, 53 University Road, Lucknow, 226 007, U.P, India
Received 21 April 2017; revised 6 March 2018; accepted 10 March 2018
Available online 19 April 2018

Abstract

A brief literature review on the breccias of contrasting origin, their diagnostic signatures along with related terminologies is presented here.
The importance of individual breccia types and their geological implication has also been reviewed. The present study suggests that breccia is
formed either by igneous, sedimentary and tectonic processes or a combination of these. This review is mainly focused on the most common
seven sub-classes, (i.e., volcanic, igneous-hydrothermal, chert, collapse, fault, impact and seismic) and the specification of the processes
involved in their formation, which subsequently brings more clarity in its classification and characterization.
Copyright © 2018, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Breccia; Volcanic; Fragmentation; Tectonic; Ore deposits

1. Introduction
Breccia is a term generally used for an enigmatic rock
group that consists of a variety of individual mineral grains or
broken fragments of rocks, often very angular and cemented
together by a fine grain matrix, and sometimes glassy matrix
which may or may not be similar to the composition of rock
fragments (Fisher, 1961; Schmid, 1981; Laznicka, 1988;
Scholz, 1990; Knauth, 1994; White and Houghton, 2006).
The breccias are observed under several kinds of geological
settings, often associated with numerous ore types (e.g.,
endogenic, exogenic, supergene origin, subsurface or subma-
rine environments) and found across the globe, which make
them of general geological importance (Reimold, 1998). A
cursory look at the old and the contemporary literature clearly
indicates that the breccias have diverse origin and therefore
they are defined by workers differently (Anderson, 1933;
Macdonald, 1953; Laznicka, 1988; Lilletveit et al., 2002).
Though, their classification into genetic or textural type has
been attempted, the diagnostic signature of the individual
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: matsyendra.shukla@gmail.com (M.K. Shukla).
Peer review under responsibility of Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry.
breccia types and their genetic associations are not well-
addressed (Laznicka, 1988; Reimold, 1998).
It is interesting to note that the breccias of various kinds
have attracted the attention of geologists as well as geo-
physicists. Geologists working especially in the field of
structural and ore geology get attracted towards breccias
because of their tectonic and economic implications respec-
tively (Laznicka, 1988; J
ebrak, 1997). Evidence of any late
shock event can be traced in a particular type of breccia (e.g.,
regolith breccia), which would eventually help in the study of
planetary bodies like lunar highlands (Koeberl et al., 1991).
The study of these breccias (meteorite or impact breccias)
helps in understanding impact processes on planetary bodies,
resulting structures and evolutionary history, which in turn
enhance our understanding over early solar system processes
of accretion, differentiation, and surface evolution (Bischoff
and St€offler, 1992). The study of breccias of a particular
type is useful in understanding the depositional settings, tec-
tonic events and geodynamic evolution of that particular re-
gion in a given geological time interval (Brown et al., 1983;
Scholz, 1990; Mcgowran, 1989; Taylor and Pollard, 1993;
Lyons et al., 2000). It is helpful in identifying the marker
horizon in an unconformity zone or sometimes interpreted as a
seismic marker and thereby resolving stratigraphic problems.

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2451-912X/Copyright © 2018, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-
ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59
It also provides inputs to geodynamic evolutionary history of a
geological terrain or depositional settings of a particular area
(Chatellier, 1988; Bhat et al., 2009; Kouhestani et al., 2011;
Reimold, 1998; Reimold et al., 2012; Shukla and Sharma,
2017). It can also play a crucial role in understanding of the
early solar system processes, as well as the primordial,
chemical, and mineralogical characteristics of the accreted
constituent bodies (Koeberl et al., 1991; Bischoff and St€offler,
1992; Friedman, 1997).
Similarly, Geophysicists’ perspective is to see statistical
laws that govern brecciation mechanisms and their quantita-
tive relationships with different measuring units (e.g., length,
width and thickness) occurring in the fault zones (Scholz,
1990; Brown et al., 1983). Additionally, they also try to
build models to understand the breccia fragmentation pro-
cesses by applying theoretical, physical and statistical re-
lationships between the particle size distribution and the
energy input required for breccia formation (J
ebrak, 1997;
Mort and Woodcock, 2008).
Besides academic significance, the study of the breccias
has important economic and societal implications such as
exploration of hydrocarbons, uranium, gold-silver, sulfide
and other ore deposits, and also serves as a potential aquifer
in water deficit areas. The study of the breccias can be
beneficial for addressing important future scientific issues
related to geoenvironmental problems such as radon and
gamma radiation, acid drainage and toxic metals in the im-
mediate vicinity of mineralized breccia pipes and also issues
related to planetary geology in exploring and characterizing
extraterrestrial bodies.
Hitherto very few or no classification is available to group
all the types of breccias according to their mode of origin, as
majority of works have been dealt with only on individual
aspect satisfying a particular set of condition and therefore no
broad generalization has been made. In the classic work on
Breccias and Fragmentites carried out by Laznicka (1988), he
attempted to categorize all the coarse fragmental rocks ac-
cording to their associations with metallic ore accumulations
in different geological environments. Subsequently, J
ebrak
(1997) discussed eight main mechanisms of brecciation pro-
cesses emphasizing more on tectonic pulverization, fluid-
assisted brecciation and wear abrasion as the most common
ones particularly existing extensively in vein-type ore deposits.
Despite having substantial data set over breccias, breccia-
tion processes, its diagnostic signatures, and different modes
of origin are not well understood and remain a subject of
discussion. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to describe the
breccias, their common modes of origin, associated diagnostic
characters, and its related terminologies used in contemporary
times. An attempt has also been made to provide a general
classification of breccias based on modern understanding,
which would eventually help particularly to those who are
newly introduced to this complex group of rock. Additionally,
several ore deposits including hydrocarbon reserves and geo-
dynamically important features occur in association with
breccias, which make this rock group economically as well as
academically significant and need adequate attention.
51
There are the most seven common prefixes i.e., volcanic,
igneous-hydrothermal, chert, collapse, fault, impact and
seismic; which have consistently been used in the modern
literature to describe various kinds of breccias. The brief
description and diagnostic signatures of these litho units are
discussed under three classes, namely Igneous Breccia, Sedi-
mentary Breccia and Tectonic Breccia which have been dealt
with here in some detail in the following sections.
2. Igneous breccia
Igneous breccias (or breccia of igneous origin) are the
breccias in which igneous processes are involved in their
genesis (Reynolds, 1928; Macdonald, 1953; Fisher, 1958).
Igneous Breccias can also be termed as volcanic breccia or
volcaniclastics. There are primarily two components in vol-
canic breccias, the one is mineral/rock fragments and the other
component is the matrix in which the rock fragments are
embedded. It is not necessary that the fragments of a volcanic
breccia to be composed of volcanic material. A rock fragment
of any origin may be incorporated within the brecciated
regime, after being solidified; however, the matrix must be of
volcanic origin that may be of tuffaceous matrix or vesicular
and pumiceous matrix. Contrary to it, if the rock fragments are
of volcanic origin these may be set in a nonvolcanic/sedi-
mentary or volcanic matrix.
2.1. Volcanic-breccia (or volcaniclastics)
Volcanic-breccia is a rock composed predominantly of
angular volcanic fragments (>2 mm in size) set in a subor-
dinate matrix of any composition and texture or composed of
mineral/rock fragments rather than volcanic set but in a vol-
canic matrix (Reynolds, 1928; Anderson, 1933; Macdonald,
1953; Fisher, 1958; 1960). It is further subdivided into flow-
breccia, which is formed by the fragmentation of lava during
its flow, and tuff-breccia (or rhyolitic-breccia) formed of
fragmental products of explosive eruptions with abundant tuff
matrix (Norton, 1917; Wentworth and Williams, 1932;
Twenhofel, 1950). The occurrence of such type of tuff or
rhyolitic-breccia were reported from the Jangalgali Formation
sandwiched between the Neoproterozoic Sirban Limestone
and Palaeogene Subathu Formation in Northwest Himalaya,
India (Siddaiah and Shukla, 2012; Shukla and Sharma, 2017;
Fig. 1), which has also been used as a marker horizon in
differentiating the two geological formations mentioned
above.
According to Fisher (1958) the size of fragments present in
a breccia is an important parameter, which varies from 2 mm
to >64 mm (Table 1). Based on the grain size limits, he has
grouped volcanic breccia into four classes. The grain/fragment
size in class-1 ranges between 2 and 4 mm and termed as Tuff,
in class-2 it is between 4 and 32 mm and called as Lapilli (or
Lapilli tuff), in class-3 it is in the range of 32e64 mm and
termed as Pyroclastic breccia and Agglomerate, and the fourth
class has fragments of size >64 mm, which are referred as
Bombs and Blocks. The basic difference between bombs and
52 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59

blocks is that during its formation, the fragments of the former

one are in a molten condition (partly or wholly) and for the
later one they are in solid state (Schmid, 1981). All these four
classes are formed under the effusive volcanic processes. The
fragments of size less than 2 mm are called Ash.
Further, minerals like quartz and feldspar grains in the
volcanic breccia usually contain melt inclusions with irregular
shape and variable size ranging from 10 to 125 mm, which can
be precisely studied by Scanning electron microscopic (SEM)
analysis only (Fig. 2). The SEM analysis is also helpful in the
study of various morphological features and textures such as
hexagonal dipyramidal texture, embayed crystals and orien-
tation of different clasts and mosaic of quartz etc. (Mcphie
et al., 1993; Shukla, 2014) which can be diagnostic in
Fig. 1. Field photograph of volcanic breccia from Kanthan, Jammu, India. revealing the characteristic features of breccias of contrasting
origin.
A specific term volcaniclastic (Fisher, 1961) or sometimes
volcanic clastic (Blokhina et al., 1959) is also used to embrace
Table 1
Proposed grain size limits for volcanic breccia (after Fisher, 1958, 1966). the entire field of clastic rocks composed in part or entirely of
volcanic fragments. Two approaches have been used to assign
Grain size (mm) Pyroclastic terminology Sediment-volcanic
terminology genetic names for primary volcaniclastic deposits; first, ac-
cording to their mode of fragmentation (Fisher, 1961; Schmid,
>64 Bombs and blocks Volcanic breccia and
32e64 Pyroclastic breccia volcanic conglomerate 1981) and second, based on their process of deposition
and agglomerate (Mcphie et al., 1993).
32e4 Lapilli (Lapilli tuff Based on the mode of fragmentation, three different types of
and Lapillistone) genetic terms have been used for primary volcaniclastics
4e2 Tuff
namely-pyroclastic, epiclastic and autoclastic (Fisher, 1960,
<2 Ash
1961). Further, on the basis of the process of deposition, the

Fig. 2. SEM Images of a) Quartz, b) K-feldspar and c) Siliceous matrix from volcanic breccia.
 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59
primary volcaniclastics have been classified into a group of
four end-members i.e., pyroclastic, autoclastic, hyaloclastites
and peperite (White and Houghton, 2006). According to them,
Pyroclastic deposits are formed by sub-aerial, sub-aqueous, or
sub-surface jets, plumes, or currents bringing clasts along with
them; while an autoclastic deposit is formed during effusive
volcanism and the fragments are deposited under the influence
of continued dome or lava flowage. The hyaloclastites are
formed when magma enters into lakes, glaciers, and oceans and
gets disintegrated due to sudden cooling showing no signatures
of fragments transport. Similarly, Peperite forms when hot
magma interacts with unconsolidated water-saturated sedi-
ments or clastic materials; however, a few authors have reser-
vation towards the use of the genetic term peperite (Mcphie
et al., 1993). The tephra or volcanic tuff study, in some
cases, helps in resolving the stratigraphic issues, understanding
either the uranium mineralization or the influence of pre-
eruptive volatile contents and degassing paths for subglacial
rhyolitic edifices (Owen et al., 2013; Pandey et al., 2014).
2.2. Igneous-hydrothermal breccia
The Igneous-hydrothermal breccias and breccia-pipes (such
as those related to epithermal systems and kimberlite pipes)
are placed into the group of igneous breccias as they are often
related to igneous processes. They are usually formed through
hydrofracturing by high pressure hydrothermal fluids. Under
this process, rock interacts with water-rich hydrothermal so-
lutions that initially increase the fluid pressure within the vein,
and the effective pressure decreases subsequently and this
leads to fracture propagation (Scholz, 1990; Sibson, 1977;
1986; Laznicka, 1988; Taylor and Pollard, 1993; J
ebrak,
1997). The hydrothermal activities associated with alteration
and impregnation of breccias, have also been documented
from various impact sites (Reimold, 1998 and references
therein). There are various geological and physical factors
providing inputs for brecciation processes responsible for their
formation. An explosive hydrothermal brecciation and the
metasomatic action of hydrothermal fluids may also be
responsible for the generation of such type of breccias
(Gawęda et al., 2013). A breccia is formed by the intrusive
action of magma followed by the mineralization is termed as
‘pre-hydrothermal’ (Bryner, 1968). The hydrothermal pro-
cesses (e.g., re-crystallization and dissolution) readily affect
the carbonate-rich breccias and eventually obscure the in-
dicators of their origin.
Table 2
Important geological and physical processes of brecciation and their geological settings in hydrothermal vein-type deposits (after, J
ebrak, 1997).
Process Stresses
Tectonic pulverization Uniform and non- uniform stresses (tensile or compressive)
Fluid-assisted brecciation (Hydraulic) Uniform stress (tensile)
Wear abrasion Uniform and non- uniform stresses (compressive)
Corrosive wear Disequilibrium
Volume expansion Herzian stress (non-renewable)
Volume reduction Uniform stress (tensile)
Impact Herzian stress (non-renewable)
53
In order to understand the key mechanism of brecciation in
hydrothermal vein-type deposits, J
ebrak (1997) considered
fragment geometry (particularly the fragment morphology and
fragment distribution) as an important parameter. They initially
develop during vein formation by fracture propagation processes,
where the length of the fractures may vary from mm to km in size
but commonly act along the pre-existing planes of discontinuity
(Laznicka, 1988; J
ebrak et al., 1996; J
ebrak, 1997). They facil-
itate the splaying of wall rock into angular rock fragments also,
which eventually consolidate to form igneous-hydrothermal
breccias (Table 2) (Scholz, 1990; J
ebrak et al., 1996; J
ebrak,
1997). The study of this sub-class of igneous breccia provides
help, in decoding key elements of economic ore deposits, as well
as structural settings, crustal level and fluiderock interactions
(Laznicka, 1988; Taylor and Pollard, 1993).
3. Sedimentary breccia
The Breccias formed through various sedimentary processes
can be put together into this class. Chert and collapse breccias
are the two most common examples of the sedimentary brec-
cias. Moreover, a sediment with angular fragments >2 mm in
size can also be called Sedimentary breccia depending upon its
fragmentation process and cementation mechanism.
3.1. Chert-breccia
Chert-breccia is defined as autoclastic breccias, in which
both fragments and matrix consist of microcrystalline quartz
(Fairbridge, 1978). Chert is a common component of many
carbonate sequences. It is a very good indicator of the depo-
sitional environment or the prevailing diagenetic conditions. In
many cases, the cherts are the results of the replacement of
pre-existing carbonate (Knauth, 1979; 1994), therefore
replacement textures are abundant and dissolved silica is
generally ubiquitous.
Chert, of white to light gray in colour, known as late
diagenetic chert, commonly occurs at the interface between
fully dolomitized and partially dolomitized rocks. The coex-
istence of these units (white to gray cherts and dolomite) is an
indicator of hydrothermal events. Initially, in this case, hot
fluids are associated with the precipitation of dolomite
whereas the subsequent periods of cooling down are associ-
ated with chert precipitation. Since cherts do not precipitate
under high temperature conditions, hydrothermal events show
a vertical change in diagenetic mineral assemblages. The
Geological settings
Brittle fault zone
All type of deposits
Shear zone
High fluid rock interactions
Porphyry copper, diatreme
Mud cracks, cooling of silica sinter
Collapse breccias
54 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59
amount of chert decreases with depth, which indicates that the
prevailing temperature is increasing with depth (i.e., Chert a 1/
depth; and Dolomite a depth; Fig. 3). A model has been given
by Knauth (1979) to show the origin of chert in limestone, in
it, he proposed that much of the chert replacement of lime-
stone has occurred in mixing zone of the meteoric-marine
coastal system, which is a near horizontal zone, extended
many kilometres inland. Chert can also be associated with
volcanism (Mcgowran, 1989; Lyons et al., 2000), and dolo-
mite rhombs are proposed to be the indicators of volcanism i.e.
Chert (with no dolomite) / volcanism;
Chert (with abundance of dolomite) / sedimentary
The relation between deposition of volcanic tuffs and pres-
ervation of siliceous oozes has also been supported by Lilletveit
et al. (2002). Volcanism often contributes to chert precipitation
even if ashes, tuff or bentonites are not preserved or deposited.
The brecciation in chert generally occurs as a result of
collapsing or crushing of Chert nodules (or layers) after the
dissolution of underlying soluble bedrock or due to tectonic
disturbances (Middleton, 1961; Chatellier, 1988; Kolodny et al.,
2005). The clasts in chert breccia are penecontemporaneous
with the matrix very much like any other intraformational
conglomerate or breccia. These clasts are the product of
consolidated sediments which later gets fragmented within a
surrounding softer matrix, and finally becomes lithified. In
many massive chert formations, the intraformational chert
breccias are ubiquitous and can be used as an important proxy to
reveal the complex history of diagenetic interactions between a
siliceous sediment, seawater and fresh water (Kolodny et al.,
2005). Chert was interpreted as a seismic marker in Mississip-
pian successions, where it is associated with clinoforms and has
been recognized in logs and cuttings (Chatellier, 1988).
3.2. Collapse-breccia
The collapse-breccias are formed as a result of karst pro-
cesses in evaporitic successions (Friedman, 1997). It can also
Fig. 3. Chert-hydrothermal Dolomite trend with depth.
be named as solution-collapse breccia, because it is caused by
dissolution of underlying soluble bedrock, i.e., carbonate rock
such as limestone or dolomite. The brecciation here is the
result of a collapse and crushing of nonsoluble strata once the
underlying soluble layer is removed by groundwater dissolu-
tion (Middleton, 1961). Such type of breccias that involve
gypsum and/or anhydrite composed of calcite and/or dolo-
mites are also known as rauhwackes i.e., rough stone
(Friedman, 1997).
The typical diagnostic features of solution-collapse brec-
cias are: V-structures (cave roof collapse), breccia-pipes
(collapse dolines, Fig. 4), inverse grading and sharp flat base
(Middleton, 1961; Park and Jones, 1985; Simpson, 1988).
Wenrich and Sutphin (1988) suggested five key features as
distinctive indicators of a nearby breccia-pipe which are: 1.
concentrically inward-dipping beds that generally surround a
basin, 2. amphitheatre like erosion, 3. concentric drainage,
soil, and vegetation patterns, 4. silicified hills of breccia, and
5. altered and mineralised rocks. Solution-collapse breccias
also provide information about the large gypsum palaeokarst
system formed by gravitational collapse into cavities resultant
of dissolution of gypsum and anhydrite beds (Eliassen and
Talbot, 2005). It exhibits a close relationship with thick de-
posits of evaporites in the sub-surface as well as the neigh-
bouring surface exposures (Blount and Moore, 1969).
Moreover, it is developed only after the dolomitization and
formation of chert nodules in the host rocks (Eliassen, 2002;
Eliassen and Talbot, 2005). Breccias of such kinds are also
of economic importance in exploration of hydrocarbon, ura-
nium, sulfide, gold-silver and other ore deposits, as they have
good porosity and permeability (Wenrich and Aumente-
Modreski, 1994; Wenrich and Sutphin, 1988; Wenrich, 1985;
Bhat et al., 2009; Kouhestani et al., 2011). However, in some
cases breccia pipe deposits can be a source of potential geo-
environmental problems/hazards e.g. radon and gamma radi-
ation associated with active and abandoned mines, and dumps,
radiation through radioactive elements, acid drainage and
toxic metals (As, Pb, Zn) release in the immediate vicinity of
mineralized pipes where they are dissected and exposed to
flood and catastrophic precipitation (Wenrich et al., 1992).
4. Tectonic-breccia
The tectonic breccias, consist of sediments with angular
fragments >2 mm in size, formed as a result of plate move-
ment, earthquake activities or tectonic disturbance due to the
meteoric impact that happened in the geological past near the
brecciation regime (Wise et al., 1984; Sibson, 1986; Stoffler,
1977; Reimold et al., 2012). Fault, seismic and impact brec-
cias are the most common breccia types of this group.
4.1. Fault-breccia
The fault-breccias are generally formed due to the grinding
action of two fault blocks. They are commonly noticed along
the upper crustal fault zones. Mort and Woodcock (2008)
proposed a classification scheme based on textures of clasts,
 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59
Fig. 4. Schematic cross section of a solution-collapse breccia pipe in the Grand Canyon region, showing the general distribution of uranium ore within the pipe
(modified after Van Gosen and Wenrich, 1989).
their concentration, rotation and size, however, no failure
mechanism was proposed by them. According to them the
Fault breccia of the sedimentary rocks is comprised of clasts
of >2 mm in diameter (at least 30% of its volume). The fault
breccia can be cohesive or noncohesive, foliated or not foli-
ated, and can contain small clasts, fine-grained matrix or
crystalline cement in some relative proportions. This is further
subdivided, according to settings of the clasts, into crackle,
mosaic and chaotic breccia (Table 3). In crackle-breccia, the
clasts are a little rotated with respect to each other; in mosaic-
breccias, the clasts are more separated and rotated than crackle
breccia. In case of chaotic-breccias, the clasts are strongly
Table 3
Classification of fault breccia based on clast (>2 mm) (After, Woodcock and
Mort, 2008).
Percentage of clasts (>2 mm) Type of fault breccia
>75 crackle
60e75 mosaic
30e60 chaotic
55
rotated and have lost almost all geometric fit with adjacent
clasts. The crackle breccias are further divided into three
categories: 1. Attrition-breccias - formed by progressive fric-
tional wear; 2. Distributed-crush-breccias - formed by pro-
gressive micro fracturing and 3. Implosion-breccias - formed
by high pore-fluid pressure. These crackle breccias with exotic
grains are generally formed by infilling of hydrothermal
minerals (Luther et al., 2013; Sibson, 1986). The chaotic-
breccia body, along the Dent fault of NW England has
nicely been described earlier (Woodcock et al., 2006).
In the classification scheme of Sibson (1986), each texture
type is associated with a mechanism. The analysis of the
particle-size distribution of fault-breccia is useful in under-
standing the slip-mechanism on weak faults (Luther et al.,
2013). Another term, used under the fault-breccia group, is
known as Cataclasites (Woodcock and Mort, 2008) which is
comprised of breccia, microbreccia and gouge. These are non-
foliated rocks and produced by micro or macro-fracturing that
occurs during brittle faulting under high rates of strain (Wise
et al., 1984). Fault-gauges which generally associated to
56 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59

such kinds of breccias are considered as diagnostic feature of
this class.
4.2. Impact-breccia
Impact-breccia, as the name suggests is formed during the
impact cratering when a large extraterrestrial body collides
with the Earth or some other planet. Breccia of such type may
be present on or beneath the floor of the meteorite crater and
may be identified by its diagnostic features like planar
deformation features (PDF), shatter cones, impact-glasses,
shocked-minerals (e.g., quartz and feldspar), and the pres-
ence of extraterrestrial materials such as iridium and osmium.
A term Suevite has been referred for the impact-breccia
composed of a fine-grained groundmass containing both
clastic and molten particles (Stahle, 1972; Stoffler, 1977;
Stoffler and Grieve, 2007; Osinski et al., 2008) which repre-
sents the last deposited impact breccia. Different types of
impact-glasses were identified (Stahle, 1972) from the Suevite
samples of the Nordlinger Ries (Table 4). These glasses show
typical differences in their structures, despite of uniform
chemical compositions of their matrix glasses. The Ries
impact structure in southern Germany is one of the world's best
preserved (i.e., least eroded), mid-size (25 km diameter),
complex impact structure (Reimold et al., 2012). Another
example of such type of breccia is Chicxulub impact breccia
which is the result of an impact of an asteroid or comet at the
northwestern Yucatan platform. These breccias contain clasts
of dolomite, limestone, and anhydrite, as well as shocked
mineral (quartz and feldspar) fragments of basement rock and
altered molten rock (Ward et al., 1995). However, there is a
possibility of the existence of multiple breccia due to the
occurrence of pre-, syn-, and post-impact breccias in close
proximity to each other; and it can also represent several
generations of breccia which were formed successively in a
very short timeframe of an impact event (Reimold, 1998). A
special linear cryptoexplosive breccia type associated with
AueAg polymetallic deposit is explored in northeastern
Shanxi of China (Fengzeng, 2000). Tectonic and magmatic
activities have close relationship with gold mineralization
associated with such type of breccias. According to Fengzeng
(2000), the magmatic cryptoexplosion is responsible for
making ore-hosting spaces in such breccia which later got
filled with post-magmatic hydrothermal ore fluids and
replaced the existing breccia and thus forming the gold de-
posit. Gold-bearing quartz, pyrite with subordinate chalcopy-
rite, galena, sphalerite, and native gold & silver are the
diagnostic minerals in exploring the AueAg polymetallic
deposits from them. The field identification of cryptoexplosive
breccias is important in exploration of AueAg mineralization,
while the characterization of impact-breccia is essential for
defining a meteorite crater. The major diagnostic textural
characteristic of impact-breccia is planar deformation features
(PDF) occur in shocked minerals and ballen quartz; also the
presence of high pressure minerals (e.g., coesite and stisho-
vite) and extraterrestrial materials (e.g., Ir and Os) are the
special diagnostic signatures found in such breccias.
4.3. Seismic-breccia
Seismic-breccia is formed as a result of hydro-fracturing of
rocks by earthquake and is sometimes associated with intru-
sive ore deposits such as skarns, greisens and porphyry
mineralization. Under seismic triggering, original but partially
consolidated layer disappears by hydro-fracturing or lique-
faction. As a result of plastic or brittle deformations, a new
layer is formed which consists of angular fragments retaining
their original sedimentary structures (Clague et al., 1992;
Roep and Everts, 1992; Rodriguez et al., 2000; Nygard
et al., 2006; Gruszka and Van Loon, 2007). Such kinds of
plastic or brittle deformed layers have been described as
“intraclast breccias” (Marco and Agnon, 2005). An example of
earthquake-induced breccia is found frequently in the glacio-
lacustrine sediments in central Poland (Seilacher, 1969).
A term Seismites/brecciated seismites were used in litera-
ture to describe the deformed unconsolidated sedimentary
layers associated with earthquakes (Seilacher 1969, 1984).
Agnon et al. (2006) reviewed a few more related terms such as
mixed layer, Mixtites and homogenites etc., however, these
terms are rarely used, and therefore it is impertinent to discuss
them.
5. Summary and perspectives
A detailed documentation is advised, in order to distinguish
and pinpoint characterization of breccias formed by different
processes at different geological intervals. The breccia of
various types can be found in several kinds of tectonic settings

Table 4
Classification of the Ries impact glasses (after Stahle, 1972).
Stages Class Description
Stage V Vaporization Homogeneous glass bodies Small droplets of glass; dense homogeneous matrix glass; few grains of lechatelieritea, zircon and
quartz fragments with glass rims; no “fragment schlieren” or rock inclusions.
Stage IV Rock glasses Normal glass bombs Aerodynamical shapes; differently colored matrix glass; light and dark glass schlieren; frequent
mineral fragments and mineral glasses; “fragment schlieren”; many bubbles.
Glass bombs rich in Irregularly shaped glass crumbs; great portions of strongly shocked rock inclusions; plenty of
crystalline rock fragments Lechatelierite and diaplectic SiO2 glass; nearly no quartz fragments.
Stage III Strongly Porous rock fragments Deformed boulders of crystalline rocks; complete alteration of rock minerals, diaplectic coesite
shocked rocks bearing SiO2 glasses; selective melting of feldspars and opaque minerals.
a
Lechatelierite, an amorphous form of SiO2, is silica glass, which forms naturally by very high temperature melting of quartz sand; also forms as the result of
high pressure shock metamorphism during meteorite impact cratering.
 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59 57

(Fig. 5.), which make them ubiquitous. A proposed general
classification, based on brief literature review on the breccias
of contrasting origin and its diagnostic characteristics towards
our modern understanding is summarized in the Table 5. Ac-
cording to this source, the modes of formation of breccias can
be grouped in to three major types i.e., Igneous, Sedimentary
and Tectonic. In the igneous breccia, the first sub-class is
known as volcanic-breccia (or volcaniclastics) which can
further be subdivided into flow-breccia and tuff-breccia, based
on their mode of fragmentation. However, based on their size

Fig. 5. Sketch map showing the favorable places of general distribution of different types of breccias in different tectonic settings.

Table 5
Proposed general classification of breccias of contrasting origin and its diagnostic signatures towards our modern understanding.
Types of Sub-classes Mode of formation (in general) Diagnostic signatures
breccia (in broad)
Igneous Volcanic breccia or Formed by explosive eruption of a volcano during Angular fragments (>2 mm), hexagonal
Volcaniclastic which clast fragments set in a subordinate matrix of dipyramidal quartz, embayed quartz, mosaic of
any composition and texture. quartz, no preferred orientation of clasts, highly
compacted and common igneous minerals (e.g. beta
quartz, sanidine, glass shards, biotite, rutile,
magmatic zircon)
Igneous-hydrothermal Formed by hydrofracturing of rocks due to highly Angular fragments and brecciation processes
breccia and Epithermal pressured hydrothermal fluids follows the path of pre- existing planes of
breccia-pipes discontinuity
Sedimentary Chert breccia Chert is formed as resultant of replacement of pre- Abundance of replacement textures; Poorly sorted,
existing carbonate rocks, while the brecciation loosely compacted and immature fragments of
occurred in it due to the collapsing or crushing of rocks; Fragments and matrix both consist of
Chert nodules (or layers) after the dissolution of microcrystalline quartz
underlying soluble bedrock or due to the tectonic
activities.
Collapse breccia Formed by collapse of rocks in a karst landscape, Dissolution textures
when rocks are partly dissolved.
Tectonic Fault breccia Formed due to Unoriented & fractured grains, Brittle deformation
a) Grinding action of two fault blocks; features, Fault gauges.
b) Fracture of rocks by tectonic or gravitational
stresses.
Seismic breccia Formed by hydro fracturing of rocks generated due Associated with intrusive-related ore deposits such
to an earthquake. as skarns, greisens and porphyry-related
mineralization.
Impact breccia Formed as a result of meteoritic impact on Shocked minerals (quartz and feldspar), Planar
continental parts of the Earth. deformation features (PDFs), shatter cones &
impact glasses.
58 M.K. Shukla, A. Sharma / Solid Earth Sciences 3 (2018) 50e59
of clast or fragments it has been grouped into four major types
i.e., tuff, lapilli, agglomerate, and bombs and blocks. The
major diagnostic signatures of such litho units are the presence
of angular fragments (>2 mm), hexagonal dipyramidal quartz,
random orientation of clasts and common igneous minerals
(e.g., beta quartz, sanidine, glass shards etc.). The Igneous-
hydrothermal breccia, a second sub-class of igneous breccia,
is generally formed due to the hydrofracturing of rocks. They
are often associated with various igneous processes and are
recognized by their angular fragments and brecciation pro-
cesses, used as a diagnostic signature.
The sedimentary breccia, a second type of proposed
breccia, contains two sub-classes, Chert-breccia and collapse-
breccia (or solution collapse breccia). Of which, the former is
the resultant of a replacement of pre-existing carbonate rocks
followed by the brecciation processes. The diagnostic signa-
tures for their characterization are replacement textures,
poorly sorted, loosely compacted and immature fragments of
rocks as well as microcrystalline quartz (both fragments and
matrix). On the other hand, the later one i.e., the collapse-
breccia is formed by collapse of partly dissolved rocks in a
karst landscape; dissolution textures are the characteristic
feature of collapse-breccia.
The third type of breccia is referred here as Tectonic-breccia,
which comprises of fragments, formed by the action of tectonic
activities happened due to various reasons. Fault and Seismic-
breccias put in to this group as a sub-class; however, Impact-
breccia, to some extent, can also be placed in this group. The
fault-breccia, a resultant of either grinding action of two fault
blocks or fracture of rocks due to tectonic or gravitational
stresses, can be recognized in the field by its unoriented &
fractured grains, brittle deformation features, and fault gauges.
The Seismic-breccias, which are formed by hydro fracturing of
rocks generated due to an earthquake, are often associated with
intrusive-related ore deposits (such as skarns, greisens and
porphyry-related mineralization), considered as a diagnostic
signature. Furthermore, the Impact-breccia is formed by the
meteoric impact on the earth, and it has diagnostic signatures
such as presence of shocked minerals (quartz & feldspar), planar
deformation features (PDFs), shatter cones and impact glasses.
The present brief literature review is academically as well
as economically significant and provides a basic understanding
of common types of breccias and its related terminologies that
will subsequently help in variety of ways especially for those
seeking hydrocarbon reserves, ore mineralization, character-
ization of extraterrestrial bodies and geodynamically impor-
tant features.
Acknowledgments
MKS is grateful to SERB, Government of India for their
financial support (File no. PDF/2015/000064). We express our
sincere gratitude to the Director, BSIP Lucknow for giving us
fruitful environment. We are indeed thankful to Dr. N. S.
Siddaiah for their initial suggestions, and also the anonymous
reviewers and the editor-in-chief (Weidong Sun) for their
constructive remarks.
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