SUMMER INTERNSHIP

On

TECHNO-COMMERCIAL ANALYSIS OF CUBESAT

MISSIONS IN LOW-EARTH ORBIT

Skyroot Aerospace
A Summer Internship Report submitted to the

University of Petroleum and Energy Studies

For the award of

Degree in B.Tech- ASE

By

Harsh Singh

Under the guidance of

Mr. Zozimus Labana

Department of Aerospace Engineering

School of Engineering
University of Petroleum and Energy Studies
Dehradun-248007; Uttarakhand
 AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks and deep gratitude to all those people who extended
their co-operation and have helped me in completing this internship successfully.

The summer internship at Skyroot Aerospace was a very enlightening experience for me. I am grateful
to everyone who helped me in my internship program.

I extend my deepest gratitude to Mr. Pawan Kumar Chandana, CEO of Skyroot Aerospace Pvt. Ltd. who
allowed me to work with him in his startup. I would also like to thank my mentor Mr. Chesler Thomas
who constantly supported and encouraged me, throughout my tenure.

Finally, I would want to thank University of Petroleum and Energy Studies for providing me with such a
knowledgeable experience and this opportunity for the summer internship despite the pandemic.

To my family, thank you for encouraging me in all of my pursuits and supporting me.

Thank you

HARSH SINGH
 PREFACE

This report has been prepared as part of Internship Program of “University of Petroleum and Energy
Studies” at the Skyroot Aerospace Pvt. Ltd. The objective of the internship program was to familiarize
the student with industry work culture and relate the knowledge earned in the campus.

The initial portion of the report describes the company details, vision and product and services provided
by the firm. Later portion is regarding the complete details of my project Techno-Commercial Analysis
of Cubesat Missions in Low-Earth Orbit.

The major problem I faced during my internship that there were not sufficient documents available on
Skyroot Aerospace Pvt. Ltd. from where I could get more information about the firm. Due to COVID-
19 crisis I wasn’t able to get the exposure to industry but overall gained an immense knowledge how
industry works. It was a great experience to do an internship in virtual mode.

The entire internship experience helped me to become better than before. I learned both technical and
administrative skills and was able to be a bit familiar with working at the industry level.

The present is not free of limitation and there might be some minor mistakes such as typing mistakes.
Though I have tried my best to keep the report free from errors, I apologize if any error is found.

Thank You
TABLE OF CONTENTS

AKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... iii

PREFACE................................................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................... vi
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. viii
2. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1
3. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................................... 2
4. CUBESAT STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 3
4.1 Satellite Categorization............................................................................................................... 3
4.1.1 Small satellites .................................................................................................................... 3
4.1.2 Nanosatellite Buses ............................................................................................................. 4
4.2 Nanosatellite Sub-System Architecture .................................................................................... 4
4.3 Launch Trends ............................................................................................................................ 7
4.3.1 Past Launches and Forecasts ............................................................................................... 7
4.3.2 Global Launch Distribution ................................................................................................ 7
4.3.3 Nanosatellite Constellation ................................................................................................. 9
4.4 Nanosatellite Payloads ................................................................................................................ 9
4.4.1 Payload Applications .......................................................................................................... 9
4.4.2 State-of-the-Art Cubesat Technologies............................................................................. 10
4.5 Orbital Parameters ................................................................................................................... 13
5. ORBITAL SIMULATIONS FOR LEO .......................................................................................... 15
6. CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................. 17
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 18
LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: 1U CUBESAT IN-ORBIT RENDER [1] ...............................................................................................................1

FIGURE 2: INSIDE A 1U CUBESAT [2] ..............................................................................................................................1
FIGURE 3: SMALL SATELLITES MASS CLASSIFICATION ..................................................................................................3
FIGURE 4: NANOSAT BUS SIZE CATEGORIZATION [2].....................................................................................................4
FIGURE 5: NANOSATELLITE LAUNCH FORECASTS [2] .....................................................................................................7
FIGURE 6: GLOBAL NANOSATELLITE LAUNCH DISTRIBUTION ........................................................................................................8
FIGURE 7: NANOSATELLITE SHARE WORLDWIDE .......................................................................................................................9
FIGURE 8: CUBESAT MISSION CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................10
FIGURE 9: ORBITAL PERIGEE DATA OF NANOSATS ...................................................................................................................14
FIGURE 10: ORBITAL INCLINATION OF ACTIVE NANOSATS.........................................................................................................14
FIGURE 11: CHANGE IN PERIGEE OVER 28 DAYS .....................................................................................................................17
LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: NANOSATELLITE SHARE WORLDWIDE FIGURES ............................................................................................................8

TABLE 2: ORBITAL PARAMETERS FOR NANOSATELLITES ............................................................................................................13
TABLE 3: ORBITAL ANALYSIS RESULTS ...................................................................................................................................16
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Skyroot Aerospace Private Limited is an Indian private aerospace manufacturer and commercial
launch service provider headquartered in Hyderabad. The company was founded by former engineers
and scientists from ISRO. It aims to develop and launch its own series of small lift launch vehicles
especially crafted for the small satellite market.

A new space age is emerging and the extraordinary opportunities in space depend on the
transportation systems from Earth to Space. At Skyroot, they are building technologies for responsive,
reliable and economic access to space. They envision a future where spaceflight is as regular, reliable
and affordable as airflight.

The company has been developing its first launch vehicle, the “Vikram-I,” which is on track for its
initial launch around the end of 2022.

The Department of Space has signed its first-ever agreement with Skyroot Aerospace for providing it
access to ISRO's facilities and expertise towards testing of sub-systems and systems of launch
vehicles. Skyroot Aerospace has, therefore, become the first Indian startup to formally enter into an
agreement with ISRO for using its assets since the announcement of the new policy decision of the
Government of India in May 2020, when finance minister opened up the space sector for private
players.
2. INTRODUCTION
The advent of small satellites began use of CubeSats for various applications. CubeSats are miniature
satellites having dimension as multiple of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm, which is known as 1U. The first
cubesat was launched in 1998 and ever since then over 3000 CubeSats have been launched to the
Earth’s orbit, and 2 of them being deployed for interplanetary missions for Mars. While majority of
these happen to be 3U CubeSats located in the low-earth orbit. Most CubeSats which have been
launched are nano-satellites which are small-satellites weighing 0.2 to 40 kilograms. This project
involves research on the technical and commercial aspects of CubeSats, particularly that fall under the
category of nano-satellites.

Figure 1: 1U Cubesat In-orbit Render [1]

A CubeSat is a small-satellite which involves miniature sub-systems that enable them to perform
multi-domain activities, transmit and receive data from ground stations. The Figure 2 shows the sub-
systems and payload inside an 1U CubeSat.

Figure 2: Inside a 1U Cubesat [2]

This project involves analysis of cubesat database, categorization in terms of size and mass, past and
future launch trends, payloads, applications and orbital parameters. The mass and orbital parameter
observed have been studied and orbit simulation was performed on NASA’s General Mission
Analysis Tool (GMAT) [3] obtaining orbit view, ground plots and altitude difference over certain
period of time.

1|Page
3. OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of the internship project was to understand the commercial and technical
aspects of cubesat missions in the low-earth orbit. The project was further divided into following
objectives:

• Categorization of satellite to distinguish small satellites, and further classification of small

satellites to understand the development of cubesats in space industry.
• Understanding standard cubesat architecture.
• Studying the cubesat launch trends and geographical distribution of launches across the planet.
• Analyzing cubesat missions to understand the payload applications in different missions.
• Studying general payloads used in small satellite missions.
• Analyzing orbital parameters of cubesat missions to understand the distribution of missions in
low-earth orbit.
• Simulating cubesat missions at different orbital inclinations at constant altitude to understand the
stability of orbit for different applications.
4. CUBESAT STUDY
CubeSats are sized into multiple of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm or 1U, having various applications, and
are deployed at multiple orbital altitude and inclinations in space. This study classifies satellites on the
basis of mass and classifies CubeSat accordingly. Furthermore, the study presents launch trends,
categorization on the basis of payload applications, geographical launch distribution and orbital
parameters.

4.1 Satellite Categorization

Artificial Satellites are categorized on the basis of their mass. Following are the classifications: [4]

• Large satellites: Greater than 1000 kg

• Medium satellites: 500 kg to 1000 kg
• Small satellites: Less than 500 kg

4.1.1 Small satellites

Furthermore, the small satellites are classified into 7 types on the basis of their masses.

• Minisatellites: 100 to 500 kg

• Microsatellites: 10 to 100 kg
• Nanosatellites: 1 to 10 kg
• Picosatellites: 100 g to1 kg
• Femtosatellites: 10 g to 100 g
• Attosatellites: 1 g to 10 g
• Zeptosatellites: 0.1 g to 1 g

Small Satellites Mass Classification

100
100
Satellite Mass (kg)

40
Cubesat
Cubesat

10
1
0.2 1
0.1
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.0001

Figure 3: Small Satellites Mass Classification

CubeSat is are sized from 0.25U to 27U, largest ever launch being 16U. Their masses vary from about
0.2 kg to 40 kg. Most CubeSats fall under the category of nanosatellites, although 1U CubeSats could
be less than 1 kg and 6U could be greater than 10 kg.

This analysis will cover majorly about nanosatellites which are defined here with a lower limit of less
than 100 g including SunCubes and PocketQubes; and an upper limit of 10 kg for non-standard types
of nanosats and 27U CubeSat, as they all are from the same CubeSat revolution. This analysis used a
database with 3237 Nanosats and CubeSats, which have been launched as of April 4, 2021. [2]

4.1.2 Nanosatellite Buses

A satellite bus is the body of the satellite and certain primary sub-systems of the spacecraft. The first
cubesat was designed with the dimensions of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm and various form factors were
developed. Nanosatellite launch data provide a range of satellites from 0.25U to 16U, which has been
shown in the Figure 4: Nanosat Bus Size Categorization below.

Figure 4: Nanosat Bus Size Categorization [2]

The categorization of nanosat bus sizes show that the most common bus size is 3U. 1315 3U
CubeSats which constitutes 40.7% of every nanosatellite ever planned. A 3U CubeSat measures 10
cm x 10 cm x 34 cm, being the 3 times equivalent of 1U CubeSat, weighing less than 3.9 kg.

4.2 Nanosatellite Sub-System Architecture

A nanosatellite is developed with the integration of various components with certain applications.
These components form different sub-systems of the satellite.
• Power Sub-system: Most nanosats generate energy from the solar potential. The power system
consists of solar panels, power management and energy storage systems. This keeps the satellite
alive by moving energy through it.
• Communication Sub-system: The exchange of information from the satellite to the ground
station is performed through the miniature antenna and receiver which is the communication
system.
• Thermal Control Sub-system: Thermal control system protects the satellite from the heat and
radiation of space. Usually, multi-layer insulation is used which is passive thermal control
method.
• Attitude Control Sub-system: The orientation of the satellite in space is determined and
controlled by the attitude determination and control system. (ADCS)
• Payload: The payload is the instrument on the satellite which is selected for the particular
mission objective.
• On-board Computer: The on-board computer in the brain of the satellite. It commands the
different sub-systems to perform its functions. It is integrated with the data storage system.

Figure 5: Satellite Sub-system Architecture [5]

Figure 6: Power-Mass Budget Sheet for a Nanosatellite [6]
4.3 Launch Trends
4.3.1 Past Launches and Forecasts
Ever since the first launch in 1998, the nanosatellite system architecture was established to be a
feasible model for launch. The database records 3237 nanosatellite, which have exponentially risen in
the last decade. Although, the growth in the last 4 years has a decrement, the future seems to bring a
rise. Launch vehicle companies like Skyroot, have seen great potential in launching small-satellites to
orbit. It is estimated that there would be over 2500 nanosatellite launches in the next 6 years, as
predicted by Nanosat Database. [2]

Figure 7: Nanosatellite Launch Forecasts [2]

4.3.2 Global Launch Distribution

Globally, the United States leads the number in small satellite launches, owning about 55% of the
total figure with 1680 nanosats, while the European Union contributes 786 in total. On the other side,
India has launched 35 nanosatellites which happens to be barely 1% of the volume. In the coming
time, a lot of cubesat constellations have been planned and the low cost these satellites make it
feasible for a large section of the space community to develop them.

Startups like Skyroot will contribute to lowering the launch expenses which would encourage people
to venture more into this technology in the coming decade and so. India is a potential market for
affordable launch vehicle industry due to its low cost and environment of space sector development.
 Figure 8: Global Nanosatellite Launch Distribution

Figure 8, shows the global distribution of nanosatellites developed since 1998. This figure does not
include the contribution of the United States. It contributes a massive 1680 nanosats as mentioned
above. Following Figure 9 show the share of satellites from different regions worldwide.

Region Cubesat
Africa 28
Central and South America 37
Canada 68
USA 1680
India 35
Japan 83
Russia 46
China 99
Europe 786
Rest of the World 207

Table 1: Nanosatellite Share Worldwide Figures

 Nanosatellites Share Worldwide

Africa, 28, 1% Central and South America, 37, 1%

Rest of the World, 207, 7% Canada, 68, 2%

Europe, 786, 26%

China, 99, 3%
Russia, 46, 1%
USA, 1680, 55%
Japan, 83, 3%

India, 35, 1%

Figure 9: Nanosatellite Share Worldwide

4.3.3 Nanosatellite Constellation

In recent times, the launch demands for CubeSats have increased drastically with the increase in
applications of CubeSats. One such application is the constellation of multiple CubeSats engaged to
execute a particular operation. This is an advanced technology solution that opens up to numerous
possibilities for the futuristic projects. Although the contemporary solutions available restrain the
launch of multiple satellites in one go. Launching multiple satellites with each of them having unique
needs and purpose is difficult.

4.4 Nanosatellite Payloads

4.4.1 Payload Applications
Nanosatellites are being used for various applications. These have been categorized into three major
sections, which include:

• Space Science
• Space Technology
• Space Activity

These application collectively include, earth observation, telecommunication, space environment

study, space debris tracking, navigation systems, meteorological mapping, in space multi-
 disciplinary missions, etc. Figure 10 presents the nanosatellite figures for different applications.
Majority of these missions take place in low-earth orbit.

Cubesat Mission Classification

Telecommunications 498
Space Exploration 22
Space Asset Protection 28
Meteorology 209
Multidisciplinary Research 25
GNSS Applications 35
Future Domains 42
Earth Observation 658
Thermal 6
Space Systems Verification 656
Structure & Mechanisms 16
Space Environment 42
Space Debris 49
Science Intruments 26
RF Payload 325
Optoelectronics 58
Propulsion Technologies 64
Fight Dynamics & GNC 59
Atmospheric Entry 12
Upper Atomsphere 154
Solar & Interplantery Physics 47
Observational Astronomy 25
High energy & Particle Astronomy 22
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
No. of Cubesats

Figure 10: Cubesat Mission Classification

New technologies are being developed to enable middle school and university to access space, such as
ThinSats which are picosatellites with dimensions 11.1 cm x 11.4 cm x 1.25 cm, weighing 250 g and
roughly the size of a bread slice.

4.4.2 State-of-the-Art Cubesat Technologies

The following Table 2 mentions various commercially-off-the shelf payload instruments for various
technological applications. [7]
 Organization / Status and additional
Technology Some applications Description
Instrument information

29 MP detector capable of taking 4 Band imager with Two-Stripe

images with 3.7 m ground resolution NIR filter. Can be a single RGB
Planet Scope PS2
and swath of 24.6 km × 16.4 km from or a split-frame (RGB half and a
475 km altitude NIR half).

1-meter resolution imaging satellite is

First launch now expected in
Hera Systems built on a 12U cubesat, 22-kilogram
2020. Delayed from 2016.
form factor.

6U has 22 m resolution in RGB and

NIR. 16U has 2.5 m resolution in
Astro Digital (Aquila) NA
RGB, red edge, and NIR using 70 MP
Determine asteroid’s shape, sensor and butcher block filter.
Visible and rotational properties, spectral
near-IR class, local dust and debris field, ECAM C-50 imager uses the Aptina
cameras regional morphology and regolith Malin Space Systems MT9P031 sensor certified for deep NA
properties. space. 5 MP (2592 x 1944) CMOS.

20 MP, 15 deg FOV. 10 cm/pix at

Flight on NEA Scout. Based on
~800 m. Asteroid (~5-12 m) detection
JPL IntelliCam Mars 2020 rover EECAM and
from ~50K km. Science and optical
OCO-3.
(autonomous) naviation.

Imager for 12U/16U with up to 1.1 m

SATLANTIS iSIM GSD @ 500 km altitude and 11 km
NA
90 swath width. Dimensions 210 x 250 x
155 mm.

Simera Sense 2U imager for 3/6U with 94 mm

NA
xScape100 aperture.

KaPDA parabolic deployable Ka-band

Microwave NASA KaPDA Ka- antenna with 0.5 m diameter, 1.5U
Precipitation profiling NA
radars band antenna stowed size, 1.2 kg mass and 42.5 dB
gain.

150 GHz radiometer has 2 channels

Boulder (BEST) 150 Consumes less than 1 W of
between the 118 GHz oxygen
and 183 GHz power and its weight is about
absorption line and the 183 GHz water
Radiometers 100 grams.
Greenhouse gases measurement. vapor absorption line.
Radiometers Atmosphere humidity and
temperature profiling. NASA Laser 4U occultation-viewing passive
Heterodyne radiometer that measures methane Will be flying on Mini-Carb in
Radiometer (Mini- (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and 2020.
LHR) water vapor (H2O) in the limb.

1.5U, 2.5 kg, 5 W. Spectral resolution Will fly on Lunar IceCube.

(5 nm) to characterize volatiles (water Compact version of the volatile-
NASA BIRCHES
etc) and minerals (oxides etc). Micro- seeking spectrometer on New
crycooler to keep <140 K. Horizons.

Characterize volatiles and Infrared Range: 1000 nm - 1700 nm.

Infrared minerals. Measure temp and water Spectral resolution: 6 nm. 15 mm
Thoth Argus 1000 First flown in space in 2008.
imagers vapor in atmosphere. Night- aperture, 0.15° FoV. Envelope: 45 ×
imaging, temperature mapping. 50 × 80 mm. Mass < 230 g.

Spatial: 13.5 × 0.32 km. Spectral: 4.8- Will fly on 6U CubeSat also
MWIR Grating
5.1 μm. 625 Channels. HOT-BIRD called CIRAS in 2020.
Spectrometer
detectors comparable to HgCdTe at Cryocooler by Lockheed Martin
(CIRAS)
much reduced cost. is smallest available.
 4 cm aperture, MWIR band only (5.7- Flight in 2020. More affordable
Harris Fourier
8.3 um). Cooled to ~120K using an and efficient 3D wind data sets.
Spectrometer
AVHRR-based passive cooler. Utah State University provides
(CubeSat-FTS)
Hundreds of hyperspectral bands. spacecraft.

Planetary Resources Visible-NIR 40 channel hyperspectral

NA
VNIR imager with 10 m resolution.

Tunable spectral imager operating in

Based on VTT Fabry-Perot
the visible and near-infrared spectra
VTT VISION Interferometer technology and
(430 – 800 nm) for ozone vertical
Material detection, crop Aalto-1 spectral imager.
Hyperspectral profile measurement.
identification, soil moisture, oil
imagers/
spill concentrations, monitoring
spectrometers 90 m ground resolution, 565 km swath,
pollutants, hazardous gases.
400-800 nm range, 300 channels, 15
ESA Mini-TMA NA
nm spectral resolution, 150 g, 60 × 50
× 30 mm.

Snow and Water 4U, 1.9 kg, 350-1700 nm region with

Imaging Spectrometer 5.7 nm sampling, 10 deg FoV, 160 m NA
(SWIS) resolution from 500 km.

1U, 1.1 kg, 11W, 400-1000 nm in 45

Flown on GomX-4B CubeSat in
cosine HyperScout bands, 40 m resolution and 164 km
2018.
swatch from 300 km.

2.5U detector using Cs2YLiCl6:Ce Flight on LunaH-Map to

NASA Mini-NS
Neutron Map hydrogen (and water) (CLYC) scintillator material to detect understand the relationship
(Neutron
spectrometers abundances epithermal neutrons at spatial scales between hydrogen and
Spectrometer)
below 10 km. permanently shadowed regions.

7 × 10 × 2.5 cm, 180 g, 2.5 Watts, Flew on MinXSS 3U CubeSat.

solar SXR spectral measurements in Planned for 6U CubIXSS plus
Amptek X-123SDD
the 0.5-30 keV range (0.04-2.5 nm) X123-CdTe. XR-100SDD flies
with 0.15 keV energy resolution. on OSIRIS-REx.

Chemical composition, pulsar Precise measurement of the cosmic

X-ray
navigation REDLEN M1770 (diffuse) X-ray background in the 20 – NA
50 KeV range.

Wide‐field optical system for X‐ray

Lobster Eye X‐ray monitoring in range 3 ‐ 40 keV, based
NA
telescope on Lobster Eye optics and Timepix
detector

Quadrupole Ion Trap

Mass Leverages foldable edge-
Elemental composition Mass Spectrometer 2.5 kg, 2U, isotopic accuracy <1%.
spectrometer connected electronics.
(QIT-MS)

Miniaturized SrI2 1U, 0.5 kg, 3 W. Europium-doped

Gamma ray
Sub-surface composition Gamma Ray strontium iodide (SrI2) crystal is NA
spectrometer
Spectrometer 15 × 15 × 10 mm.

Table 2: COTS Nanosat Payload Instruments

4.5 Orbital Parameters
The available data for perigee, apogee, and orbital inclination form the database was analyzed. The
median orbital perigee was calculated to be 502.5 km. The following data associated with orbital
parameters have been shown below.

Inclination Nanosatellite
Perigee (km) Apogee (km)
(deg) Active Inactive
360 700 55 10 0
400 398 51.6 76 245
450 448 51.6 14 0
460 459 51.6 17 0
460 890 120.5 12 0
470 470 97 53 0
470 780 64.7 11 0
475 476 51.6 8 0
485 486 97.5 30 0
490 490 97.3 14 0
500 502 40.5 6 24
500 501 51.6 14 0
500 501.5 60.7 12 0
500 500.5 97.4 30 0
500 500 97.5 221 0
500 800 64.8 13 0
505 505 97.5 17 0
510 510 85 20 0
515 515 97.5 31 0
520 520 97.5 12 0
525 525 97.5 121 0
530 530 97.5 92 0
540 540 97.6 12 0
550 550 97.6 28 0
560 560 97.7 16 0
570 570 37 17 0
580 580 97.8 79 0
590 590 97.7 32 0
610 700 98 28 0
620 620 97.8 35 0
650 650 98.2 11 0
750 800 100.2 5 3
Table 3: Orbital Parameters for Nanosatellites
 Nanosat Orbital Perigee
650
610
580
560
540
Nanosat Perigee (km)

525
515
505
500
500
500
485
470
460
450
360
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
No. of Nanosats
Active Inactive

Figure 11: Orbital Perigee Data of Nanosats

Orbital Inclinations of Active Nanosatellites

240
220
No. of Nanosatellites

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
360 x 700 km, 55°

610 x 700 km, 98°

400 km, 51.6°

500 km, 97.4°

650 km, 98.2°

450 km, 51.6°
460 km, 51.6°

475 km, 51.6°

485 km, 97.5°
490 km, 97.3°
500 km, 40.5°
500 km, 51.6°
500 km, 60.7°

500 km, 97.5°

505 km, 97.5°

515 km, 97.5°

520 km, 97.5°
525 km, 97.5°
530 km, 97.5°
540 km, 97.6°
550 km, 97.6°
560 km, 97.7°

580 km, 97.8°

590 km, 97.7°

620 km, 97.8°

460 x 890 km, 120.5°

750 x 800 km, 100.2°

470 km, 97°
470 x 780 km, 64.7°

500 x 800 km, 64.8°

510 km, 85°

570 km, 37°

Figure 12: Orbital Inclination of Active Nanosats

Analyzing the available data, it was inferred that 99.99% of nanosats were in the low-earth orbit
which is defined to be the altitude range of 350 km to 1000 km, median perigee being 502.5 km. The
orbital inclinations spread across a wide range, most of them being close to multiples of 15, i.e., 15°,
30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 90°, 120° and the common polar sun-synchronous 98° inclination.
5. ORBITAL SIMULATIONS FOR LEO
To visualize the orbit view, ground plot and altitude degradation, simulations were run on NASA’s
General Mission Analysis Tool. [3] Multiple iterations were done to simulate the orbit at different
inclinations around Earth.

Considering the median altitude of nanosatellites in orbit, the semi-major axis was taken 6890 km
such that the altitude of the satellite would be close to 502.5 km. The eccentricity of the orbit was
taken to be 0.001, which is considered to a stable value for low-earth orbits.

The solver was assigned to perform the analysis considering the Earth as the central body, Moon and
Sun to be point masses. The analysis was performed to simulate the actual condition with atmospheric
drag, perturbations and relativistic corrections. The orbital degradation is considering the no
propulsion system to correct the altitude.

The analysis was run for 4 weeks, with Epoch to be January 1, 2023 00:00:00.000.

The following data retrieved has been presented below in Table 4:

• Orbit View
• Ground Track Plot
• Altitude v Elapsed Days

Parameters for Analysis:

• Epoch: January 1, 2023 00:00:00.000.
• SMA: 6890 km
• Eccentricity: 0.001
• Inclination: Variable
• Elapsed Days: 28

CASE Ground Plot Orbit View Altitude v Elapsed Days

Non-
Inclined
Equatorial
Orbit
Inclination:
0°

Inclination:
15°
 Non-
Inclined
Ecliptic
Orbit
Inclination:
23.5°

Inclination:
30°

Inclination:
45°

Inclination:
60°

Inclination:
75°

Polar Orbit
Inclination:
90°

Polar Sun-
Synchronous
Orbit
Inclination:
98°

Inclination:
120°

Table 4: Orbital Analysis Results

6. CONCLUSION

Change in Perigee over 28 Days

1.2

1
Change in Perigee

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 15 23.5 30 45 60 75 90 98 120
Orbital Inclinations

ΔA

Figure 13: Change in Perigee over 28 days

This data helps to visualize the area covered on ground while the satellite is in orbit around Earth.
This would let preliminary mission planning with understanding of orbital inclinations and altitude
degradation. The commercial analysis of CubeSats in low-earth orbit provides the details over satellite
buses, types of nanosats, applications, launch history and forecast.

It is certain that the small-satellite will see an exponential growth in the coming time.
REFERENCES

[1] "Virginia Cubesat Constellation," Virginia Space Grant Consortium, [Online]. Available:
https://vsgc.odu.edu/virginiacubesatconstellation/.

[2] "Nanosats Database - Figures," Nanosats Database, 4 April 2021. [Online]. Available:
https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures.

[3] "NASA Technology Transfer Program," NASA, 2018. [Online]. Available:

https://software.nasa.gov/software/GSC-18094-1.

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