Módulo Gramatical y Discursivo 2022

CARRERAS:
BIOINGENIERÍA
LICENCIATURA EN BIOINFORMÁTICA
INGENIERÍA EN TRANSPORTE
TECNICATURA UNIVERSITARIA EN PRODUCCIÓN Y EXPLOTACIÓN
DE DATOS
Cátedra Inglés
Módulo gramatical y discursivo
Equipo de cátedra:
Diana Mónica Waigandt
María Alejandra Soto
Silvia Soledad Monzón
Gabriela Aruga
INGLÉS
CONTENTS PAGE
The English Alphabet 3
Numbers 3
Capitalisation and Punctuation 6
Word formation 8
Number: singular and plural 14
The genitive 19
The noun phrase 21
The special case of the “-ing form” in the noun phrase 26
The verb phrase 32
Interrogative sentences 44
The main uses of verb tenses 46
The passive voice 49
Cohesion 51
Latin phrases in academic English 58
Patterns of text organization: Enumeration-Listing 60
Patterns of text organization: Comparison 61
Patterns of text organization: Contrast 64
Patterns of text organization: Cause-Effect 65
Patterns of text organization: Classification 68
Patterns of text organization: Definition 72
Patterns of text organization: Time-Order 74
Patterns of text organization: Problem-Solution 76
2 Equipo de cátedra: Waigandt – Soto – Monzón - Aruga

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THE ENGLISH ALPHABET

The English alphabet uses the symbols of the Roman or Latin alphabet. Here is the English
alphabet:
a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.
NUMBERS
Texts often use figures or numbers. They may signal
ORDER (1, 2, 3, … 1st, 2nd, 3rd …)
DATE (1999, 25 April, ’97 …)
QUANTITY (250 pages, 2 books)
PRICE ($ 300, U$ 20)
AGE (John Kent, 22, …)
PERCENTAGE (5% …)
DIMENSION (40 cm. long x 28 cm. wide)
DECADES (1990s, ‘90s)
Cardinal numbers
0 zero; naught
1 one 11 eleven 21 twenty-one
2 two 12 twelve 22 twenty-two
3 three 13 thirteen 30 thirty
4 four 14 fourteen 40 forty
5 five 15 fifteen 50 fifty
6 six 16 sixteen 60 sixty
7 seven 17 seventeen 70 seventy
8 eight 8 eighteen 80 eighty
9 nine 19 nineteen 90 ninety
10 ten 20 twenty 100 a hundred

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Ordinal numbers
1ST first 11th eleventh
2nd second 12th twelfth
3rd third 13th thirteenth
4th fourth 20th twentieth
5th fifth 21st twenty-first
6th sixth 30th thirtieth
Day, week, month, year, century, millennium

The days of the week are: Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday.
The months of the year are: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August,
September, October, November, December.
DATES
31 March 1961 15 July 1968
The last two letters of the number word (st, nd, rd or th) are sometimes added.
Dates can be found in any of the following ways:
DD/MM/YY 2nd January 2001

02/01/01
02.01.01
2 Jan 01
MM/DD/YY January 2nd 2001

01/02/01
01.02.01
Jan 2 01

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All-figure dates are written differently in Britain and America, since British people put the
day first while Americans generally start with the month.
In the USA it is common to write the month first and to put a comma before the year.
March 30, 1995
The longer names of the months are often abbreviated as follows:
January -> Jan February -> Feb March ->Mar
April ->Apr August -> Aug September -> Sep
October -> Oct November -> Nov December -> Dec
The names of decades (e.g. the nineteen sixties) can be written like this: the 1960s.

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CAPITALISATION AND PUNCTUATION

Good punctuation and appropriate use of capital letters contribute to make written texts
clearer and more effective. The list of suggestions for the use of capital letters and
punctuation marks is not exhaustive. The items selected are mostly those which offer
problems because their use is peculiar to English.
THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
● In English we capitalise the names of nationalities, languages, religions and regions.

British, English, Buddhism.
There are three island regions in Scotland: Orkney, Shetland and Western Isles.
● We use capital letters for days of the week and months of the year, but we do not
capitalise names of seasons.
Monday, September, spring
THE USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS

The apostrophe
● ‘s or simply s is used to form the plural of letters, numbers, signs, abbreviations and
words referred to as words.
he computer inserted 2’s for 3’s.
The computer inserted a’s for d’s.
The computer inserted % for #.
Three anionic PAMs of three molecular weights (MWs) at similar hydrolysis levels
and three anionic PAMs at various degrees of hydrolysis of similar MW were studied.
The tests were carried out in the 1990’s (or 1990s).
The referees said that although the report included too many if’s, it could be
published.

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The hyphen (-)

● We hyphenate two-part adjectives or noun pre-modifiers which contain the sense
of between.
The Anglo-American project failed.
A grey-green substance was obtained.
● Hyphens are used with prefixes such as all-, co-, ex -, non -, pro -, self- to connect
them to the word they precede.
It is a British-American co-production.
The environmental issue is all-encompassing.
The defence of the project was a question of self-esteem.
Quotation marks (‘’)

● Commas, periods, exclamation and interrogation marks are always placed inside the
closing quotation mark if they are part of the quoted material.
At the end of his lecture Prof. Kent addressed the audience and asked “Do you
consider drying-wetting cycles are still crucial?”

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WORD FORMATION
Word formation is another topic that deserves special attention. Knowledge of its rules
helps infer meaning and form words. Imagine when reading a text you come across any of
the following words whose meanings you do not know: vowels, smaller, mistranslations. If
you look them up in a dictionary, you will not find them; you will find the bases to which
word formation rules have been applied. Thus you will find vowel not vowels; small not
smaller; translation, not mistranslation.
English, like most languages, has rules for word formation. They are: composition,
combination and derivation. New swords are formed on the basis of existing elements. A
base is a lexical item to which a word formation rule may be applied.
WORD FORMATION RULES
COMPOSITION COMBINATION DERIVATION
Written solid compounds Derivatives

Open compounds Acronyms (base + affixes)
Hyphenated compounds
COMPOSITION
Compounds are multi-base words, i.e. they may have two or more bases. They are classified
into:
1. solid written compounds (heartbeat, bloodstream, workstation)
2. open compounds (magnetic resonance, heart failure, gamma camera, human race,
mass media, big data, high speed)
3. hyphenated compounds (hand-made, thin-walled, long-lasting, low-emission)
You will find some compounds written in three different ways: solid, open, hyphenated:
weekend, week end, week-end.

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COMBINATION
Acronyms are formed by combining elements from different words.
DERIVATION
Derivatives consist of a base to which a meaningful unit has been added. This meaningful
unit is called affix. We distinguish two types of affixes:
1. prefixes (they precede the base)

2. suffixes (they follow the base)
Prefixes modify the meaning of the base. Suffixes change the word class and some of them
also modify meaning.
Here are some examples:

Antibody anti + body prefix +base
Development develop + ment base + suffix
Defibrillation de + fibrilla + tion prefix + base + suffix
Unhealthy un + health + y prefix + base + suffix
Polyunsaturated poly + un+ saturat + ed prefix +prefix + base + suffix

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Prefixes
NEGATIVE PREFIXES
Prefix Meaning Example

deforestation
de- + Base reverse the action
decentralized
dis- + Base the opposite of/ not/reverse the
disabled, dislike, disinfect
(= de / = un) action
un- + Base unwise, undo, untie,

the opposite of/ not/reverse the
unpack, unexpected,
in- action
innavigable
PEJORATIVE PREFIXES

maltreat, malfunction
mal- + base badly/bad
malpractice
mis- + base wrongly miscalculate, mishear
PREFIXES OF DEGREE, SIZE, NUMBER
do something better/faster/longer outgrow, outweigh,

out- + base
than outstanding
oversimplify,
over- + base too much
overpopulation

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undercook, undercarriage,
under- + base too little
underestimate
PREFIXES OF TIME / ORDER
foretell, forerun,
fore- + base before
forerunner
re- + base again, back reset, rebuild, reuse
PREFIXES OF ATTITUDE
counter- + base against, in opposition counteract

co- + base accompany/with/joint coexist, cooperate
OTHER PREFIXES
inter- + base between interstate - intermodal -

interoperatibility -
interconnection
intro- intra + base within intracompany
trans- + base across transatlantic
sub- + base under subway
multi- several multidimensional -
multiuse - multimodal

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Suffixes
Noun + suffix = Noun
Suffix Word class Example
-hood / -ship / - motherhood, friendship,

Abstract noun
dom / -ocracy kingdom, democracy
-(e)s Noun plurality books, boxes
Adjective + suffix = Adjective
-er Adjective (comparative) longer

-est Adjective (superlative) longest
Noun + suffix = Adjective
-able - ible Adjective comfortable -

-ful
Adjective (full of/ having or giving) useful, hopeful, successful
-less
Adjective (without, not giving) careless, leafless, restless
manly, worldly,
-ly Adjective (having the quality of)
environmentaly
-ish Adjective (belonging to, having the
Swedish, brownish
character of)

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Verb + suffix = Noun
-er Noun (one who, agent) researcher, builder,

producer
-ee Noun (one who is, passive suffix) employee, trainee
-ment Noun (state or action) development,
management
-ing Noun (state or action, that which living, driving, opening
results from the activity)
Verb + suffix = Verb

(to be) working,
-ing Verb (present participle)
researching, designing
Verb ( 3rd person singular,
-(e)s (he, she, it) commutes
present tense)
designed, discovered,
-(e)d Verb (simple past, past participle)
planned
Noun/ Adjective + suffix = Verb

-fy Verb (in a/an… manner) simplify, codify
widen, broaden,
-en Verb (to make)
strenghten
Adverb/ Adjective/Noun+ suffix = adverb
-ly Adverb (in a/an manner) quickly, slowly, efficiently

Adverb (manner, direction of,
-ward(s) backwards, onward
moment)
-wise Adverb (in a manner of ) clockwise - longwise

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NUMBER: SINGULAR AND PLURAL

The English language system has two terms to refer to grammatical number: singular (=
one) and plural (= more than one)
The general rule to form the plural of nouns is to add -s to the singular.
system - systems
disease - diseases
alloy - alloys
kidney - kidneys
However, there are some special cases:

1. When the singular ends in -y preceded by a consonant, y changes into -ies.
consonant + y --> -ies
body - bodies
discovery – discover
2. When the singular ends in –sh/-ch/-s/-x/-z, the plural is formed by adding -es.
marsh - marshes
branch - branches
class - classes
box - boxes
quiz- quizzes
3.Some words ending in -o form their plural adding -es while some others simply
add -s. potato - potatoes
kilo - kilos
mosquito(e)s

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4. Some nouns ending in –f (e) form their plural by simply adding -s or by changing
the –f (e) into –ves.
half - halves
life - lives
hoof - hoofs or hooves
proof – proofs
5. There are some irregular plurals. The ones most frequently used are:
foot - feet mouse - mice
man - men woman - women
person - people child – children
6. Some words ending in –s do not change in the plural. Here are two you will frequently
find in academic texts.
They carried out a series (singular) of experiments to test the new drug.
These series (plural) were discovered in clogged arteries.
This rare bird has become an endangered species. (singular)

These are closely related species of beetle. (plural)
7. Some singular uncountable nouns end in –s. They have no plurals. This is frequently
the case of names of diseases: measles, mumps, rickets, shingles.
Measles is an infectious illness.
8. Most words ending in –ics ( mathematics, physics, mechanics, dynamics) are

normally singular and have no plural use.
Too much mathematics causes school dropping out.

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But some words like politics and statistics have plural uses.
Politics is a complicated matter. (singular)
The administrator’s politics were extreme. (plural)
Statistics is a branch of mathematics. (singular)
Recently published statistics reveal nothing about underlying trends. (plural)
9. Some words (dozen, hundred, thousand, million, stone, foot) expressing quantity
have plurals without –s when they are preceded by a number or by the words several
or a few.
five hundred cells
several thousand samples
a few million years
It is important to notice that the same words take final -s when used without a premodifier
or followed by the preposition of.
Hundreds were discovered.
Hundreds of cells were discovered.
10. Data is originally the plural of datum, which is not now used; in modern English data
is used both as singular and plural.
This data was still being processed at the laboratory.
These data were still being processed at the laboratory.

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11. Some words that are of foreign origin have special plurals.
FOREIGN PLURALS
Singular Plural
analysis analyses
appendix appendices / appendixes
bacterium bacteria
basis bases
cactus cacti / cactuses
crisis crises
criterion criteria
diagnosis diagnoses
formula formulae / formulas
fungus fungi / funguses
hypothesis hypotheses
medium media / mediums
nucleus nuclei / nucleuses
oasis oases
phenomenon phenomena
radius radii / radiuses
stimulus stimuli
vertebra vertebrae / vertebras
12. Compound nouns form their plural in three different ways:

a) plural in first element: grant(s)in-aid; drug(s)-problem;
b) plural in both elements: woman doctor; women doctors
c) plural in last element: by-product(s); outpatient(s); breakthrough(s)

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13. Many singular quantifying expressions (a number of, a group of, half of, a lot of, the
majority of) can be used with plural nouns and pronouns; plural verbs are normally
used in this case.
A number of dyes were tried in this experiment.
Half of the mice were injected with a new drug.
14. With fractions below one (1) , we normally use of a + singular noun. The same
structure is common with decimals below one (1)
three quarters of a ton.
15. Fractions and decimals over one (1) are normally followed by a plural noun.
one and a half hours
millimetres

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THE GENITIVE
(or how to show possession with 's, s' and the apostrophe (') on its own)
1) Possession is shown in English with the genitive form of a noun. This means we normally
use 's and s' for people and some living creatures. We put the possessive before the noun
it refers to: Frank's car.
2) The simplest rule to remember is:
Add 's to any personal noun unless it is in the form of a plural ending in -s, in which case,
just add an apostrophe ('). This means:
● add 's to singular nouns and names not ending in -s: an engineer’s tie, Tom's book.
● add 's to irregular plural nouns: children's nervous system, the men's club, sheep's
wool.
● add an apostrophe (') after the -s of regular plurals: the doctors' uniforms.
● add 's to names ending in -s: Charles's address, Doris's party, St James's Park.
Famous names ending in s just add ('): Yeats' poetry.
Apostrophe s ('s/s'), compound noun, or 'of'?

When we want to show possession with things, we can use of : the leg of the table. However,
we often prefer to use a compound noun instead of of: the table-leg.
We must use of when we cannot form a compound noun:
the book of the film, the top of the box.
The use of 's and s' with non-living things: an hour's journey.

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We use 's and ' with some non-living things:

● fixed phrases: the earth's surface, journey's end, the ship's company.
● time phrases (singular): an hour's journey, a day's work, a month's salary.
● time phrases (plural): two hours' journey, two days' work, two months' salary.
Omission of the noun after's.

We generally omit the noun after 's when referring to work-places, shops, and houses:
the doctor's, rather than the doctor's surgery, my mother's rather than my mother's house.

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THE NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase is a complex structure which contains a noun or a noun equivalent as the
most important element or head. It may function as subject (1), object (2) and as
prepositional complement (3).
(1) Artificial cardiac pacemakers are employed to treat bradycardia.
(2) Siemens is manufacturing artificial cardiac pacemakers.
(3) The manufacturing of artificial cardiac pacemakers demands a lot of money.
The head of a noun phrase is typically a noun and this head may be premodified and/or
postmodified. The overall structure of a noun phrase may consequently be represented by
the following formula:
THE STRUCTURE OF THE NOUN PHRASE
a Head
b Premodifier Head
c Head Postmodifier
d Premodifier Head Postmodifier
a. Engineers are people who are professionally trained to plan the making of roads.
H
Motorcycles are one of the leading causes of accidents in Panama.
H
b. Traffic engineers work in transportation engineering
H
c. Engineers who deal with the development of new tools to diagnose disease
H
are called biomedical engineers.

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d. Biomedical engineers from Mexico are visiting Argentina.

H
The planning aspects of transportation engineering relate to elements of urban
planning. H
PREMODIFIERS
The following elements can be used:
1-Articles: the organs; the heart; the kidneys; the spleen; the stomach; the train;
the arteries; the planes.
a cell; a shipment; a device; a physician; a biologist, a street
an artery; an arm; an eye; an engineer; an avenue; an invoice.
2-Adjectives: active tissue; nervous system; the reproductive organs; connective

tissue; a movable joint; adipose tissue; regional transportation.
3-Nouns: the joint cavity; bone minerals; resonance imaging; cell mass;
Positron Emission Tomography; transportation forecasting.
4-Possessive adjectives: his problems; its transportation system.
5-Possessive case (noun + ‘s): the patient’s problem; Maxwell’s Equations;
6-Demonstrative adjectives: singular this machine; that device.

plural these studies; those books.
7-Past participles: computed tomography; oxygenated blood; the diseased organs;

the stratified epithelium; a distended bladder; reduced heat loss; planned road.
8-Present participles: the weighing machine; the supporting tissue; the secreting
glands; medical imaging techniques; the developing embryo; contracting muscles;
operating conditions.
Note: a developing embryo (an embryo which is developing)

a developed embryo (an embryo which has already developed)

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HEAD
The head of a noun phrase is typically a noun, yet pronouns, present participles, past
participles and adjectives frequently function as head of a noun phrase.
1-Noun: biomedical engineers; engineering applications; medical health care

professionals; good sources of information.
2-Pronouns:
Bioengineering is sometimes called biomedical engineering. This is a growing field
that will continue to have a significant impact on health care.
3-Present participles:
Proteins are essential for the growth and rebuilding of tissue.
Biomedical engineering involves learning about biology in new ways and developing
new tools to diagnose disease and to repair or replace diseased organs.
4-Past participles: the crippled; the physically disabled; the mentally disabled;
the handicapped; the diseased.
5-Adjectives: the poor; the rich; the ill; the dead; the insane, the Chinese.
N.B. Adjectives used as head of a noun phrase should be preceded by the definite article
(the), demand a third person plural verb form and refer to people collectively or to people
as nationals of certain countries.
POSTMODIFIERS
As regards postmodification, five types of elements can be used:
1) a prepositional phrase;
2) a relative clause ( that…, which…, who…, where…, when…)
3) a present participle (Verb + ing);
4) a past participle (Verb+ed);
5) a to-infinitive.

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1-Prepositional phrases:
the process of digestion; the organs in the thorax; exciting advances in Medicine;
the problems in medicine and biology; a single epithelium with flattened cells; the
right machines for patient care, a renewable substitute for fossil fuel.
2-Relative clauses:
The words who, whom, which, that, when, where and why are used to introduce relative
clauses.
WHO and WHOM are used to refer to people.
WHICH is used to refer to things.
WHOSE is the possessive of who and which.
WHEN is used after nouns referring to time.
WHERE is used after nouns referring to place.
WHY is used to refer to reasons.
Examples:
 Glands which secrete into the blood are known as endocrine glands.
 The amount of oxygen which is consumed by the body can be calculated using laboratory
techniques.
 A commuter is a person who travels regularly between home and work or school.
 Some engineers work in research laboratories where they learn more about the workings
of the living body.
 That is the device whose photograph appeared in the latest issue of Biophotonics Spectra.
 The reason why your paper has been rejected is that it does not comply with journal
requirements.
3-Present participles:
The cells forming the islets of Langerhans have no ducts.
(= which form)
The oesophagus is a tube leading from the pharynx to the stomach. (= which leads)
4-Past participles:
The principal internal organs contained in the thorax are the heart and the lungs.
(= which are contained)

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The intestine receives food partly digested. (= which is partly digested)
Most of the energy required by the body is derived from carbohydrates and fat. (=
which is required)
5-To-infinitives: Efforts to defeat cancer are quite successful.

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THE SPECIAL CASE OF THE “-ING FORM”

IN THE NOUN PHRASE
The “-ing form” can be used as an element in the English noun phrase. In this case, the value
we give it does not have the Spanish endings “-ando / -iendo”.
CASE 1: The “-ing form” as head of the noun phrase
 Biomedical engineering1 offers the scientific community the chance to explore

different paths in research and investigation.
 Finding1 new ways to make hospitalization practices more effective is essential at

present.
 Developing1 organism specific antibiotics could become one of the century’s most
important biomedical engineering challenges.
 Manufacturing1 these devices in factories will make them more accessible to everyone.
 Keeping1 a steady pace in biomedical research without excessive use of human and
material resources will require finding clever ways to work in teams.
 Delivering1 RNA with tiny sponge-like spheres holds promise for treating cancer and
other diseases.
Note: 1- All these previous “-ing forms” are noun equivalents. To indicate their value we can
use a Spanish noun or an infinitive.
Example:
Biomedical engineering La ingeniería biomédica / La Bioingeniería ofrece a la
comunidad científica la posibilidad de explorar diferentes caminos en investigación.
Desarrollar/El desarrollo/El desarrollar organismos específicos del organismo podría

convertirse en el desafío más importante de la ingeniería biomédica.

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CASE 2: The “-ing form” after a preposition
 Engineering1 faces the formidable challenges of finding2 novel ways of combining2

different materials, of analyzing2 their potential and experimenting2 with them.
 The indispensable first step in devising2 a possible solution is to define the

problem.
 Successful research lies in complying2 with specification protocols.
 One of the most important companies which is responsible for manufacturing2

polymers.
In all these examples the “-ing-forms” are placed after a preposition (of, in, for). To indicate
their value we can use a Spanish noun or an infinitive.
Example:
La ingeniería enfrenta los desafíos formidables de encontrar nuevos modos de
combinar/combinación de diferentes materiales, de analizar/de análisis de su
potencial y de experimentar/ experimentación con los mismos.
EXCEPTION TO THE RULE: When the “–ing form” is preceded by the preposition
“by”, the phrase usually denotes the way in which something is done. In this case,
if we want to express the same idea in Spanish, we must use the forms “ando
/iendo” without a preceding preposition.
 The researchers tested their spheres by programming them to deliver RNA
sequences that shut off a gene that causes tumor cells to glow in mice.
 Researchers must retrofit data to large-scale human mobility model by including
variables specific to each study in order to force the results to match reality.
 With much more data now being generated by using new technologies such as
cellphones and the Internet, researchers in many fields are eyeing the study of
human mobility with a desire to increase its scientific rigor.

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Example:
Los investigadores probaron sus esferas programándolas para transportar secuencias
de ARN que apagan el gen que hace que las células tumorales brillen en los ratones.
CASE 3: The “-ing form” as an adjective
 The steps in the manufacturing process3 are complex and the manufacturing costs3
are very high.
 The influence of the insulating materials3 on the surface determines its durability.
 A very promising biomedical3 project is currently underway at Massachussetts

Institute of Technology.
 The existing unwanted waste material3 does not pollute the environment.
In the examples above, the “-ing forms” modify the noun they precede. To rewrite the idea
in Spanish, we generally use a noun preceded by “de” or an adjective.
Example:
Los pasos en el proceso de fabricación son complejos y los costos de fabricación son
muy altos.
Un proyecto biomédico muy prometedor.
CASE 4: The “-ing form” as a post modifier
 A major disadvantage for businesses or industry wishing4 to install solar panels is their high
costs.
 Engineers working4 on the polymers project should be given the necessary safety
equipment.
 The device controlling4 the heat of the chamber ought to be checked regularly.

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 Patients undergoing4 home dialysis enjoy many benefits over those who are
hospitalized.
 Langer will speak about the great challenges facing4 biomedical engineering in the
next century, at the annual meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS) in Boston, on Friday afternoon, Feb. 15.
In this group, the “–ing forms” are placed after the noun they modify. When the phrase is
turned into Spanish, “que” is used.
Example: Una desventaja importante para las empresas o industrias que deseen /
desean instalar paneles solares es su alto costo.
CASE 5: The “-ing form” after certain verbs
 One of the grand challenges in the area of biomedical engineering, Langer says, involves
finding5 new ways of delivering drugs and other large molecules to targeted sites inside the
human body.
 We have continued working5 on polymers that could deliver DNA as efficiently as viruses,
that could put a DNA strand wherever you want, without the safety problems of viruses.
 Using polymers that can deliver DNA as efficiently as viruses entails reducing5 the risks of
the side effects that viruses carry along with them.
 In the near future, we will stop using5 viruses to penetrate the cell and we will start
utilizing5 risk-free polymers.
Some verbs in English need to be followed by an “-ing form”. When we rewrite these “-ing
forms” in Spanish, they can take different forms
a- the infinitive form of the verb:

Uno de los grandes desafíos de la ingeniería biomédica implica encontrar nuevos
modos de administrar drogas y otras moléculas grandes a sitios determinados del
cuerpo humano.
… implica reducir los riesgos de los efectos secundarios …

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En un futuro cercano dejaremos de usar virus para penetrar la célula y

comenzaremos a usar polímeros libres de riesgo.
b- the “-ando/-iendo” form of the verb:

Hemos continuado trabajando/con el trabajo con polímeros…
c- a noun
Hemos continuado con nuestro trabajo con polímeros…
…implica la reducción de los riesgos de los efectos secundarios…
CASE 6: The “-ing form” introducing additonal information
 Researchers have turned to nanotechnology, seeking6 new and more efficient ways to get
into the human cells.
 New strategies for producing vaccines in large quantities must be devised, using6 faster cell
culture methods
In the above sentences, the “-ing form” gives us additional information about the main
topic. In this case, to express the idea in Spanish we generally use the “-ando / -iendo” form
or, in some cases, an expression containing a noun.
Example:
Los investigadores se han volcado a la nanotecnología, buscando/ en búsqueda de
nuevos y más eficientes modos de penetrar las células humanas.
Nuevas estrategias para producir vacunas en grandes cantidades deben ser

diseñadas usando/mediante el uso de métodos más veloces para el cultivo de
células.

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“-Ing forms” and their different uses are EXTREMELY FREQUENT in texts. It’s very
important that you can distinguish them and give them their correct value.
This is a simple example of how frequent these forms are in texts

Tissue engineering is another important area of ongoing research, Langer says.
One key project is growing replacements for damaged tissues such as the
neurons damaged by spinal cord injuries that lead to paralysis. Using a neuronal
scaffold, Langer and his collaborators have succeeded in growing new tissue from
neuronal stem cells, and have succeeded in helping paralyzed mice to walk again.

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THE VERB PHRASE

A verb phrase is a structure consisting of an obligatory element (the head) realized by a
lexical verb, and another element called premodification that is not obligatory and which is
realized by one or more auxiliary verbs.
Verb Phrases consisting of head only (1 and 2) are called simple verb phrases whereas those
which have premodifiers are referred to as complex verb phrase (3-9).
1. The neck and the head are above the trunk.

2. We designed two different sensors.
3. The researchers do not work in the laboratory.
4. Garza et al. have developed a method to treat brain tumors.
5. The team is working on the development of a new therapy.
6. High sugar levels were detected in the patient’s bloodstream.
7. Electroencephalography (EEG) has been used as a clinical diagnostic tool for
more than 70 years, since its introduction in 1929.
8. It has been long known that certain drugs may influence metastasis.
9. The new technique will enable a faster diagnosis of the disease.
The structure of a verb phrase may be represented by the following formula:
VERB PHRASE = (PREMODIFICATION) + HEAD

(Auxiliary Verb[s]) + Lexical verb
There are verbs which can be used as head of a verb phrase, and verbs which can be used
as premodifiers of a verb.

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Verbs that can function as heads of verb phrases form a large, open class and are referred
to as lexical verbs. Verbs that function as premodification of complex verb phrases form a
closed system and are referred to as auxiliary verbs.
LEXICAL VERBS
We distinguish two types of lexical verbs: regular and irregular
Regular lexical verbs

This type of lexical verb has four distinct forms:
BASE: work
-S FORM: works
PRESENT PARTICIPLE: working
PAST/PAST PARTICIPLE: worked.
Verbs of this type use the same form derived from the BASE and end in -ED for the PAST
and the PAST PARTICIPLE. The large majority of English lexical verbs belong to the subclass
of regular verbs. In addition, any new lexical verb which enters the lexicon adopts the
regular pattern (e.g. televise, computerise, etc.)
Irregular lexical verbs

In English there are approximately 170 irregular verbs. In your dictionary you can find a list
of irregular verbs. They have three, four, or five distinct forms.
BASE/ PAST and PAST PARTICIPLE: put

-S FORM: puts
PRESENT PARTICIPLE: putting
Verbs of this type have the same form for three different uses: BASE, PAST and PAST
PARTICIPLE.

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Irregular verbs with four distinct forms

BASE: sell
-S FORM: sells
PRESENT PARTICIPLE: selling
PAST/ PAST PARTICIPLE: sold.
Irregular verbs with five distinct forms
BASE: write
-S FORM: writes
PRESENT PARTICIPLE: writing
PAST: wrote
PAST PARTICIPLE: written
SPELLING OF THIRD PERSON SINGULAR FORMS
Most verbs: add –s to infinitive work⇒ works
Verbs ending in consonant + y : change cry ⇒ cries

Y to i and ad – es
Verbs ending in – s, - ch, - sh, or – x: add miss ⇒ misses

- es to infinitive buzz ⇒ buzzes
push ⇒ pushes
watch ⇒ watches
fix ⇒ fixes
do ⇒ does
Exceptions have ⇒ has
go ⇒ goes

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SPELLING OF REGULAR AFFIRMATIVE PAST TENSE FORMS
Most regular verbs: add –ed work ⇒ worked

open ⇒ opened
Verbs ending in –e: add –d decide ⇒ decided
Verbs ending in consonant + y: study ⇒ studied

Change y to i and add –ed hurry ⇒ hurried
AUXILIARY VERBS
To form complex verb phrases we use auxiliary verbs. We distinguish two types of
auxiliaries: primary auxiliaries (be, have, do) and modal auxiliaries (can, could, may, might,
must, ought to, shall, will, would).
Primary auxiliaries
These verbs help build:
 Negation
DO/ DID + NOT + BASE = SIMPLE PRESENT / PAST NEGATIVE
 Some bioengineers do not accept the distinction as relevant.

 Several engineers did not attend the XII Annual Conference.
 Computers are only machines that follow instructions. They do not understand or
think. (Simple Present, negative)
 Interrogation
DO/ DID + ..... + BASE = SIMPLE PRESENT / PAST INTERROGATIVE
 Do you consider the distinction relevant?

 Did you analyze the samples?
A: Did they use the new drug last week? (Simple Past, interrogative)

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B: Probably they did. (Simple Past, short answer)

 Emphasis
 I do consider the distinction relevant.

 At last I did understand the new theory.
 Substitution
 I accepted the invitation and so did the other members of the staff.
 Progressive / continuous tenses
BE + BASE + -ing = PROGRESSIVE
 At present Siemens is designing a new cardiac device. (Present Progressive).

 By the end of 1960 Siemens was designing a new cardiac device (Past Progressive)
 There are clear indicators that Siemens will be launching a new cardiac device next month.
(Future Progressive)
 Perfect tenses
HAVE + BASE + -ed = PERFECT
 Recent advances in the field of microendoscopy have produced amazing changes.

(Present Perfect)
 At the beginning of the 1970s basic x-ray imaging had reached a high level of excellence.
(Past Perfect)
 By 2009 they will have completed their study. (Future Perfect)
 Passive voice
BE + BASE + -ed = PASSIVE VOICE
 Fixed-rate pacemakers are implanted in patients with total AV block. (Present)

 A new microscope was bought last month. (Past)
 New mechanic devices will be applied. (Future)

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REMEMBER that primary auxiliaries can also function as lexical verbs. As such be means ser
o estar; have means tener and do, hacer.
Modal auxiliaries
Some of the characteristics that set modal auxiliaries apart as a special class of verb are that
they are not marked by 3rd person singular present tense, do not use primary auxiliaries to
form negative or interrogative forms and carry lexical meaning. Modals are used with a
lexical verb to indicate a particular attitude, such as possibility, obligation, prediction, etc.
The use of modal auxiliaries can be seen in the following examples.
 Can
1. Expressing ability
You can operate the computer quite well.
A computer can work with numbers, pictures and words.
2. Expressing theoretical possibility

The computers can deteriorate in a short time if they are used by so many students.
3. Asking / giving / refusing permission

A: Can we use your computer?
B: Yes, and next time don’t ask for permission.
4. Making an offer.
You can use my computer whenever you want.
5. Making a request.
A: Can you answer the e-mail as soon as possible, please?

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 Could
1. Expressing ability in the past.
It is said that Einstein could read and write when he was 3.
2. Expressing future probability.

A commercial system could be available within a year and a half.
 May (more formal than can)

1. Asking / giving / refusing permission.
May I take this book home?
2. Expressing possibility
The new teaching method may help students with reading problems.
Obstruction of the vena cava may be primary or it may be secondary to abdominal
infection, trauma or surgery.
 Might
1. Expressing possibility with greater uncertainty.
University fees might be charged if the current economic policy continues.
 Must
1. Expressing obligation
You must follow the rules.
2. Expressing prohibition
You must not smoke in class.

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3. Expressing logical deduction

A: You must be the new secretary.
 Ought to
1. Expressing obligation
U.S. senator Paul Simon said: "If we can spend $100 billion on a space station, we
ought to be able to spend a few more dollars on solving the literacy problems”.
2. Expressing logical necessity

If he reads the chapter on electricity he ought to understand these simple problems.
(because he is clever enough)
 Should
1. Making suggestions / giving advice
You should consult a bioengineer before buying the equipment.
 Shall- Will
1. Expressing futurity
The students will be here in half an hour.
Two newly-graduated bioengineers will lecture next week.
 Would
1. Expressing condition
What would you do if you could isolate the virus?
What would happen if nanotechnology was used to carry out gene analysis?

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On the following pages you will find a lexical verb (discover) conjugated in the most
frequently used tenses of the Indicative Mood.
Simple Present
Affirmative Form Negative Form Interrogative Form
I discover I do not discover Do I discover?
You discover You do not discover Do you discover?
He/She/It does not

He/She/It discovers Does he/she discover ?
discover
We discover We do not discover Do we discover ?
They discover They do not discover Do they discover ?
Simple Past
I discovered I did not discover Did I discover?
You discovered. You did not discover. Did you discover?
He/She/It discovered. He/She/It not discover. Did he/she/it discover?
We discovered. We did not discover. Did we discover?
They discovered. They did not discover. Did they discover?

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Simple Future
I shall/will discover I shall/will not discover Shall/Will I discover?

You will discover You will not discover
Will you discover?
He/She/It will discover He/She/It will not discover Will he/she/it discover?
We will discover We will not discover
Will we discover?
They will discover They will not discover
Will they discover?
Progressive/Continuous Tenses
Present Past Future
I shall/will (not) be
I am (not) discovering I was (not) discovering
discovering
You will (not) be

You are (not) discovering They were (not) discovering
discovering
He/She/It will (not) be

He/She/it is (not) discovering You were (not) discovering
discovering
We shall/will (not) be
We are (not) discovering He/She/It was (not) discovering
discovering
They will (not) be

They are (not) discovering We were (not) discovering
discovering

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Present, Past and Future Perfect
Present Past Future
I shall (not) have

I have (not) discovered I had (not) discovered
discovered
You will (not) have

You have (not) discovered You had (not) discovered
discovered
He/She/It has (not) He/She/It had not He/She/It will (not) have
discovered discovered discovered
We shall (not) have

We have (not) discovered We had not discovered
discovered
They will (not) have

They have (not) discovered. They had (not) discovered
discovered

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THE PASSIVE (verb TEACH)
Present Past Future
I am(not) taught I was (not) taught I shall/will (not) be taught
You are (not)taught You were (not) taught You will (not) be taught
He/She/It is (not)taught He/She/It was (not) taught He/She/It will (not) be

taught
We are (not)taught We were (not) taught We shall (not) be taught
They are (not) taught They were (not) taught They will (not) be taught

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INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
There are two types of interrogative sentences: Yes/No questions and WH-questions.
Yes/No questions are questions that can be answered either by Yes or No.
Let’s analyze some examples:
● Is genetic engineering the key to eradicating all illnesses?

● Are bioengineers prepared to work in the field of robotics?
● Will robots replace surgeons in the near future?
● Has Robotics changed the way surgeons perform surgeries?
● Would certain procedures be possible if robots didn’t exist?
As we can clearly see, all the above questions can be answered with a “Yes” or with a “No”.
Now, let’s analyze the structure of YES/NO questions.

Compare the following pairs of sentences:
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
Genetic engineering is the key to Is genetic engineering the key to

eradicating all illnesses. eradicating all illnesses?
When comparing the sentences, we can see that the elements in both sentences are the
same. What changes is the position of these elements, which depends on the kind of
sentence you are producing.

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Compare:
Genetic engineering is the key to eradicating all illnesses.
Is genetic engineering the key to eradicating all illnesses?
So when we make a question we change the position of the subject and the verb phrase.
See that in the case of complex verb phrases, the auxiliary verb is placed at the beginning
and the nucleus comes after the subject.
Other examples:
 Bioengineers are prepared to work in the field of robotics.
 Are bioengineers prepared to work in the field of robotics?
 Robots will replace surgeons in the near future.

 Will robots replace surgeons in the near future?
 Robotics has changed the way surgeons perform surgeries.

 Has Robotics changed the way surgeons perform surgeries?
 Certain procedures wouldn’t be possible if robots didn’t exist.
 Would certain procedures be possible if robots didn’t exist?
WH- questions are called like that because they start with a WH-word. This word is
responsible for directing the questions, that is, the WH-word tells you what piece of
information you need to look for.
See the following examples:

 What is Robotics? (a definition)
 When did doctors first use robots in medicine? (a date)

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 How do robots assist doctors in surgeries? (the way in which something happens)
 Who used robots in surgery for the first time? (a person)
 Where did researchers study the possibility of using robots in medicine for the first time? (a
place)
 Why are robots particularly important in surgery? (a reason)
As these examples show, these questions use a special word (a WH-word) that tells you the
piece of information you need to find. If you compare these questions with the Yes/No
questions above, you will see that the only difference between them is the WH-word. The
rest of the elements function exactly in the same way as in Yes/No questions.
THE MAIN USES OF VERB TENSES
The main uses of some verb tenses are listed below.
We use the Simple Present

 to express regular or habitual actions
We work in the lab every morning.

 to express general truths or universal laws.
Water freezes at 0º.

 to talk about past events and in order to produce a more vivid description. This use of the
simple present is called “historic present”.
When the technologists enter the lab, they turn the lights on and discover that two of
the computers are damaged and that the components for the new articulated
microrobots lie on the floor.
We use the Simple Past

 to indicate that an event occurred at a particular time in the past
Troyer et al. (1983, 1988) used improved spatial resolution to study biological systems
on the nanometer scale.

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W. Clem Karl received the Ph. D. degree in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
in 1991.
We use the Simple Future

 to say that something is planned to happen or that we think it is likely to happen in the
future.
The researchers ultimately desire to resolve single molecules, and the increased
sensitivity of the detector will bring them closer to that goal.
Because the assay can be completed in a matter of hours, it will allow quick and
accurate detection of infectious biological agents.
There is no market for this type of dyes so it is unclear when – or even if – they will be
developed.
We use the Present Progressive

 to describe events that are currently in progress.
Researchers are working to improve the specificity of mammograms fro screening and
diagnosis of breast cancer.
 to indicate changes, trends, development and progress.
Though new drugs are being developed, we cannot speak of crucial changes yet.
We use the Past Progressive

 to talk about continued states or repeated actions which occurred in the past
Everyone was waiting for the results of the investigation.

 to contrast a situation with an event which happened just after that situation existed.
Everyone was waiting for the results of the investigation when information from other
centres arrived.

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We use the Future Progressive

 to indicate we are sure that something will happen because arrangements have been made.
The visitors will be waiting for the guide at the entrance of the museum.
We use the Present Perfect

 to refer to an action or situation that began sometime in the past and continues up to the
present.
Dialled crosses have been used in genetic research to determine the inheritance of important
traits among a set of genotypes.
 to indicate that an action happened in the past but we do not want to state a specific time.
We have constructed a new planar design for a balanced vibration resonant density
sensor.
 to imply the continuing validity of earlier findings and practices. This use is characteristic of
academic prose.
Experiments have shown, however, that microbes can quickly contaminate closed
environments.
We use the Past Perfect

 to talk about a past event or situation that occurred before a particular time in the past.
They discovered that the control group had become contaminated by a virus.
We use the Future Perfect

 to refer to something that has not happened yet but will happen before a particular time in
the future.
By the time the new method in genetic research to determine the inheritance of
important traits among a set of genotypes is used, the Department will have received
the grant.

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THE PASSIVE VOICE

The passive voice deserves special attention. To begin with, it is widely used in English;
secondly it plays a central role in process descriptions. Besides, while in Spanish we usually
prefer the se + verb structure (pasiva con “se”) to the Passive Voice, in English there is no
choice. We must use the Passive Voice.
Notice how the passive voice in English may be changed into Spanish:
A sample is collected Se recolecta una muestra / Una muestra

es recolectada
A sample was collected Se recolectó una muestra / Una muestra
fue recolectada
A sample will be collected Se recolectará una muestra / Una muestra
será recolectada
A sample has been collected Se ha recolectado una muestra / Una
muestra ha sido recolectada
Five samples are collected Se recolectan cinco muestras / Cinco
muestras son recolectadas
Five samples were collected Se recolectaron cinco muestras / Cinco
muestra fueron recolectadas
Five samples will be collected Se recolectarán cinco muestras / Cinco
muestras serán recolectadas
Five samples have been collected Se han recolectado cinco muestras
Compare the following sentences:

1. Einstein developed the theory of relativity.
2. The theory of relativity was developed by Einstein.

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Sentence 1 is about Einstein and it tells us about his theory. Sentence 2 is about the theory
of relativity and it informs about its formulator.
Active Sentence: Subject + Active Verb Phrase + Direct Object
Passive Sentence: Subject + Passive Verb Phrase + (by + agent)
The Passive Voice is preferred to the Active when:

● the agent is unimportant, unknown or obvious. In this case the phrase “by + agent”
is not used.
1. Ultrasound examination was carried out using the new device.
2. Obstruction of the inferior vena cava is rarely seen in childhood.
3. The new method is being tested in an Argentine hospital.
● a process is described. In this case the agent is omitted or if it is used, it is non-
human.
We have developed a method for estimating the three-dimensional distribution of
equivalent current sources inside the brain from scalp potentials. Laplacian weighted
minimum norm algorithm has been used in the present study to estimate the inverse
solutions. A three-concentric-sphere inhomogeneous head model was used to represent
the head volume conductor. A closed-form solution of the electrical potential over the scalp
and inside the brain due to a point current source was developed for the three-concentric-
sphere inhomogeneous head model. Computer simulation studies were conducted to
validate the proposed equivalent current source imaging.
● we need to put new or important information at the end of the sentence.
1. The spread of the disease is now controlled by the recently released vaccine,
namely OXM-3.
Notice that the “by + a human agent” structure is not common in formal academic writing,
except when describing the history of the field:
The preparation of this book was initiated by the Council of the British Imaging Society.

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COHESION
Writers use different words or phrases to give cohesion to their writing. These “unity”
words are used as cohesive ties. It is very important to identify these elements for they help
the reader enhance his reading comprehension.
COHESIVE TIES
Grammatical Lexical
Reference (anaphoric- cataphoric) Reiteration (repetition, synonymy,

Ellipsis hyponymy, superordination)
Conjunction Collocation
REFERENCE
This type of tie occurs when an element in the text requires the explicit presence of another
for interpretation.
1. Viruses are often thought of as simple creatures. But their staggering diversity and genetic
promiscuity could make them the most creative force in evolution, says Garry Hamilton.
In sentence 1. the underlined words refer back (anaphorically) to viruses, i.e. their
interpretation depends on this term.
2. When it came from the East in 1832, cholera had not struck England before.
In sentence 2, the word it refers forward (cataphorically) to cholera and the word before
refers back (anaphorically) to 1832. Therefore interpretation of the underlined words
depends on other elements in the text.

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Place reference here, there.

Time reference then, now.
PRONOUNS
The words I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they and them are usually called ‘personal
pronouns’. This is a misleading name: it, they and them are used to refer to things as well
as people. Personal pronouns are used when it is not necessary to use or repeat more exact
noun phrases.
Six English pronouns have one form when they are used as subjects, and a different form
for other uses – for example, when they are the objects of verbs or prepositions.
Personal Objective Possessive Reflexive

Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns
I Me Mine Myself
You (singular) You Yours Yourself
He Him His Himself
She Her Hers Herself
It It ---- Itself
We Us Ours Ourselves
You (plural) You Yours Yourselves
They Them Theirs Themselves
Interrogative pronouns: who, which, whom, whose, what.

Relative pronouns: who, whose, whom, which, what, that, where, when, why.

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Demonstrative pronouns: this – that (singular); these – those (plural).

Indefinite pronouns: all, each, everyone, everybody, everything, someone, somebody,
something, no one, none, nobody, nothing, anyone, anybody, anything, some, any, more,
either, neither, both, one.
ELLIPSIS
It is a useful resource when it is necessary to reduce the number of words in a text for it
consists in the omission of an element or elements to avoid repetition.
Research at the Mayo Clinic in Arizona suggests that the technique is more effective than
others (other techniques).
CONJUNCTION
Conjunction refers broadly to the combining of any two textual elements into a semantic
unit. The different types of conjunction may be classified in four general categories:
additive, adversative, causal and temporal.
Linkers or connectors are lexical items such as first, finally, thus, therefore, although,
however, etc. They are used to join, ‘link’, ‘connect’ parts of sentences and / or text. It is
very important to learn to recognize these lexical items for they are signals that indicate the
reader different relationships and connections in the text.
CONNECTORS / LINKERS AND THEIR FUNCTION
FUNCTION LEXICAL ITEMS

- to introduce an additional idea and
also
not only (…) but also
as well as
in addition

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moreover
too
besides
furthermore
another + noun
what is more
● Cryotherapy System treats skin and other conditions.

● Multislice CT scanning (also called spiral or helical CT scanning) was launched in the
1990s along with a processing technique known as “volume imaging”.
● Medical devices, which can be defined as ranking from simple bandages, injections
syringes and cannulas to implants and other high-technology devices, help not only to heal,
but also to save lives.
● The studies include degenerative neurological diseases like Alzheimer´s disease,

Parkinson’s disease and Multiple Sclerosis, as well as other neurological conditions (eg.
epilepsy).
● Furthermore, in addition to device and patient monitoring capacities, the

workstations now also integrate anaesthesia monitoring functions.
- to introduce an opposite idea but

on one hand
on the other hand
still
in contrast
however
instead

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though
although
even though
nevertheless
yet
whereas
while
in spite of
despite
otherwise
● Despite many developments that have enhanced mobility and flexibility, modern
prostheses are still unable to transmit sensory feelings.
● Intensive-care physicians were becoming very interested in nebulisation, but jet

nebulisers at that time had great limitations: an extra “driving volume” was necessary to
run them.
- to introduce a choice or alternative or

or otherwise
● The 28-page colour brochure can be ordered free of charge or downloaded at

www.bwmed.de/publikationen.
- to introduce a restatement or explanation that is

i.e.
I mean
in other words

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- to introduce an example for example

for instance
such as
like
e.g.
● Interventional procedures, such as radiofrequency ablation and
chemoembolisation, are being used to destroy tumours and are improving the survival odds
even for patients with hard-to-treat liver cancers.
- to introduce a conclusion or summary in conclusion

in summary
to conclude
to summarise
- to introduce a similar idea like

as
the same
the same as
similar to
similarly
- to introduce a cause or a reason because

since
for
as
due to
the result of
as a result of
as a consequence of

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● Due to the modular nature of the preconfigured packages, this software suite can
be installed in just two days.
- to introduce a result or consequence therefore

thus
so
hence
the cause of
the reason for
so (…) that
● The custom-made bandage allowed the wound to breathe while keeping it free from
bacteria, thus preventing infection.
- to introduce a condition if
unless
provided that
providing that
- to introduce a purpose in order to

in order that
so that
so as to

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LATIN PHRASES IN ACADEMIC ENGLISH

The tendency to use Latin expressions in academic writing is strong. The presence of these
elements is usually highlighted by italics and whereas some of the expressions are always
abbreviated, others are used in their full form.
You are given the most frequently used in Tables 1 and 2.
TABLE 1. Latin abbreviations
Abbreviation Meaning
cf. compare
e.g. for example
et al. and other authors
ibid. the same as the previous reference
i.e. that is to say
loc. cit. in the place cited
N.B. take note
op. cit. in the work cited
P.S. something added after the signature
viz namely
v.g. for example

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TABLE 2. Latin expressions used in full form
Latin expression Meaning
a fortiori with even stronger reason
reasoning based on past experience or, from

a posteriori
effects to causes
deductive reasoning, or from causes to

a priori
effects
ab initio from the beginning
improvised, for a specific occasion, not

ad hoc
based on regular principles
ad infinitum to infinity, forever or without end
ad lib at will/ freely
caveat a caution or warning
errata list of typographical mistakes
infra see below
in toto in its entirety
in vivo experiments conducted on living beings
inter alia among other things
post mortem an examination of a dead body
pro rata in proportion
quid pro quo something for something
sic the error is in the original quote
sine qua non an essential condition for something
supra see above
verbatim repeating the actual words/ exactly

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PATTERNS OF TEXT ORGANIZATION

A great deal of thought goes into the effective organization of ideas or concepts. When
dealing how to arrange their ideas effectively, authors can choose from a large number of
patterns.
A pattern may prevail all over the text or several patterns may be combined and there are
signals characteristic of each pattern. These signal elements may be linguistic or non
linguistic. The most common types of pattern are:
● ENUMERATION – LISTING
● COMPARISON – CONTRAST
● CAUSE – EFFECT
● DEFINITION
● TIME ORDER
● CLASSIFICATION
● PROBLEM – SOLUTION
ENUMERATION / LISTING
Often an author lists a few facts about a topic to explain a main idea, support an opinion,
or give some evidence about a general statement. In English, this is a very common pattern.
Listing may be highlighted or announced by linguistic and / or non-linguistic markers.
Useful non-linguistic signal elements:

● cardinal numbers (1, 2, 3 )
● ordinal numbers (1st, 2nd, 3rd )
● letters (a, b, c)
● asterisks ( * )

INGLÉS
● bullets ( )
● commas ( , )
● hyphens ( - )
● semicolons ( ; )
● colons ( : )
Useful linguistic enumeration markers and the position in which they appear:
Beginning Middle End

first later finally
firstly next above all
in the first place further eventually
initially following last, but not least
to begin with after that
to start with afterwards
then
two, etc.
furthermore
subsequently
COMPARISON
Writers sometimes want to compare elements (things, people, concepts, etc.), that is they
want to explain how the elements compared are alike or how they are different. Statements
of comparison often have signal words. When the writer does not include a signal word of
comparison, we should read carefully to figure out what differences or similarities the
author presents.
The English language offers a variety of ways to signal comparison. We have grouped them
into three categories: equality, similarity, inequality.

INGLÉS
Equality Similarity Inequality
Lexical verbs equal (1) resemble (2) differ (from) (3)
outlive (4)
outdo (5)
Syntactic and be + the be + alike (9) not so/as+adj + as (12)

morphological
structures same + noun (6) be + similar to (10) adj+er+than(13)
be + the + same+ more/less + adj + than

be + like (11)
noun + as (7) (14)
the + adj + est (in/of the

as+adj+as (8)
…) (15)
the + most/least + adj +

(in/of the …) (16)
be + different + (from)
(17)
Adverbs likewise (18 similarly (19)
The patterns in (13) and (14) are used when two elements or two groups of elements are
compared (Comparative Degree) whereas the patterns in (15) and (16) are used to express
that the element described has more / or less of the particular quality than anything or
anyone else of the same type (Superlative Degree).
1. Two plus two equals four.

A highly-trained workforce equals high productivity.
2. Model A resembles Model B.
3. Model A differs from Model B in its shape.
4. This computer has outlived its usefulness.
5. European drugs are outdoing American competitors.

INGLÉS
6. Model A and Model B are the same size.

7. Model A is the same size as Model B.
8. Model A is as big as Model B.
9. Model A and Model B are alike.
10. Model A is similar to Model B.
11. Model A is like Model B.
12. The old technique for coding grey-scale images is not as / so effective as the new
one.
13. The new technique for coding grey-scale images is clearer than the old ones.
14. The new technique for coding grey-scale images is more effective than the old ones.
15. Which is the largest organ of the human body?
16. That drug is the least reliable.
17. The results obtained with group A were slightly different from those corresponding
to group B.
18. Both substances reacted likewise.
19. These results were similarly expressed in a paper we published in 2002.
The following words have irregular comparative and superlative degrees:

good better best
bad worse worst
much more most
little less least
far farther farthest
further furthest *
old older oldest
elder eldest **
* Further is commoner than farther. The latter form can only be used to refer to distance in
space or time, the former may have the same meaning but is also used in the meaning of
more, additional.

INGLÉS
● The book does not give you further details.
Furthest is commoner than farthest. There is no difference in meaning between the two
forms.
** Elder and eldest are normally only used attributively with nouns denoting relationship:
John is my eldest brother, he is about three years older than I am.
CONTRAST
Sometimes a writer wants to CONTRAST two things. In this case, he/she may use one of the
following signal elements:
 but
 however
 nonetheless
 still
 although
 even though
 though
 yet
 despite
 in spite of
 in contrast
 on the one hand … on the other hand
 to be different from
 to differ from
 unlike
 whereas
 while

INGLÉS
CAUSE AND EFFECT

A common connection between ideas is that of cause and effect. If we ask why something
happens, the answer is the cause. If we ask what the result of something is, then the answer
is the effect. There are many different signals of this link between ideas.
I. Some verbs linking cause and effect

1. result 6. cause
2. result in 7. enable
3. result from 8. bring about
4. produce 9. lead to
5. induce 10.allow for
Examples:
1. If these two substances are combined, an enormous explosion will result.
(cause ⇒ effect)
2. The experiment resulted in significant advantages for the field of chemistry.
(cause ⇒ effect)
3. His illness resulted from eating contaminated food. (effect ⇐ cause)
4. Heavy rain produced devastating floods. (cause ⇒ effect)
5. The medicine may induce drowsiness. (cause ⇒ effect)
6. A mixing of all wavelengths causes a white light. (cause ⇒ effect)
7. Personal computers and digital editors enable researchers to digest and revise data
from all over the world. (cause ⇒ effect)
8. The introduction of computer technology brought about significant changes in office
routines. (cause ⇒ effect)
9. A diet high in fat may lead to heart trouble. (cause ⇒ effect)
10. Huge databanks allow for rapid and solid research. (cause ⇒ effect)

INGLÉS
II. Some connectors that may be used to introduce a cause.

DUE TO
AS A / THE RESULT OF
SINCE
BECAUSE
IN RESPONSE TO
AS
FOR
BECAUSE OF
OWING TO
1. We live in virtual and widespread proximity due to technological progress that has
supposedly turned the world into a “global village”. (effect ⇐ cause)
2. Early computers developed quickly as a result of their use in military applications.
(effect ⇐ cause)
3. The sailors suffered from scurvy since / as / because their diet was deficient in
Vitamin C. (effect ⇐ cause)
4. Our sky looks blue because molecules of oxygen and nitrogen in the air scatter more
blue wavelengths than any other colour. (effect ⇐ cause)
5. For financial reasons, the project will not be completed. (cause ⇒ effect)
6. Because of too much exposure to the sun, the patients developed skin cancer.
(cause ⇒ effect)
7. Owing to acid rain, forests have become diseased. (cause ⇒ effect)
III. Some connectors that may be used to introduce a result.
WITH THE RESULT THAT

SO THAT
THEREFORE

INGLÉS
THUS
CONSEQUENTLY
HENCE
FOR THIS REASON
THEREBY
The new apparatus will work twice as fast, thus greatly reducing costs. (cause ⇒ effect)
IV. Some special structures used to express cause-effect.

The older a computer is, the less effective it becomes.
This structure draws attention to the link between two actions or situations (when one thing
happens, another thing follows). A comparative expression in the first part is always
balanced by a comparative expression in the second part. Several word classes are possible
her:
a. adjective … adjective
● The harder a job is, the more rewarding I find it.
b. adverb … adverb
● The sooner we start, the quicker we will finish.
c. adjective … adverb
● The easier a job is, the more quickly I do it.
d. more (+ noun) … more (+ noun)

● The more money Jack earned, the more clothes he bought.
e. less (+ noun) … less (+ noun)

INGLÉS
● The less Bob earned, the less food he could afford.
Notice these points about the sentences:

1. Neither of the two parts makes sense without the other.
2. In writing, a comma is used to separate the two parts.
3. Both clauses need a verb.
4. In some expressions with better, no verbs are needed.
The sooner, the better.
CLASSIFICATION
The early stages of scientific research involve making observations and gathering
information. However, merely collecting facts is not enough. The scientist needs to arrange
and classify the facts and to find relationships among them.
The word classification comes from the word class – meaning a group of things that all have
one important element in common. Scientists group related information into an array.
Chemists, for example, cannot study every element, but can make generalizations by
arranging all the elements into groups with related properties. Thus, if iodine is identified
as belonging to the same group as chlorine and bromine, its properties can be predicted.
Similarly, since there are several million kinds of plants and animals on earth, it is clearly
impossible to study each one. However, by classifying an animal as a member of a particular
group, or species, a biologist can predict its characteristics. Classification is thus basic to
scientific thought and expression.
Classification patterns include:
● a general class
● a specific item or items
● a criterion or basis for classification (this element is frequently omitted because it is
understood or explained elsewhere)

INGLÉS
Consider the following example:
All matter may be classified as either solid, liquid or gas.
The general class is matter. The specific items are solid, liquid, and gas. The criterion for
classification is the physical state of matter, which is not mentioned in the example.
But there is more than one way matter may be classified. For example, it may be classified
on the basis of its chemical composition as either living or nonliving. For this reason,
classification sentences frequently contain modals of possibility such as can, could, or may.
Classifying from general to specific

The following are examples of general-specific classifying:
All matter may be classified as either solid, liquid, or gas.

Solids may be further divided into two classes: crystalline and amorphous.
By combining an element from each columns in the tables below you can obtain a general-
specific classifying sentence:
CLASSIFIED DIVISIONS
MATTER
IS / ARE GROUPED GROUPS
MAY BE DIVIDED INTO TYPES / CLASSES
CAN BE ARRANGED CATEGORIES
COULD BE CATEGORIZED CLASSIFICATIONS

INGLÉS
IS / ARE CLASSIFIED
MAY BE CATEGORIZED
SOLID, LIQUID
MATTER AS
OR GAS
CAN BE CLASSED
COULD BE GROUPED
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF MATTER: SOLID, LIQUID

AND GAS.
KINDS
CLASSES
CATEGORIES
Classifying from specific to general

When classifying from specific to general, the specific items do not necessarily cover all the
subdivisions of the general category; that is, there are obviously other members of the
group or category not mentioned, e.g.
Rubber, wood, glass, iron, cotton, and sand are all classified as solids.
By combining an element from each column in the charts below you can obtain a specific-
general classifying sentence.
MAY BE
CLASSIFIED
OXYGEN CAN BE AS A GAS
CLASSED
COULD BE
AS MICROSCOPIC
MICROBES IS / ARE CATEGORIZED
LIVING THINGS…

INGLÉS
OXYGEN IS AN EXAMPLE OF A GAS
A TYPE OF / TYPES OF
A KIND OF / KINDS OF
A FORM OF / FORMS OF MICROSCOPIC LIVING…

MICROBES ARE
A
Notes:
a. The passive form is used frequently in sentences of classification and in all scientific
writing because the emphasis is science is usually on the action, not on the person
performing the action.
b. The present simple tense is the most commonly used tense in scientific writing
because it expresses universals (for example: Water freezes at 0º C.)
c. In a sentence like Oxygen is a gas, only the meanings of the words oxygen and gas
will reveal which is the general category and which is the specific item.

INGLÉS
DEFINITION
Definitions are frequently used in academic writing. They are a form of classification
because a definition usually includes the general classification of a term plus the specific
characteristics which differentiate the term from other members of its class.
TERM = CLASS + CHARACTERISTICS
For example:
Hearing aid: a small thing which fits into or behind your ear worn by people who cannot
hear well. (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. UK, 1995)
Terms may also be defined by stating their function (functional definition).
TERM = CLASS + FUNCTION
For example:
Hearing aid: a small thing which fits into or behind your ear to make sounds louder.
(Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. UK, 1995)
Liver: a large organ in your body which produces bile. (Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English. UK, 1995)
When a concept is too complex to be defined in one or two sentences, an extended

definition is needed. This type of definition includes the basic parts of a definition (class +
characteristics / function) as well as additional information that may include description,
examples, comparison, explanation or other details.

INGLÉS
Definition formulae
(X = the term to be defined)
X + VERB “TO BE” + CLASS + CHARACTERISTIC(S) / FUNCTION
For example:
Biology is the scientific study of living things.
X + OR + SYNONYM
For example:
Biology or the scientific study of living things.
X + - + CLASS + CHARACTERISTIC(S) / FUNCTION + -
For example:
Biology – the scientific study of living things - …
X + ( CLASS + CHARACTERISTIC(S) / FUNCTION + )
For example:
Biology (the scientific study of living things)
WE CAN DEFINE X AS + CLASS + CHARACTERISTIC(S) / FUNCTION

INGLÉS
For example:
We can define Biology as the scientific study of living things.
X MAY BE DEFINED AS + CLASS + CHARACTERISTIC(S) / FUNCTION
For example:
Biology may be defined as the scientific study of living things.
CLASS + CHARACTERISTIC(S) / FUNCTION + VERB “TO BE” + CALLED + X
For example:
The scientific study of living things is called Biology.
TIME ORDER
In this type of pattern events are arranged according to their order in time. The most
common form, chronological order, arranges events from the most distant to the most
recent. Reverse chronological order arranges events in the opposite way. When an author
chooses to present the steps / stages in a process he/she may use the time order pattern.
Each step in a process represents a single action. We say a process is linear when the steps
or events occur in a straight line and have a beginning and an end. We say a process is
cyclical when the steps move continuously in a circle. A description of a cyclical process can
begin with any step.
Two types of signal elements highlighting this pattern may be distinguished: non-linguistic
(figures indicating dates) and linguistic. The most frequently used linguistic markers are
enumerated in the following list:

INGLÉS
Phrases
Two days
Three weeks
Five hours
Some days ago
A few months
several years
decades
centuries
a long time
In April / March / July

1968 / 2006
the 18th century
spring / autumn / winter / summer
On Monday / Friday
January 12th
last week
next month
this year
By the early / late / mid / ‘30s
Since 1950
then
that time / moment

INGLÉS
a year
in less than a week
more than a century
from March to September

890 to 1897
for a / one year (s)

two day (s)
some hour (s)
several
The verb tenses most frequently used are the past and the present, and the following words
usually appear when the time order pattern is used:
Verbs: begin, end, last, change, become, start, finish, develop, evolve, grow (old / up)
Words expressing time: today, yesterday, tomorrow, before, then, after, afterwards, later,
earlier, while, meanwhile, still, already, yet, soon, during, when.
PROBLEM – SOLUTION
In academic writing, especially in research articles’ introductions, authors often present
information through the use of the problem – solution pattern. This pattern has its typical
structure and displays characteristic signaling elements. In a problem – solution sequence
we usually distinguish five parts: situation, problem, response, result, evaluation. Here is an
example:

INGLÉS
When manufactured products are used they are simply discarded. This is not the ideal
method to conserve limited resources. One way of dealing with this dilemma is recycling
(the process whereby these products are collected and used again. Recycling not only helps
us avoid needless waste of resources, but it also improves the appearance of the
environment.
Lexical items and expressions used:
- Problem, solution, dilemma, question, issue, difficulty, result, impact.

- Come up with a(n) solution / answer / method / model
- But this method / model / system has its / some / two problems
- It is not clear however…
- However, so far no major study exists / no satisfactory answer has been provided
- To avoid this…
- To prevent this from …

Módulo Gramatical y Discursivo 2022

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CARRERAS:

Módulo gramatical y discursivo

The English Alphabet 3

Capitalisation and Punctuation 6

Number: singular and plural 14

The noun phrase 21

The special case of the “-ing form” in the noun phrase 26

The verb phrase 32

The main uses of verb tenses 46

The passive voice 49

Latin phrases in academic English 58

Patterns of text organization: Enumeration-Listing 60

Patterns of text organization: Comparison 61

Patterns of text organization: Contrast 64

Patterns of text organization: Cause-Effect 65

Patterns of text organization: Classification 68

Patterns of text organization: Definition 72

Patterns of text organization: Time-Order 74

Patterns of text organization: Problem-Solution 76

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THE ENGLISH ALPHABET

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Day, week, month, year, century, millennium

DD/MM/YY 2nd January 2001

MM/DD/YY January 2nd 2001

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The longer names of the months are often abbreviated as follows:

January -> Jan February -> Feb March ->Mar

April ->Apr August -> Aug September -> Sep

October -> Oct November -> Nov December -> Dec

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CAPITALISATION AND PUNCTUATION

THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

● In English we capitalise the names of nationalities, languages, religions and regions.

THE USE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS

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The hyphen (-)

Quotation marks (‘’)

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WORD FORMATION RULES

COMPOSITION COMBINATION DERIVATION

Written solid compounds Derivatives

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1. prefixes (they precede the base)

Here are some examples:

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Prefix Meaning Example

un- + Base unwise, undo, untie,

Prefix Meaning Example

PREFIXES OF DEGREE, SIZE, NUMBER

Prefix Meaning Example

do something better/faster/longer outgrow, outweigh,

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PREFIXES OF TIME / ORDER

Prefix Meaning Example

Prefix Meaning Example

counter- + base against, in opposition counteract

Prefix Meaning Example

inter- + base between interstate - intermodal -

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Noun + suffix = Noun

Suffix Word class Example