Combined Science Notes Biology

IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Biology 1 - Characteristics of Living Organisms
The Seven Characteristics of Living Organisms
You need to know the 7 life processes listed below:

- Use the mnemonic MRS GREN or MRS NERG to help you remember the 7 processes:
- Many of the characteristics are dealt with more detail in later units so just try to remember the definitions and
the actual 7 processes.
Movement : action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.

- It can be from something as obvious as animals moving their limbs, but it can even be something like
plants moving according to light (phototropism).
Respiration : chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy
- Living organisms need energy to carry out all the essential functions, so respiration for energy is vital.
- More detail in Unit B6.
Sensitivity : ability to detect or sense changes in the environment (stimuli) and to make responses
- Again, in animals it is simple as sight, touch, and so on, but in plants it can be geotropism etc.
Growth - permanent increase in size and dry mass by an increase in cell number or cell size or both
- Animals growing in size, and plants growing in size, are all growth.
Reproduction : reproduction as the processes that make more of the same kind of organism
- There are different methods, like sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
Excretion : removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism (chemical
reactions in cells including respiration) and substances in excess of requirements
- Animals remove waste in various ways like exhaling, and also through urine and faeces. Plants also
remove waste by transpiration and diffusion.
Nutrition : taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw
materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them
- Simply eating for animals, and in plants it is absorbing nutrients from the soil and the environment
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- List and describe the characteristics of living organisms.

- Define the terms:
- Movement
- Respiration
- Sensitivity
- Nutrition
- Excretion
- Reproduction
- Growth
Biology 2.1 - Cell Structure
Cell
You need to know that a cell is the basic structural and functional unit from which all biological organisms are
made.
You also need to know how to calculate the magnification and the size of specimens.
Use this formula to find whatever you need: And don’t forget to keep all the units
the same, usually in millimetres.
But even if its not in millimetres

(maybe in micrometers, μm),
as long as the units are all the same,
it doesn’t matter - you can convert:
(1mm = 1000μm)
The Animal Cell
You need to know how to draw, identify, and explain the functions of the different parts of a typical animal cell.
(Human liver cell)
Cell membrane - envelops the cell contents and controls what enters and leaves the cell.
- This property of only some molecules being allowed through is called “selectively or partially
permeable”
Nucleus - contains DNA genes which codes for proteins which control all activities of the cell (control centre)
Cytoplasm - liquidy part of the cell which fills the volume of the cell. Site of cellular chemical reactions.
Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) - cell organelle for carrying out aerobic respiration.
Vacuole - Animal cell vacuoles are temporary unlike the permanent plant sap vacuoles.
The Plant Cell
You need to know how to draw, identify, and explain the functions of the different parts of a typical plant cell.
(Palisade cell)
Four of the cell organelles (in black) are exactly same an animal cell, but there are three more in a plant cell.
Cell membrane - controls what enters and leaves the cell. This property is called “selectively permeable”
Nucleus - contains DNA which codes for proteins which control all activities of the cell (control centre)
Cytoplasm - liquidy part of the cell which fill the volume of the cell. Site of cellular chemical reactions.
Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) - cell organelle for carrying out aerobic respiration.
Cell Wall - supports the cell and strengthens it. Allows the cell to be turgid (full of water and expanded) without
bursting. Made from cellulose.
Sap Vacuole - contains the cell sap, storing water and sugars.
Chloroplast - cell organelle for carrying out photosynthesis.
Comparison of the Two Types of Cells
You need to know the differences between animal cells and plant cells and be able to compare them.
Animal Cell Plant Cell Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cell Membrane Yes Yes Temp. Vacuole Yes Yes
Nucleus Yes Yes Sap Vacuole No Yes
Cytoplasm Yes Yes Chloroplast No Yes
Mitochondrion Yes Yes Respiration Yes Yes
Cell Wall No Yes Photosynthesis No Yes

Specialised Cells
You need to know that cells can be specialised to their functions to maximise efficiency.
You need to know two specialised cells in particular, the root hair cell and the red blood cell.
Root Hair Cell
The main purpose of root hair cell is to maximise efficiency of water and nutrient absorption.
There are three main specialised characteristics to accomplish this.
- Root hair cells have an extended “hair” area to maximise surface area for absorption of water and ions
- Root hairs cells’ sap vacuoles are very high in solute concentration. ( This property is revisited in Unit
B2.2)
- This is to make the water potential gradient down into the cell.
- The soil’s water potential is higher than the cell, so water will enter the cell through osmosis.
- Root hair cells don’t have chloroplasts (but they have all the other organelles that a plant cell does)
- Because they are underground: they are not going to get the light anyways so it is inefficient and a
waste of material to make chloroplasts.
Red Blood Cell
The main purpose of red blood cell is to transport oxygen, and also to increase oxygen carrying capacity.
There are three main specialised characteristics to accomplish this
- Red blood cells don’t have nuclei.

- To make more space in the cell to fit more haemoglobins (molecules that actually hold oxygen)
- This increases the maximum oxygen carrying capacity for each cell
- Red blood cells have a biconcave shape (a disc shape with thinner centre section)
- This maximises surface area for oxygen diffusion leading to faster loading and unloading of oxygen.
- Red blood cells are very small and flexible

- allowing them to squeeze through capillaries and be as close as possible to the cells that need
oxygen.
- State that living organisms are made of cells.

- Calculate magnification and size of biological specimens using millimetres as units.
- Identify and describe the structure of a plant cell (palisade cell) and an animal cell (liver cell), as seen under
a light microscope.
- Relate the structures seen under the light microscope in the plant cell and in the animal cell to their functions.
- Describe the differences in structure between typical animal and plant cells.
- Relate the structure of the following to their functions:
- root hair cells – absorption.
- red blood cells – transport
Biology 2.2 - Movement In and Out of Cells
Diffusion
You need to know that diffusion is: the net movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a
region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their random movement.
Particles are said to diffuse down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
Diffusion is how molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide can move between the alveoli and the blood (Unit B6)
And also how molecules of digested nutrients move from the intestines into the blood (Unit B4)
Diffusion in gases is quicker than in liquids because the molecules are more free to move around, there are more
space between the molecules and are moving much faster.
Osmosis
You need to know that osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane
(semi-permeable membrane) from a region of high water potential to low water potential.
A partially permeable membrane allows small molecules like water to pass through, but not large dissolved
solutes.
Water potential is a property of a solution that describes how free the water molecules are. If there are a lot of
solutes dissolved, the water potential is low. If the solution is very dilute, the water potential is high. (Think of it as
concentration of water in the solution). Pure water has the highest possible water potential (zero)
You need to know how to describe and compare solutions in terms of water potential using the terms,
These terms are all used to compare solutions to one another.
- Hypertonic: More solute concentration (low water potential)
- Isotonic: Equal solute concentration
- Hypotonic: Less solute concentration (high water potential)
So through osmosis, water will move from a hypotonic solution to hypertonic solution.
Effects of Osmosis
You need to know how osmosis can affect a cell, both animal and plant, when they are places in different solutions.
Animal Cell
The animal cell membrane is a partially permeable membrane, so it will allow osmosis of water.
You need to know that if an animal cell is placed in a:
- Hypotonic solution : water will move into the cell, because the water potential higher outside the cell.
- The cell will burst (lysis) - because animal cells do not have a strong outer support.
- This is why cells have to store solutes like glucose as non-dissolvable glycogen, because if
there was a lot of dissolved glucose in the cell, the cells would burst.
- Isotonic solution : water potential in and out of the cell is equal (at equilibrium), no net osmosis.
- Nothing would happen. This is the ideal environment for cells.
- Hypertonic solution : water will move out of the cell, b ecause the water potential is higher in the cell.
- The cell will shrivel up, because it is losing water to the environment.
Plant Cell
In addition to the cell membrane, plant cells have a cell wall, which is fully permeable to water. The direction of
osmosis is the same as an animal cell, but the extra support from the cell wall gives a plant cell different results.
You need to know that if a plant cell is placed in a:
- Hypotonic solution : water will move into the cell, because the water potential higher outside the cell.
- The cell will go turgid - the cell wall prevents bursting. Turgid cells are strong and supportive.
- Plant cells try to be in hypotonic environments by making the sap vacuole very hypertonic.
- Isotonic solution :the water potential in and out of the cell is in equilibrium so there is no net osmosis.
- In a plant cell, this is called flaccid, the cells are slightly soft because it is not full of water.
- Hypertonic solution : water will move out of the cell, b ecause the water potential is higher in the cell.
- The cell becomes plasmolysed, meaning the cell membrane shrivels and detaches from the cell
wall.
Benefits of Osmosis
You need to know be able to describe and explain how plants cells use osmosis to their advantage.
As mentioned above, plant cells like to be in hypotonic environments so they can be turgid.
Turgid cells are useful in stems and leaves so that they can be strong enough to support the plant.
Osmosis is more important in the uptake of water in root hair cells.
You need to know that as mentioned in Unit B2.1, the root hair cell stores a lot of solutes in the sap vacuole,
making the sap vacuole very hypertonic to the soil water. The soil water, with very high water potential, will be forced
into the cell. This is a method by which the root hair cells maximise water uptake.
- Define diffusion
- Describe the importance of diffusion of gases and solutes and of water as a solvent.
- Define osmosis
- Describe the importance of osmosis in the uptake of water by plants, and its effects on plant and animal
cells.
- Describe and explain the importance of a water potential gradient in the uptake of water by plants.
Biology 3 - Enzymes
Enzymes
You need to know that an enzyme is: a protein that functions as a biological catalyst.
- protein which is made from the genes from the DNA of the nucleus.
- biological because it is made and found in living cells.
- catalyst because it increases the rate of chemical reactions without being used up. (chemically unchanged)
You need to know how an enzyme works.
- The lock and key theory suggests one way of enzyme actions.
- Active site is the part of the enzyme that holds to the substrate.
- Substrate is the substance the enzyme will work on.
- Enzymes have a specific and unique 3D shape, and so the active site of each enzyme will be different.
- And each active site will be complementary to a specific substrate.
- (only one enzyme works on one substrate)
- This is called substrate specificity.
- It is called lock and key,

- because only one key will open one lock, just as only one enzyme will work on one substrate.
Effects of the Environment on Enzyme Action
You need to know that an enzyme can be denatured by the environment (high temperatures or extreme pH)
- Denaturation is when the enzyme’s shape is changed and the active site no longer is specific.
- The enzyme can no longer catalyse the reaction.
You need to know how to describe and explain the effect of temperature on enzyme action.
- From chemistry, increased temperature means increased rate of reaction. With enzymes, this is also true
until the optimum temperature of the enzyme is reached.
- The optimum temperature is the enzyme’s ‘favoured’ temperature where its workrate is at
maximum.
- Different enzymes have different optimum temperatures.
- Human enzymes are usually at 37ºC, which is the body temperature.
- Which makes sense for it to work fastest at normal body temperatures.
- Some enzymes, like bacterial enzymes which live in hotsprings, can have their
optimum temperatures at 90ºC.
- Past the optimum temperature, the enzyme is denatured and the rate decreases.
- It is denatured by the destruction of the bonds that hold the protein structure.
You need to know how to describe and explain the effect of pH on enzyme action.
- pH also affects and denatures enzymes.
- Like optimum temperatures, enzymes also have an optimum pH

- Optimum pH is the the enzyme’s preferred pH to work in, giving its maximum rate of activity.
- Different enzymes have different optimum pHs, depending on their site of action
- Pepsin, an enzyme which works in the stomach has a very low optimum pH, because it needs to work
in the acidic stomach environment.
- Amylase, an enzyme which works in the saliva of the mouth has a fairly neutral optimum pH, because
the pH of the mouth is fairly neutral.
- Change in pH on either side of the optimum temperature (decrease OR increase) will denature the enzyme.
- The extreme pHs also destroy the bonds that hold the protein structure.
Different Enzymes
You should know the different types of enzymes and some major enzymes, and their functions.
- Enzymes control a lot of vital processes in an organism, like

- Respiration, photosynthesis, digestion, protein synthesis, etc.
Types of enzymes
Many enzymes names end is -ase, and you can often know what substrate they work on by the name
- Protease works on proteins (e.g. pepsin)

- Carbohydrase works on carbohydrates (e.g. amylase)
- Lipase works on lipids (fats)
- Maltase works on maltose molecules

- Define enzymes
- Investigate and describe the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme activity
- Explain the effect of changes in temperature and pH on enzyme activity.
Biology 4.1 - Nutrients
The Food Groups
You need to know the definition of nutrition:

- taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral ions, containing raw materials or
energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and assimilating them.
You need to know the seven food groups, their importance to an organism and their sources,
Food Group Use and importance Source
Starch Slow release of energy Pasta, rice, bread, potatoes

Carbohydrates:
Sugar Quick release of energy Candy, fruits, soft drink, Haribos ʕ•͡ •ʔ
Growth
Protein Repair Meat, fish, tofu, nuts, eggs
Can be used for energy
Store of energy
Fat Heat insulation Butter, cream, cheese, oil,
Organ protection (shock absorber) Avocado, meat, fish
Build cell membranes
Strong blood vessels and skin Citrus fruits, average fruits

Vitamin C (Deficiency disease : Scurvy)
Vitamins:
Allows calcium to be used Egg yolk, oily fish (salmon), sunlight
Vitamin D (Deficiency disease : Rickets)
Calcium Make bones and teeth Dark green vegetables, milk, bones
Minerals:
Iron Haemoglobin production Red meat, liver, egg yolk, dark green veg.
Bulk up faeces
Fibre Prevent constipation Oats, bran, pulses, vegetables, fruits
Prevent bowel cancer
Hydration
Water Chemical reactions Water, fruits
Body fluids
Deficiency Diseases
You need to know the deficiency symptoms for vitamin C, vitamin D, calcium, and iron.
Vitamin C Deficiency:
- Vitamin C strengthens the blood vessels and skin, so vitamin C deficiency will cause:
- Overall body weakness
- Swollen gums in mouth
- Nosebleeds
- And in extreme cases, it will cause a disease called scurvy.
- Scurvy causes gum and bone pain, and can lead to teeth falling out of gum.
Vitamin D Deficiency:
- Vitamin D allows the use of calcium, which strengthens bones and teeth, so vitamin D deficiency will cause:
- Weakening of bones and teeth
- And in extreme cases, it will cause a disease called rickets.
- Rickets is a disease caused by weakening of the bones, and the body and legs gets bent because of
the weight of the body is too much for the weak bones.
Calcium Deficiency:
- Calcium strengthens bones and teeth, so calcium deficiency will cause:

- Weakening of bones and teeth
- Rickets (like vitamin D)
- In extreme cases, it can cause a disease called osteomalacia or osteoporosis
- Osteomalacia is the softening of the bone.
- Osteoporosis is the fracture of the bone due to softening of the bone.
Iron Deficiency:
- Iron is used to make haemoglobin, which carries oxygen for respiration, so iron deficiency will cause:
- Less haemoglobin production leading to:
- Less oxygen available for energy production
- This means the body is short of energy so the body will be very tired
- In extreme cases, it can cause anaemia, which is extreme fatigue caused by low iron levels.
- Girls and women are more susceptible to anaemia due to the loss of blood during the menstrual
cycle.
Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms Extreme Symptoms
Vitamin C Swollen gums, frequent nose bleeds Scurvy
Vitamin D Weakening of bones and teeth Rickets
Calcium Weakening of bones and teeth Osteoporosis and rickets
Iron Tiredness (fatigue) Anaemia

Structures of Large Food Molecules
You need to know how to describe the structures of the large food molecules: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
These large molecules are large structures made from smaller basic units, and can be digested back by enzymes.
Food Molecule Elements Basic Units Structure Digestive Enzyme
Sugar Carbohydrase:
Starch C, H, O
(chain of sugars) (Amylase)
Carbohydrate
Sugar
Glycogen C, H, O Carbohydrase
(complex branched sugar)
Amino acids
Protein Protease:
C, H, O, N (chain of many different
amino acids) (Pepsin)
Glycerol and fatty acids

Fat C, H, O Lipase
(three fatty acids joined to
one glycerol molecule)
Food Tests
You need to know how to test for the presence of four food groups (starch, reducing sugar, protein, and fat).
Polysaccharide Test (Iodine Solution Test)
- Polysaccharides (“poly” meaning many, and “saccharide” meaning sugar), are large molecules made from
small sugar units. They include:
- Starch, glycogen, and cellulose
- To test for starch, we do the ‘iodine solution test’, iodine solution is an orange solution.
1. Put a small amount of food sample on a Petri dish (or preferably a white background)
2. Place a few drops of iodine solution on the food sample
3. Observe and record the result
- Positive result : colour changes from r ed/orange to blue/black. Starch is present
- Negative result : colour s tays red/orange. Starch is not present
Reducing Sugars Test (Benedict’s Test)
- Reducing sugars are smaller types of sugars, including most monosaccharides (single sugar units) and
disaccharides (two joined sugar units like:
- Reducing monosaccharides : Glucose, fructose…
- Reducing disaccharides : Lactose, maltose..
- However sucrose IS NOT a reducing sugar
- sing Benedict’s solution, which is light blue.

To test for reducing sugars, we do the ‘Benedict’s Test’, u
1. Put a small amount of sample in the test tube

2. Add Benedict’s solution to the test tube until a nice blue colour
3. Heat the test tube in a beaker of hot water for 10 minutes
- Positive result : colour change from light blue to each of the colours according to the
amount of reducing sugars present in the sample.
- Green - Low conc. of reducing sugars
- Yellow
- Orange
- Brick Red - High conc. of reducing sugars
- Negative result : if there is no colour change or the change is none of the above colours,
there are no reducing sugars present.
Protein Test (Biuret’s Test)
- To test for proteins, we do the ‘Biuret’s Test’, using Biuret’s reagent, which is light blue.
1. Place a small amount of sample in a test tube

2. Add some water
3. Put several drops of Biuret’s reagent into the test tube
- Positive result : colour change from light blue to violet/purple. Protein is present.
- Negative result : no colour change. Protein is not present.
Lipid Test (Emulsion Test)
- Lipids are the group that includes fats and oils.
- To test for lipids, we do the “emulsion test” (emulsions are small droplets that are insoluble in water).
1. If solid, place a small sample in a mortar.

a. Add a small amount of ethanol and grind it with pestle.
b. Filter the mixture to collect the filtrate in a test tube.
2. If liquid, add the sample into a test tube.
3. Add some ethanol to the test tube containing the sample (or filtrate)
4. Add some water to the same test tube.
5. Cover the top of the tube and shake vigorously
6. Watch to see if the liquid becomes ‘cloudy’.
7. Wait to see if the ‘cloudiness’ settles. If it does not settle, it is an emulsion.
- Positive result : There is an emulsion. Lipid is present.
- Negative result : There is no emulsion. Lipid is not present.
You need to know that if a sample is to be tested for multiple food groups, every test should be done with a new
sample. For example, don’t conduct the Benedict’s test on the solution you just tested with Biuret. Get a new
solution.
Manufacture of Yoghurt
You need to know (don’t ask why) the use of microorganisms in the manufacture of yoghurt from milk.
1. Milk is first pasteurised to kill all other bacteria originally in the milk.
2. Milk is cooled to 40°C and then the Lactobacillus culture is added.
3. The lactobacillus anaerobically respires using the lactose as the substrate, producing lactic acid.
4. This lactic acid lowers the pH of the milk, denaturing the proteins to coagulate (stick together)
5. The yoghurt is now cooled and other ingredients may be added.
- Define nutrition
- List the principal sources of, and describe the importance of:
- Carbohydrates
- Fats
- Proteins
- vitamins (C and D only)
- mineral salts (calcium and iron only)
- fibre (roughage)
- Water.
- Describe the deficiency symptoms for:
- vitamins (C and D only)
- mineral salts (calcium and iron only).
- Describe the structure of large molecules made from smaller basic units, i.e.
- simple sugars to starch and glycogen
- amino acids to proteins
- fatty acids and glycerol to fats and oils.
- List the chemical elements that make up:
- Carbohydrates
- Fats
- Proteins.
- Describe tests for:
- starch (iodine solution)
- reducing sugars (Benedict’s solution)
- protein (biuret test)
- fats (ethanol).
- Describe the use of microorganisms in the manufacture of yoghurt.
Biology 4.2 - Plant Nutrition
Photosynthesis
You need to know the definition of photosynthesis as: the fundamental process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.
Photosynthesis is the reaction that happens in chlorophylls in plant cells

- Chlorophylls trap light energy and convert it into chemical energy
- The chemical energy is stored by the formation of carbohydrates.
You need to know how to write the word equation and the chemical symbolic equation for the photosynthesis.
Carbon Dioxide + Water ==light and chlorophyll=> Glucose + Oxygen
6 CO2 + 6 H2O ==light and chlorophyll=> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
(You may notice that photosynthesis is the reverse reaction of respiration : C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O)
You need to know how the plant gets the carbon dioxide and water required for photosynthesis
- The carbon dioxide comes from simple diffusion of carbon dioxide in the air spaces in the leaves.
- The water comes from the root then the water is transported to the photosynthesising cell (Unit B5.1)
The Leaf
You need to know the structure of a leaf, and each of the parts’ functions and specialisations.
- Waxy Cuticle
- A waxy waterproof layer that covers the outer surface of the epidermis and the leaf.
- Cuts down water loss by evaporation at the leaf surface
- Epidermis (Upper and Lower)

- Single layer of cells that contain no chloroplasts, so light can pass through to lower layers.
- Acts as a protective outer layer.
- Palisade Layer
- The upper layer of the leaf (excluding epidermis)
- Palisade cells have a lot of chloroplasts so that most of photosynthesis can occur at the closest part
to the light source.
- Palisade cells are arranged vertically so the more chlorophylls have more chance of absorbing light
as light passes through.
- Spongy Mesophyll
- More round-shaped cells with lots of airspaces between them. Can still photosynthesise.
- The airspaces are what allows plant to carry out gas exchange (Unit 5.1)
- Vascular Bundle
- The bundle of tubes that are responsible for transport around plants, includes:
- Xylem: Vessel that transports water and mineral salts.
- Xylem walls are tough and hard, so they are also used to support the whole leaf.
- Phloem: Vessel that transports dissolved foods and nutrients (glucose etc.)
- Stoma (pl. stomata)

- Tiny holes in the lower epidermis that allows gases to diffuses in and out of the mesophyll layer
- Also responsible, along with the mesophyll layer, for plant gas exchange
- Guard Cells
- Cells that control the opening and closing of the stomata.
- Are light sensitive
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
You need to know that the rate of photosynthesis is affected by factors like: light intensity and carbon dioxide
levels.
Before investigating the effect of light intensity and carbon dioxide levels, it should be noted that:
- Photosynthesis cannot occur without any of: carbon dioxide, water, light, and chlorophyll.
- If any one of these four are not available, photosynthesis does not occur.
- So, cells that do not have chlorophylls, like root hair cells, cannot photosynthesise.
- Or if all chloroplasts were removed from a plant cell, it will not be able to photosynthesise.
Effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis
- As light energy is crucial for photosynthesis,

- it is logical that as light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases.
- This result can be investigated with the following experiment:
- As oxygen is a product of photosynthesis, the rate of bubble production can be used as a measurement to
find the rate of photosynthesis (more bubbles per time means faster rate of photosynthesis)
- The light source can be moved to adjust the light intensity to the plant.
- If this experiment is done and the results were graphed, it would give a similar graph to above.
Effect of carbon dioxide levels on rate of photosynthesis
- As carbon dioxide is one of the reactants of photosynthesis,

- The concentration of carbon dioxide directly affects the rate of photosynthesis.
- If the concentration of carbon dioxide is low, there is not enough carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide becomes
the limiting factor of the reaction.
- And as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, the rate of the reaction (photosynthesis) increases as
there are more carbon dioxide molecules to react.
- However, after a certain point, the graph levels out

- This is because another factor, (light, water level) has become the limiting factor, and the increase in
carbon dioxide concentration will not affect the rate of photosynthesis anymore.
Effect of temperature on rate of photosynthesis
- Like any reaction, you can expect the increase in temperature to increase the rate of photosynthesis.
- However, since there are enzymes that catalyse photosynthesis, as the temperature reaches a critical value,
the rate decreases.
- Because the enzymes are denatured and no longer catalyse photosynthesis.
Plant Nutrition
You need to know the importance and the deficiency effects of two main nutrients, nitrate and magnesium ions.
- Nitrate ions (NO3-)
- Nitrate ions are used to synthesise proteins, and proteins are essential for a plant to make enzymes and etc.
- Nitrate ions provide the essential nitrogen in the protein chain.
- Nitrate ions are dissolved in water and are absorbed from the soil by the roots.
- Nitrate deficiency will cause the plant to suffer from slow growth and abnormal growth.
- Magnesium ions (Mg2+)
- Magnesium ions are used to make chlorophyll, and chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis.
- Chlorophyll molecules contain magnesium, so without magnesium, they cannot be made.
- Magnesium ions are also dissolved in water and are absorbed from the soil by the roots.
- Magnesium deficiency will cause the plant to turn yellow, due to the lack of green chlorophylls.
Fertilisers
You need to know the use of fertilisers and the dangers of using them.
- Fertilisers are used to prevent nutrient deficiency and also to boost and aid plant growth.
- Most fertilisers contain multiple elements for supplement
- like NPK fertilisers which contain, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
- utrophication.
However nitrogen-containing fertilisers can be dangerous when overused - causing e
- Eutrophication is when the excess fertilisers get washed off and flow into bodies of water.
- Causing a chain of events leading to the death of the body of water.
Eutrophication
1. Input of nitrates and phosphates into the water (mostly excess fertilisers)
2. Because of the boosted nutrients, there is massive growth of algae at the surface (Algal blooms)
3. This massive growth of algae creates a layer of algae, which block sunlight from reaching inside.
4. Plants below the surface receive less light, cannot synthesise, therefore die.
5. Decomposer bacteria break down the dead plant matter,
- Removes oxygen from the water (they respire)
6. Now the oxygen level in the water is low, the fish will start to die,
- Leading to more decomposing
- Leading to more lowering of water-oxygen level.
- This cycle continues, ultimately leaving a dead body of water.
- Define photosynthesis
- Explain the function of chlorophyll
- State the word equation for the production of simple sugars and oxygen.
- State the balanced equation for photosynthesis in symbols.
- Investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, using appropriate
controls.
- Describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water by plants.
- Identify and label the cuticle, cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross-section
under the light microscope and describe the significance of the features of a leaf in terms of functions, to
include:
- distribution of chloroplasts – Photosynthesis
- stomata, palisade and mesophyll cells – gas exchange
- vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) – transport and support.
- Describe the importance of:
- nitrate ions for protein synthesis
- magnesium ions for chlorophyll synthesis.
- Investigate and state the effect of varying light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis (e.g. in submerged
aquatic plants).
- Explain the effects of nitrate ion and magnesium ion deficiency on plant growth.
- Describe the uses, and the dangers of overuse, of nitrogen-containing fertilisers.
Biology 4.3 - Animal Nutrition
Balanced Diet
You need to know the what balanced diet and malnutrition is
- Balanced Diet : A diet that consists of the proper amount, proper proportions, and proper types of food to
maintain good health or for growth and meet energy requirements of the individual.
- Balanced diet will differ for each individual, depending on age, sex, and even lifestyle.
- Males might need more carbohydrates and proteins due to their generally higher muscle mass,
- Females might need more iron during their menstruation periods.
- Pregnant women might need much more of all nutrients to supply enough for the growing baby.
- An athlete will need more energy nutrients than an office worker.
- A young teenage boy will need more energy nutrients than a senior citizen.
- Malnutrition : Lack of proper nutrition, (too low or too much), caused by not having enough to eat, not eating
enough of the right things, or being unable to use the food that one does eat.
- Protein-energy malnutrition - very typical
- Lack of glucose and proteins in food

- Lethal because energy is vital for life
- Kwashiorkor
- Enlarged liver, thinning hair, distended(swollen) abdomen
- Marasmus
- Emaciation (weight loss), over 60%
- Micronutrient deficiency - “Hidden hunger”
- Iron - tiredness and lethargy

- Vitamin A - Weakened immune systems
- Iodine - Swelling of thyroid gland & damage to brain
- Zinc - Growth and immunity failure
- Overnutrition - Obesity (metabolic)
- Consuming too many calories compared to used energy

- Cardiovascular disease & diabetes
- Overnutrition - ”Vitamins + Micronutrients”
- Vitamin overdose (poisoning) - can lead to toxic symptoms

.
The Digestive System
You need to know the different regions and their functions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs.
- Mouth : the site of where the food enters the body (ingestion) , and also the first site of digestion of food.
- Teeth allow mechanical digestion, and the saliva allows enzymatic chemical digestion.
- Salivary glands : produces saliva containing amylase for carbohydrate digestion.

- The saliva is secreted into the mouth for the chemical digestion. Saliva also help lubricate the food.
- Oesophagus : The “food pipe”, made of muscular walls, connects the mouth and the stomach.
- The muscles contract to push the food into the stomach, this action is peristalsis.
- When vomiting, the muscles move the other way, this action is called anti-peristalsis.
- The cluster of food in the oesophagus is called a bolus.
- Stomach : The muscular organ of both mechanical and chemical digestion.
- The stomach produces gastric juice, which contains proteases and hydrochloric acid.
- They hydrochloric acid kills most pathogens and the protease starts protein digestion.
- The low pH is also the optimum pH of the protease, pepsin.
- The muscular walls also churn the food to digest mechanically.
- The chyme (the digest food + gastric juice) is passed into the small intestine
- Pancreas : The organ producing pancreatic juice and other hormones.

- Pancreatic juice contains hydrolytic enzymes : carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases.
- Pancreatic juice is secreted into the small intestine.
- The pancreas also produces hormones controlling blood sugar levels (glucagon and insulin)
- Liver : The organ that produces bile, also responsible for removing glucose from the blood for storage.
- Bile is a liquid produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder (connected by bile duct)
- Bile is secreted into the small intestine.
- Contains basic chemicals to neutralise the acidity of the chyme (from the HCl)
- So that the pancreatic enzymes can work without denaturing.
- And to stop the acidity from attacking the intestine walls.
- Bile also acts an emulsifier (allows fat molecules to form droplet suspensions in water)
- This increases the surface area for the lipase to work.
- Liver is also responsible for removing free glucose from the blood and storing them as glycogen
- When the blood glucose levels are high, the pancreas produces a hormone called insulin
which signals the liver to take out glucose and store them as insoluble glycogen.
- When the blood glucose levels are low, the pancreas produces a hormone called glucagon
which signals the liver to convert the stored glycogen back into glucose.
- Small Intestine : The long organ composed of two parts: duodenum and ileum.
- The surface is covered with villi - a microscopic structures used to increase absorption surface area.
- Bile and pancreatic juice is secreted into the duodenum, the first part.
- Meaning that duodenum contains all three main hydrolytic enzymes.
- Ileum is the longer and the latter section of the small intestine.
- Most of the nutrient absorption occurs here
- Large Intestine : The final organ of the digestive system. The large intestine is comprised of the:
- Colon: which absorbs excess water.
- Rectum: which stores the fecal material before egestion
- Anus : site of egestion (removal of undigested food as faeces).
You need to know the definitions of the words:
- Ingestion : taking substances into the body through the mouth
- Egestion : passing out of food that has not been digests as faeces through the anus
- Digestion : The breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into smaller water soluble molecules by
mechanical and chemical means.
- Assimilation : When digested food molecules (glucose, amino acid, etc.) are actually used by the body or
becomes a part of the body (eg. glucose being used for respiration, or amino acids being built into muscle)
Absorption of Nutrients
You need to know that large molecules are digested so they can be absorbed through the small intestine walls
.
- Absorption : The movement of digested food molecules from inside the small intestine through the wall of
the small intestine and into the blood system.
You also need to know how the small intestine is designed for absorption
- They have very good blood supply

- They have very thin linings
- They have structures called villi: Y
ou need to know their significance and the structure.
A single villus is microscopic, and the villi cover the inner surface of the small intestine with uncountable numbers.
This greatly increases the surface area compares to a flat surface and hugely increases absorption efficiency.
An individual villus’ structure also has some characteristics useful to absorption.
- They have have thin, one cell thick walls, so it is easy for nutrients to diffuse through.
- There are blood capillaries near the surface to connect to the main circulatory system
- The blood carries the dissolved glucose and amino acids
- There are lacteals near the surface to connect to the lymph system
- The lymph fluid carries glycerols and fatty acids
The Teeth
You need to know structure of the teeth.
The teeth is divided into two main parts, the crown (the upper part) and the root (the part that is below the surface)
- Enamel
- Protective cover of the tooth and is the hardest substance in the body (calcium carbonate)
- Dentine
- The region below the enamel that is the main bulk of the tooth
- Pulp Cavity
- Soft tissue that fills the volume where the blood vessels and the nerves are situated.
- Gum
- Fleshy tissue that covers the bone and holds the tooth.
- Cementum
- The part between the gum and the root dentine.
- Nerve
- Nerve cells that allow the tooth to have response
- Blood vessel
- Provides nutrients for the inner sections of the tooth.
You also need to know how teeth decay.
Tooth decay is when the tooth structures (like enamel, dentine, and the cementum) are damaged.
- Some left over sugars are stuck in the teeth.

- There are also some bacteria on the surfaces of the teeth that form plaque.
- Plaque is the film of bacteria and saliva on the surface of the teeth.
- The bacteria digest the sugar and respire, excreting plaque acid.
- The acid attacks the enamel, and consequently the inner parts of the teeth.
- The deeper it goes into the teeth (especially near the nerves), the more it hurts.
- State what is meant by the term balanced diet and describe a balanced diet related to the age, sex and
activity of an individual.
- Describe the effects of malnutrition in relation to starvation, coronary heart disease, constipation and obesity.
- Define ingestion
- Define egestion
- Identify and describe the functions of the main regions of the alimentary canal and associated organs
- Describe the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose (glucose ⇌ glycogen).
- Outline the role of bile in emulsifying fats, to increase the surface area for the action of enzymes.
- Define digestion
- State where, in the alimentary canal, amylase, protease and lipase enzymes are secreted.
- State the functions of a typical amylase, a protease and a lipase, listing the substrate and end-products.
- Define absorption.
- Identify the small intestine as the region for the absorption of digested food.
- Describe the role of fat as an energy storage substance.
- Describe the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area of the small intestine.
- Describe the structure of a villus, including the role of capillaries and lacteals.
- Identify the types of human teeth and describe their structure and functions.
- State the causes of dental decay and describe the proper care of teeth.
Biology 5.1 - Transport in Plants
Plant Cross-sections
You need to know the following parts of a plant, (leaf, stem, root), when given their transverse sections.
- FOR LEAF STRUCTURE GO TO UNIT B4.2 - Plant Nutrition
- Epidermis : Single layer of cells on outer side of the stem which protects the stem and cuts down water loss
- Cortex : Packing cells that fills the volume of the stem
- Vascular Bundle: the bundle of transport vessels
- Phloem : The vessel that carries food (nutrients) and plant hormones
- Cambium : The layer that separates phloem and xylem that grows new xylem and phloem cells
- Xylem : The vessel that carries water and minerals.
- Pith : Packing cells at the centre of the stem
In a Stem: Transverse View
- In a stem, phloem is on the outside, then the cambium in between, and the xylem inside.
- And there are multiple vascular bundles spread out in a stem.
In a Root: Transverse View
- In a root, there is a big central xylem block looking like a star, and smaller phloem vessels around it.
- There is only one big central vascular bundle in a root.
Xylem and Phloem
You need to know the functions of xylem and phloem, and their characteristics
- Xylem
- Xylem tissues transport water and mineral ions in water.
- Xylem vessels only transport upwards, from the root to the leaves.
- Do not use any energy to transport (using a passive process called transpiration)
- Xylem vessels are made from dead cells that are strengthened.
- So they have the ability to provide some support
- And also so that they do not collapse because of the water pressure
- Phloem
- Phloem tissues transport food (nutrients like dissolved sucrose) and hormones.
- Phloem vessels can transport in both directions
- From regions of nutrients production to regions of nutrients use. (translocation)
- Translocation is an active process, so it uses energy, unlike xylems’ transpiration.
- Phloem vessels are live cells, because they need to produce energy.
You need to know the definition of translocation:

- Movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem- from regions of production to regions of storage
or to regions of utilisation (in respiration or growth).
Movement of Water - Soil to Xylem
You need to know the pathway of water from the soil, through the root cells, and into the xylem.
- Water moves from the soil to the xylem vessel using osmosis (refer back to Unit B2).
- There is a high water potential outside the root hair cell, so water will move into the root hair cell.
- The water moves from the root hair cells to the xylem also through osmosis.
- Each cell further away from the root hair cell has higher solute concentration
- When the water reaches the xylem, it moves up the xylem using transpiration pull.
Transpiration
You need to know the definition of transpiration:

- Evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by loss of water vapour from
plant leaves, through the stomata.
- It was stated before that the xylem vessel carries the water, and that transpiration drives this movement.
- This is because when the water evaporates at the top of the plant, it removes water from the xylem vessel,
creating a negative pressure at the top
- This negative pressure causes water to “suck” up the xylem vessel, like a straw.
- This pull is called transpiration pull
- Two properties of water help this process of transpiration pull
- Cohesion: water molecules like to stick together to each other

- So they will stay together in the xylem tissue
- Adhesion: water molecules like to stick to other molecules

- So the water molecules will stick to the walls of the xylem as they move up.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration
You need to know the factors that affect transpiration and how they affect the rate:
Temperature
- The higher the temperature, the higher the rate of transpiration.
- This is because the water molecules have more energy to evaporate faster, leading to more water loss.
Humidity
- The higher the humidity, the lower the rate of transpiration.
- This is because the gradient of water vapour concentration is very low.
- Inside the leaf, there is always a high concentration of water vapour due to the evaporation
- So if it's humid outside the leaf, the gradient will be very small so diffusion will be very slow.
Air movement
- The more the air movement, the higher the rate of transpiration
- This is similar to humidity, in that the air outside the leaf determines the rate of transpiration
- If there is more air movement, the saturated air is always blown away from the leaf
- This means there will be fresh air, which has lower concentrations of water vapour
- This means steep gradient, so faster rate of diffusion and transportation.
Light Intensity
- The stronger the light intensity on the plant, the higher the rate of transpiration
- This is because of the stomata’s sensitivity to light.
- As there is more light, the stomata open more, so more water vapour can diffuse out
- Low light means the stomata close, so the rate of transpiration will decrease.
- State the functions of xylem and phloem.

- Identify the positions of xylem and phloem tissues as seen in transverse sections of unthickened,
herbaceous, dicotyledonous roots, stems and leaves.
- Identify root hair cells, as seen under the light microscope, and state their functions.
- Relate the structure and functions of root hairs to their surface area and to water and ion uptake.
- State the pathway taken by water through root, stem and leaf (root hair, root cortex cells, xylem, mesophyll
cells).
- Investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water through the above-ground parts of a plant.
- Define transpiration as evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by loss of water
vapour from plant leaves, through the stomata.
- Describe how water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata.
- Describe the effects of variation of temperature, humidity and light intensity on transpiration rate.
- Explain the mechanism of water uptake and movement in terms of transpiration producing a tension (‘pull’)
from above, creating a water potential gradient in the xylem, drawing cohesive water molecules up the plant.
- Define translocation in terms of the movement of sucrose and amino acids in phloem; from regions of
production to regions of storage or to regions of utilisation in respiration or growth.
Biology 5.2 - Transport in Humans
The Circulatory System
You need to know that the circulatory system is described as a system of tubes with a pump and valves to
ensure the one-way flow of blood.
- Human circulatory system consists of:

- The heart : the muscular organ that pumps blood around the system
- Blood vessels : the tube carrying the blood including arteries, veins, and capillaries
- Blood : the fluid transported around the system, contains blood cells and other dissolved substances
You also need to know that the our circulatory system is said to have double circulation
- Meaning that there are two circuits in the whole system. The pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit.
- The pulmonary circuit is the low pressure circuit from the heart to the lungs and back.
- The systemic circuit is the high pressure circuit from the heart to the whole body and back.
The Blood Vessels
You need to know the different types of blood vessels
There are three types of blood vessels:

- Arteries : Arteries are the vessels that lead the blood out of the heart.
- Veins : Veins are the vessels that lead the blood into the heart
- Try saying “way in” in a really fake german accent - it sounds like “vey-in” which sounds like vein…
- (don’t judge me - this is how I learnt to remember it)
- Capillaries : Capillaries are the very small vessels that are between the arteries and the veins.
- The capillary networks are used so that the vessels can closely reach all the cells.
You need to know the structures of the different blood vessels, and how they related to their functions.
- Arteries : The vessels that lead blood away and out of the heart
- This means the arteries have relatively higher blood pressure,

- because it is getting the blood that has been just been freshly pumped
- To withstand this high pressure, the arteries have a:
- Thick muscular wall
- Elastic wall
- They also have smaller lumen (the tube “hole”) because they need to expand with the heartbeat.
- Veins : The vessels that lead blood into the heart
- This means the veins have relatively lower blood pressure,

- because they are far away from the heart, so the blood has already travelled a long distance.
- Because veins have low pressures, they don’t need to withstand such pressure so they have:
- Thinner walls than arteries
- Larger lumen than arteries
- The low pressure means the blood might flow backwards when going up the body back to the heart
- To prevent backflow there are structures called valves along the vein.
- Valves are like stoppers that only allow blood flow in one direction.
- Capillaries : The smaller vessels that are between the arteries and the veins
- The vessels that allow direct exchange of nutrients and gases between the blood and the cells.
- To allow the diffusion of molecules they have to be very close to the cells, so:
- they are very small in diameter to go between all the tissues
- their lumens are very small, just large enough for blood cells to pass through
- Also because they have to allow diffusion of molecules between the blood and the cells,
- They have single cell thin walls
The Heart
You need to know the structure of the heart and should know to label and recognise the parts.
- The heart is composed of two halves, the left half and the right half
- BUT in a heart diagram, the left half is on the right side and the right half is on the left side.
- If that's confusing, put the paper on your chest like this, then the sides will make sense!
- Each half is separated by the wall of muscle called the septum,

- And each half is composed of two chambers, the atrium (pl. atria) and the ventricle.
- The atrium is the smaller chamber on the top, which is where the blood first comes in from the veins.
- Atria can contract to pump the blood into the ventricle below.
- The ventricle is the larger chamber below, and is the chamber where the blood leaves the heart.
- Ventricles are connected to the arteries.
- The heart also has four valves, with the same functions as the vein valves, to prevent backflow of blood.
- Atrioventricular valves : as the name suggests, they are between the atrium and the ventricle.
- Bicuspid valve : the valve between the left atrium and the ventricle
- Tricuspid valve : the valve between the right atrium and the ventricle
- Semilunar valves : theses are the valves in the arteries (you don’t need the specific names:)
- Pulmonary valve : the valve between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
- Aortic valve : the valve between the left ventricle and the aorta
- The heart also has five large connected blood vessels:
- Vena Cava : Major vein that leads the deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body into the heart
- Superior Vena Cava : vena cava that comes from the body parts above the heart (brain etc.)
- Inferior Vena Cava : vena cava that comes from the body below the heart (liver, legs etc.)
- Aorta : Major artery that leads the oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body
- Pulmonary Artery : The artery that leads the deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
- Pulmonary Vein : The vein that leads the oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.
- (pulmonary means related to lungs)
The Heartbeat & The Blood Flow Through the Heart
From the definition of double circulation from before,

- Two circuits in the whole system:
- the pulmonary circuit and
- the systemic circuit
- The Pulmonary Circuit

- the circuit between the heart and the lungs
(pulmonary means related to lungs)
- transporting deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs, then the oxygenated
blood back to the heart.
- The Systemic Circuit

- the circuit between the heart and the body
(system meaning the body ‘system’)
- transporting oxygenated blood from the
heart to the respiring cells in the body, then
the deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
You need to know how the blood flows through the heart, in terms of the muscular contractions and the valves.
1. Deoxygenated blood comes from the body (deoxygenated because the cells used the oxygen)
2. Deoxygenated blood comes in through the vena cava, filling the right atrium.
3. Right atrium contracts, forcing blood into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve.
4. Right ventricle now contracts (after the right atrium contraction) to force the blood through the pulmonary
semilunar valve to the pulmonary artery.
5. Pulmonary artery brings the deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where the blood is oxygenated.
6. Oxygenated blood is transported from the lungs to the heart in the pulmonary vein.
7. Pulmonary vein brings the oxygenated blood into the left atrium, filling it.
8. Left atrium contracts to force the blood through the bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle.
9. Now the oxygenated blood is ready to be transported around the whole body in the left ventricle.
10. Left ventricle contracts to pump the oxygenated b lood through the semilunar valve into the Aorta, which
carries the blood into the whole body.
○ You need to know that the left ventricle is much thicker than the right ventricle because the left
ventricle must provide more force and pressure for the blood to travel the longer distance (the whole
body) than the pulmonary circuit (just to the lungs and back)
11. The aorta connects to smaller arteries, then into capillary beds (or networks) which connect to the tissues.
12. Active cells receive the oxygenated blood, using it for respiration. Now the blood is deoxygenated.
13. The deoxygenated blood leaves the capillary into the Vena Cava, then back into the right atrium.
The More Detailed Vessel System
You need to know some of the other major vessels in the systemic circuit.
- Hepatic vessels : hepatic means relating to the liver.

- Hepatic artery : carries oxygenated blood out of the heart, into the liver
- Hepatic vein : carries deoxygenated blood from the liver, into the heart.
- Hepatic portal vein : connects the intestines to the liver for filtering
- carries deoxygenated blood from the intestines to the liver
- Renal vessels : renal means relating to the kidneys.

- Renal artery : carries oxygenated blood out of the heart, into the kidneys
- Renal vein : carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys into the heart.
Heart Rate
You need to know that the heart pulse rate is the number of heartbeats per minute.
You also need to know that heart rate can be affected by physical activity.
- Physical activity increases the heart rate,
- Physical activity requires the muscle cells to use more energy, so they need to respire more, which
means they need more oxygen
- To transport more oxygen to the cells, the heart beats faster.
Coronary Arteries and Coronary Diseases
- Coronary means surrounding the heart.

- Cardiac means relating to the heart
You need to know that coronary arteries are the arteries that deliver
oxygen to the heart muscles themselves.
You need to know that a coronary heart disease is:

- the failure of coronary circulation to supply cardiac
muscles with enough oxygen.
The most common coronary disease is called atherosclerosis

- It is the disease of the coronary artery
- When the coronary arteries are blocked by plaque (which

is a hard mixture of fat and cholesterol)
- The artery lumen size decreases, making it harder
for blood to flow.
- This can cause angina (pain in the chest)
- If the artery gets blocked completely, the cardiac

muscles behind the plaque do not receive oxygen,
- the heart suffer from either a heart attack
(cardiac muscle failure)
You need to know some of the factors that might increase the risks of suffering from coronary diseases.
- Diet:
- Diet high in cholesterol or high percentage of animal fats (unsaturated fats) can increase the risks.
- Plants or fish fats (saturated fats) can decrease the risks.
- Diseases:
- Existing conditions of obesity and diabetes may increase the risks
- Bad mental health (stress or anxiety) may increase the risks
- Lifestyle :
- Smoking can increase the risks
- Exercise and a healthy heart can decrease the risks
- Genetics:
- A previous case of coronary disease in the genetics (inherited) may increase the risks
Blood
You need to know the components of blood and their functions
Blood is composed of four components: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
- Red Blood Cells

- Red blood cells are responsible for oxygen transport
- Red blood cells are packed with haemoglobin which are the oxygen carrying protein
- Red blood cells have some specialisations which are dealt in Unit B2.1
- White Blood Cells

- White blood cells protect the body from pathogens by killing them
- Pathogens are bacteria, virus, or other microorganisms that can cause disease.
- They have the ability to recognise cells as either “self” or “foreign” and will attack any foreign cells
- This is a problem in organ transplants, when the organ is recognised as a foreign tissue. This
causes the white blood cells to attack and kill the cells. (called tissue rejection)
- There are two main types of white blood cells, which have different methods of killing pathogens
- Lymphocytes : have big, solid nucleus

- Produce antibodies that stick to and attack pathogen and kill them
- Antibodies are produced in response to a specific pathogen’s shape, so that a unique
antibody will only attack a specific pathogen.
- This process takes time, so the lymphocyte response is slower than the:
- Phagocytes : have lobed, weirdly shaped nucleus

- Directly engulf or “eat” the pathogen and kill them (phagocytosis)
- Phagocytes are non-specific, so they will attack any foreign material
- This response is very fast.
- Platelets
- Platelets are broken pieces of cells that are responsible for causing blood clots
- When there is a damage to the blood vessel, the platelets stick to the damage and clot the blood.
- Plasma
- Plasma is the pale yellow liquid that forms the liquidy part of the blood.
- Everything is carried in the plasma, including the above components of blood and all other nutrients.
- Like mineral ions, soluble nutrients (glucose and amino acids), hormones, and carbon dioxide.
- Describe the circulatory system
- Describe double circulation
- Describe the structure and functions of arteries, veins and capillaries.
- Explain how structure and function are related in arteries, veins and capillaries.
- Describe the structure of the heart, including the muscular wall and septum, atria, ventricles, valves and
associated blood vessels.
- Name the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney.
- Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the blockage of coronary arteries, and state the possible causes
(diet, stress, smoking and genetic factors) and preventive measures.
- Describe the function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of the valves.
- Investigate the effect of physical activity on pulse rate.
- Investigate, state and explain the effect of physical activity on pulse rate.
- Identify red and white blood cells as seen under the light microscope on prepared slides, and in diagrams
and photomicrographs.
- List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.
- State the functions of blood:
- red blood cells
- white blood cells
- platelets
- plasma
- Describe the immune system in terms of antibody production, tissue rejection and phagocytosis.
Biology 6.1 - Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
Process of Respiration
You need to know how to define respiration:

- The release of energy from nutrient molecules via a chemical reaction - happens in every living cell.
Respiration can use many different nutrient molecules like glucose, fats, and even proteins as the substrate, but
glucose is the main one used.
Respiration releases energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate, if you wanna sound cool) which is a
molecule that acts as energy currency. Each of these aerobic reactions produces 38 of these ATPs which is a
relatively large amount compared to anaerobic (2 ATPs).
You also need to know where the energy produced from respiration is used:
● Muscle contraction
● Protein synthesis (making new proteins like enzymes)
● Cell division (growth)
● Nervous impulses
● Body temperature regulation
●
Aerobic Respiration
You need to know how to define aerobic respiration:

- "The relatively large release of energy from glucose via a chemical reaction in the presence of oxygen"
- Aerobic respiration happens inside the mitochondria.
You also need to be able to write the word and chemical equation for aerobic respiration which is:
Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
The glucose is obtained from the digested foods, or from the stored glycogen, and oxygen is obtained from
breathing. The waste products are removed by breathing (carbon dioxide and water) and by adding to the body’s
store (water).
Anaerobic Respiration
You need to know that Anaerobic respiration is, of course, respiration without oxygen:
- "The small release of energy from glucose via a chemical reaction WITHOUT oxygen"
You need to know the general word equation for anaerobic respiration, but don't need to remember the chemical
equation.
There are two main types of anaerobic respiration you need to know:
● Anaerobic respiration in microorganisms like bacteria and yeast (process called fermentation):
Glucose -> Alcohol (Ethanol) + Carbon dioxide
And you need to know that the microorganisms’ respiration can be useful to us:
● In bread making:
○ When making bread, yeast is put into the dough. The yeast digests the starch into glucose,
then anaerobically produces carbon dioxide and alcohol. The carbon dioxide is important
because it gets trapped in the dough and bubbles making the dough rise. The cooking
process then kills the yeast and evaporates the alcohol off.
● In brewing alcoholic drinks:
○ Bacteria are put into the ingredients to produce alcohol from respiration.
● Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells:

Glucose -> Lactic Acid
You need to know that when muscles work for a long time, they switch from aerobic to anaerobic. Meaning
the muscles work without oxygen. Anaerobic respiration produces the poisonous lactic acid, which fatigues
the muscles by making the contractions less efficient. This lactic acid must be removed by oxidation (using
oxygen) into carbon dioxide and water. This is why the body continues to breathe heavily even after the
exercise. The body first “owes” oxygen to the muscles during the anaerobic respiration, and is simply
repaying the “debt” (the oxygen) back to the muscles. This is called oxygen debt.
- Define respiration
- State the uses of energy in the body of humans
- Define aerobic respiration
- State the word equation for aerobic respiration.
- State the equation for aerobic respiration using symbols
- Define anaerobic respiration
- State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in muscles during hard exercise
- Describe the effect of lactic acid in muscles during exercise
- State the word equation for anaerobic respiration in the microorganisms
- Describe the role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during brewing and bread-making.
- Compare aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration in terms of relative amounts of energy released.
Biology 6.2 - Gas Exchange
The Structure of the Lungs
YOU NEED TO KNOW ALL OF THEM
Larynx - the voice box
Trachea - also called the windpipe, trachea is the main respiratory tube. The flexible tube is kept open by the rings
of C-shaped cartilages so it prevents collapsing (like a straw).
Bronchus - or pl. Bronchi, subdivides the trachea into smaller tubes, one large bronchus into each of the lungs.
Bronchiole - even smaller subdivisions of the tubes, the bronchioles branches off in the lungs, leading into the
alveoli.
Alveolus - or pl. Alveoli, is the air sac which is the site of gas exchange.
Lung - the spongy tissue found in the chest containing the organs for breathing.
Diaphragm - the sheet of muscle forming the floor of the chest, controls the expansion of the lungs.
Ribs - the bones which protect the organs in the chest.
Intercostal Muscles - the set of muscles in the ribs which move the ribs to allow more room for expansion.
The Alveoli
You need to know that the alveoli is the site of gas exchange.
- Gas exchange is the actual exchange of the gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen).
- The oxygen from the inspired (fresh) air diffuses into the blood, and the carbon dioxide from the blood
diffuses into the alveoli to be expired. This is possible by the concentration gradient between the
alveoli and the blood.
- The inspired air always has high oxygen levels and low carbon dioxide levels - the blood has high
carbon dioxide levels and low oxygen levels - so by diffusion, the alveolar air loses oxygen and gains
carbon dioxide - which is then exhaled.
- You need to know the comparative differences in composition of inhaled and exhaled air.
Inhaled air Exhaled air
Oxygen Higher Lower
CO2 Lower Higher
Water Lower Higher
Temp. Lower Higher
- You need to know how to prove that exhaled air has high concentrations of carbon dioxide
with the limewater test.
- If you blow out through a tube or a straw into limewater, the carbon dioxide in the inspired air
will react with limewater (aqueous calcium hydroxide) and turn milky by forming white
precipitates (insoluble calcium carbonate). (This reaction is from the limestone cycle)
You also need to know the special features of the alveoli that are beneficial to the gas exchange.
- Alveoli have one-cell thick walls to decrease diffusion distance. So there is fast diffusion of gases.
- Alveoli have a layer of water on the inner surface, so the gases can dissolve and diffuse faster.
- Alveoli have a close network of blood capillaries near the walls, so there is always a fresh supply of
blood, and also to decrease diffusion distance.
- Alveoli are well ventilated, so they can always have a fresh supply of air.
- Alveoli come in huge numbers (500 million avg.), to massively increase the surface area for gas exchange.
The Respiratory Tubes

(Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles)
You need to know that the inner surfaces of the respiratory tubes are lined with cilia and mucus producing cells.
The goblet cells and the mucus glands produce and release mucus onto the surface. The mucus can trap any
pathogens and small particles from entering the deeper part of the system. The mucus is then removed by the cilia.
The ciliated cell have cilia (hair like structures) that can move and wave. All the cilia move in co-ordiation so it can
sweep mucus along the surface, moving them up the respiratory tubes, so it can be swallowed and safely digested.
Smoking
You need to know the chemicals that are produced from smoking and their effects on the respiratory system.
- Tar
-Tar is produced by burning tobacco and is inhaled.
-Tar can damage the surfaces of the respiratory tubes, paralysing the cilia
- This prevents the mucus from being removed leading to blocks and infections
- Tar can also reduce surface areas for gas exchange
- Tar is also a carcinogen, a cancer causing chemical, which can cause lung cancer etc.
- Benzene
- Benzene is also a carcinogen, known to cause leukemia (cancer of white blood cells)
- Nicotine
- Nicotine does not have any direct harmful effects to the body
- But is the addictive chemical in the cigarette, which makes it very hard to quit smoking.
- (As addictive as heroin and cocaine)
- Carbon Monoxide
- Carbon monoxide irreversibly binds to the haemoglobins in the place of oxygen.
- This decreases the maximum oxygen carrying capacity of the blood
- Leads to lethargy, tiredness, and decreased respiratory abilities.
- Smoke Particles
- Smoke particles can damage the linings of the tubes and decrease the effective surface area.
You need to know THAT YOU SHOULDN’T SMOKE
Breathing
You need to know that during physical activity, the rate and the depth of breathing is changed.
- The rate and the depth of breathing is increased because more oxygen is required by the body from the extra
energy expenditure, to keep a fresh supply of oxygen and to remove waste gases.
- The vital capacity (the maximum volume of air that can be stored in the lungs) is also increased
- By about average of 3 litres during exercise
- Identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries.
- List the features of gas exchange surfaces in animals.
- Explain the role of mucus and cilia in protecting the gas exchange system from pathogens and particles.
- Describe the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components (tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide,
smoke particles) on the gas exchange system.
- State the differences in composition between inspired and expired air.
- Use limewater as a test for carbon dioxide to investigate the differences in composition between inspired and
expired air.
- Investigate and describe the effects of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing.
- Explain the effects of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing.
Biology 7.1 - Nervous Control in Humans
Nervous System
You need to know how the human nervous system works.
There are two nervous systems, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- The CNS is the brain and the spinal cord, where they control actions
- The PNS is all the other organs that are connected to the CNS.
The CNS and the PNS work together to coordinate body functions.
- They have neurons which are specialised cells to send electrical signals.
Nervous response flow (reflex arc)
Stimulus -> Sensory Neuron -> Relay Neuron -> Motor Neuron -> Effector
This response is called a reflex action, because the brain does not make any decisions (involuntary response).
- It is a very quick, automatic response by the body.
An example of these response is touching a hot object, your body reacts without your brain thinking.
- Stimulus
- Something that triggers a nervous response (e.g. hot plate, sharp needle)
- Sensory Neuron
- A neuron that detects a stimulus and converts it into an electrical signal (in the PNS)
- They are found in sensory organs, like eyes (light), skin (touch), etc.
- Electrical signal is sent to the CNS (usually the spinal cord, as it is the closest to the other organs)
- Relay Neuron
- A neuron that is found in the CNS which relays the signal out of the CNS to the motor neuron.
- It connects the receptor to the motor neuron.
- Motor Neuron
- A neuron that receives the signal from the relay neuron and tells the muscles to move.
- Effector
- The organ that actually does the “action” that receives the signal from the motor neuron.
- Usually a muscle (to move the body)
This type of reflex arc does not have to go all the way up to the brain to be processed
- Meaning the reflex speed is very fast so it can protect the body faster
Structure of a Motor Neuron
As a neuron is a specialised cell, it has all the organelles of a normal animal cell, (cytoplasm, nucleus etc.)
The cell body is inside the CNS, and the axon stretches out into the PNS to the effector.
- Dendrites receive the signals from the relay neuron
- Axon carries the signal outwards, and is covered by myelin sheaths, an electrical insulating cover.
- Nerve Endings send the message to trigger effectors.
You need to know the structure of the eye, a sensory organ.
- Conjunctiva - layer that protects the cornea

- Cornea - the tough transparent part of the outer surface of the eye to allow light through.
- Iris - Aperture like ring that controls the amount of light that is let into the lens
- Pupil - the hole in the middle of the iris that changes size.
- Aqueous humour - the liquid part in the front part of the eye
- Lens - focuses the incoming light, can change thickness according to the distance of focus of vision
- Ciliary body - muscles that pull the lens to make it thinner or thicker.
- Suspensory ligament - Ligaments that connect the ciliary body to the lens.
- Vitreous humour - the major liquid that forms the volume of the eye.
- Retina - The inner surface of the eye where the many light receptors (sensory neurons) are.
- Choroid - the layer between the retina and the sclera
- Fovea - most of the light is focused onto this point in the retina (most densely arranged receptor)
- Optic nerve - sense the signal back to the brain
- Blind spot - at this point, there are no light receptors, because the optic nerve is taking up the space.
- Sclera - the tough outside protection layer of the eye.
The eye can change the thickness of the lens to change the focus of the vision.
- This is called accommodation
- This is done by altering the lens’ amount of refraction of light.
Object Ciliary muscles Suspensory ligaments Muscle tension on the lens Lens shape
Near Contracted Slackened Low Fat, more curved
Distant Relaxed Stretched High Thin, less curved
The eye also adapts to the environment by changing the size of the pupil.
- This is called pupil reflex
- During dim light, the pupils dilate to allow more light in.
- During bright light, the pupils contracts to let less light in.
- This is done by the iris contracting and relaxing.
- Describe the human nervous system in terms of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord as areas
of coordination) and the peripheral nervous system which together serve to coordinate and regulate body
functions.
- Identify motor (effector), relay (connector) and sensory neurones from diagrams.
- Describe a simple reflex arc in terms of sensory, relay and motor neurones, and a reflex action as a means
of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli with responses.
- Describe the structure and function of the eye, including accommodation and pupil reflex.
Biology 7.2 & 7.3 - Hormones
Endocrine (Hormone) Control in Humans
You need to know that hormones are:

- chemicals that are transported in the blood plasma
- secreted by glands and affect the target organ(s)
- By altering the activity of the target organ(s)
- destroyed by the liver
Glands produce hormones and then secrete them into the blood.
- Major glands include:
- Pancreas (from Unit B4.3)
- Produces : Insulin, glucagon...
- Reproductive organs (Unit B8.3)
- Produces : Oestrogen, testosterone…
- Adrenal gland
- Produces : Adrenaline
You need to know the effects of one specific hormone in particular, adrenaline.
Adrenaline is produced in the adrenal gland:

- ad- meaning ‘next to’, and renal meaning ‘relating to the kidneys’. The adrenal gland is next to the kidneys.
Adrenaline is often called the “fight or flight” hormone because it is produced when the body is preparing for
action (fighting or running away). The effects of adrenaline allow the body to be active more efficiently:
- Increased heart rate, breathing rate, blood sugar concentration: for increased respiration
- These allow the body to produce more energy to the active muscles.
- Vasodilation in the brain (blood vessels expand for more flow)
- Provides more blood to the brain, and might feel slightly dizzy
- Blood diverted away from digestive system
- This might feel as “butterflies in the stomach”
- Because blood flow is focused into muscles and away from “unnecessary” organs for action
- Masks pain
You need to know the similarities and comparison between the endocrine system and the nervous system:
Endocrine System Nervous System
Functions Control the body functions Control the body functions
Method Special chemicals produced in glands Electrical Impulses from neurons
Time Slower and depends on the stimulation of glands Rapid and is constantly occurring
Tropic Control in Plants
You need to know that plants grow in response to the environment, controlled by plant hormones called auxins.
Auxins are a type of plant hormone which speed up or slow down growth of cells affected.
- Normally auxins are used in growing stems,
- They are also used to grow in different directions as responses.
- If auxins are distributed to only one side of the stem
- Side with auxins are made to grow faster than the other side
- And the stem will bend.
You need to know two types of plant responses:
Geotropism
- Is the response of a plant to grow towards or away from gravity. (Geo- for earth)
- Positive geotropism is growing towards gravity (down)
- Negative geotropism is growing against gravity (up)
Phototropism
- Is the response of a plant to grow towards or away from light. (photo- for light)
- Positive phototropism is growing towards away from light
- Negative phototropism is growing away f rom light
- Define a hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by the liver.
- State the role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control of metabolic activity, including increasing the
blood glucose concentration and pulse rate.
- Give examples of situations in which adrenaline secretion increases.
- Compare nervous and hormonal control systems.
- Define and investigate geotropism (as a response in which a plant grows towards or away from gravity) and
phototropism (as a response in which a plant grows towards or away from the direction from which light is
- coming)
- Explain the chemical control of plant growth by auxins including geotropism and phototropism in terms of
auxins regulating differential growth.
Biology 7.4 - Homeostasis
Homeostasis
You need to know that homeostasis is:

- The regulation of internal body conditions or the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
When a certain value in the body (e.g. temperature) is not its normal value because of changes in the environment,
- The body adjusts so that it is returned to normal value (opposes the change in the environment)
- This is called negative feedback
- This is the logic behind homeostasis.
- Keeps the body in correct conditions
Temperature control
The skin has many features which allow homeostasis:

- Temperature receptors
- Detect change in temperature (too hot or cold) and sends a message to adjust the body accordingly.
- Sweat glands
- Produces and secretes sweat through the pores to cool down the body if it gets too hot
- Blood Capillaries
- By vasoconstricting and vasodilating, it can control the loss of heat through the blood capillaries
- When cold, vasoconstricting pulls the vessels closer in the body, minimising heat loss
- When hot, vasodilating allows the vessels to be closer to the surface, to lose heat
- This is why when some people go for a run, their faces turn red.
- Hair and hair muscles
- Hair muscles allow the hair to stand up and this allows the hair to trap air
- Air is a good insulator of heat, so it minimises heat loss when cold.
Blood glucose level control
The pancreas produces two hormones which allow the liver to change blood glucose levels
- Insulin - tells the liver to decrease blood glucose level by converting glucose into glycogen
- Glucagon - tells the liver to increase blood glucose level by breaking down glycogen
With negative feedback,

- When blood glucose level is too high, the pancreas produces insulin
- To decrease the blood glucose level
- When blood glucose level is too low, the pancreas produces glucagon
- To increase the blood glucose level
This allows the blood glucose level to be at the right level.
- Define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
- Identify, on a diagram of the skin: hairs, sweat glands, temperature receptors, blood vessels and fatty tissue.
- Describe the maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans in terms of insulation and the role of
temperature receptors in the skin, sweating, shivering, vasodilation and vasoconstriction of arterioles
supplying skin-surface capillaries and the coordinating role of the brain.
- Explain the concept of control by negative feedback.
- Describe the control of the glucose content of the blood by the liver, and by insulin and glucagon from the
pancreas.
Biology 8.1 - Reproduction
Reproduction
You need to know the two methods of reproduction, and their advantages and disadvantages
Reproduction is the production of new organisms and is necessary to ensure the continuity of species.
Asexual reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Happens in Plants and bacteria Animals and plants
Method Needs only 1 parent Needs 2 parents

Parent cells clone and produce new organism Gamete cells fuse and make new organism
Genetic variance Offsprings are genetically identical to parents Offsprings are genetically dissimilar to parents
(they are clones) (genetic variation)
Advantages -take less energy and is fast -there is genetic variation

-doesn’t require finding a mate (offspring can adapt to changes in environment)
-beneficial traits of parents are 100% passed on -may pass on beneficial traits from both parents
(if the parent is already adapted, the offspring will too)
Disadvantage -there is no genetic variation - requires finding a mate

it will be less adapted to changes in the environment) (can be difficult in competitive environments)
- Define asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from
one parent.
- Define sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei to form a diploid zygote and
the production of genetically dissimilar offspring.
- Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to a species of asexual reproduction.
- Discuss the advantages and disadvantages to a species of sexual reproduction.
Biology 8.2 - Sexual Reproduction in Plants
Sexual Reproduction in Plants
In a plant, the flower is the sexual organ, and it has both male and females parts.
For a plant to sexually reproduce, a pollen from one flower must be delivered to another flower.
This is called pollination
- transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant to the female part of the plant.
There are two main methods - insect-pollination and wind-pollination

- And the structure of flowers for each method is slightly different
You need to know the structure of a flower in a plant.
Insect pollinated flower

- Some plants have pollens that are carried by insects.
- The flowers have special features that help to attract insects.
- Petal : have attractive colours and scents so that pollinators are attracted to the flower
- Sepal : protective leaf that protects the flower when it is in the bud
- Petiole : joins the flower to the stem
- Nectary : produces and contains nectar, a sweet liquid, to attract insects and birds
- Stamen : the male sex organ of a flower, divided into the anther and filament
- Anther : contains pollen sacs that open to release pollen
- Filament : stalk that at holds the anther
- Carpel : the female sex organ of a flower, divided into the stigma, style, and ovary
- Stigma : collects and receive pollens
- Style : tube that connects the ovary and the stigma
- Ovary : contains ovules (egg cells), after fertilisation, the ovary becomes the fruit.
Wind-pollinated flowers
Have the same structures of the male and female sex organs, but some unnecessary parts are removed
- Nectar
- Because the flower does not need to attract any insects, it is a waste of resources
- Colourful Petals
- Again, because the flower does not need to attract any insects
They also have some special features which the insect pollinated flowers don’t have
- Long, extended anthers (hangs outside the flower)
- So that they can be blown in the wind easily
- Large and feathery stigmas (hangs outside the flower)
- So that they can catch more pollen in the wind
-
So now we can say pollination is

- transfer of pollen grains from the anther of the plant to the stigma
You need to know characteristics of a pollen.

A pollen is the male sex cell (gamete) which contains a nucleus which contains half of the DNA of the organism.
The anther produces huge amounts of microscopic pollens, to increase the chances of it reaching the stigma.
The pollens for an insect-pollinated plant and a wind-pollinated are different

- Insect-pollinated pollens are spiky and sticky so that they can easily stick onto insects
- Wind-pollinated pollens are round and light so they are easily blown by the wind
Fertilisation
After pollination, (when the pollen arrives at the stigma),

- the pollen (male gamete) grows a pollen tube down the stigma, down the style, into the ovary.
- The nucleus of the pollen travels down the tube and meets the ovule (female gamete)
- Gamete is a sex cell that contains only half the genetic information
- The nucleus of the pollen and the ovule fuse, giving a cell with cull genetic information.
This is called fertilisation:
- The fusion of nuclei of the male gamete (pollen) and the female gamete (ovule)
The fertilised ovule then becomes a seed, and the ovary becomes the fruit.
They are ready to be distributed, and the seed will grow a new plant, by germination.
The Seed
You need to know structure of a seed.
Testa - the hard protective cover on the outside of the seed

Cotyledon - food store until the plant grows leaves for photosynthesis
Micropyle - this is where the pollen tube connected with the ovule.
Plumule - grows upwards into a shoot (upper part) of the plant
Radicle - grows downwards into a root (lower part) of the plant
(the plumule/radicle movement is because of geotropism - Unit B7.3)
You need to know that germination of a seed is:

- is the process of seeds developing into new plants.
Few factors are necessary for a seed to successfully germinate

- Remember it as WOW
- Water - the water activates certain enzymes in the seed that initiate seed growth,
- However, too much water will inhibit germination
- Oxygen - the seed needs to respire for energy, using the food store and oxygen.
- Warmth - each species of plant seeds have a optimum temperature of germination
Seed Dispersal
The seeds will have to be dispersed somewhere away from the parent plant
- So that when the seed grows into a new plant, it does not compete for resources with big plants
- So that the plant can colonise new areas and spread.
There are various methods for a plant to make their seeds disperse away
Wind dispersal
- The seeds are designed so that they can be carried away by wind.
- Some seeds like dandelions, have a light, parachute like seed
- When wind blows, it takes these seeds away.
- Some seeds like maple seeds have a helicopter like seed.
- As they drop, they are suspended in air to travel further.
Animal dispersal
- There are few methods via animals.
- Some seeds have spikes or hooks.
- They stick to animal fur and are carried away with animals
- Some seeds are meant to be eaten by the animal
- Their fruits are colourful and attractive so the animals eat it.
- The seeds are designed so that they will not be digested
- The animal later releases the seeds in their faeces.
Water dispersal
- The plant simply drops the seeds in water
- Seeds follow flow of water to be deposited elsewhere.
- Like coconuts (yes - coconuts are seeds)
Explosion dispersal
- The seed pod explodes open, launching the seeds far away.
- Identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary, the sepals, petals, stamens, anthers, carpels, ovaries and stigmas of
one locally available, named, insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flower, and examine the pollen grains under a light
microscope or in photomicrographs.
- Use a hand lens to identify and describe the anthers and stigmas of one locally available, named, wind-pollinated
flower.
- State the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers, stigmas and ovaries.
- Candidates should expect to apply their understanding of the flowers they have studied to unfamiliar flowers.
- Define pollination as the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the plant (anther or stamen) to the female part of
the plant (stigma).
- Name the agents of pollination.
- Compare the different structural adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers.
- Investigate and describe the structure of a non-endospermic seed in terms of the embryo (radicle, plumule and
cotyledons) and testa, protected by the fruit.
- Investigate and state the environmental conditions that affect germination of seeds:
- requirement for water and oxygen and a suitable temperature.
- State that seed and fruit dispersal by wind and by animals provides a means of colonising new areas.
- Describe, using named examples, seed and fruit dispersal by wind and by animals
Biology 8.3 - Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
You need to know the structure of the male and female reproductive system
Male Reproductive Organ
Penis : Contains a spongy material that hardens by filling with blood during an erection
Testes : Sperm is produced here. The male reproductive hormone, testosterone, is also made here.
Scrotum : Holds the testes. Can contract and relax to move the testes closer/further away from the body heat.
- This is important as the temperature must be exact for sperm cells.
Sperm Duct : Carries the produced sperm away from the scrotum
Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle : Produces fluids that are added to the sperm to make semen.
Urethra : The tube semen and urine leave the penis through
Female Reproductive Organ
Ovary : ova (egg cells) are stored in and released by the ovaries. Female hormone oestrogen is made here.
Oviduct : a.k.a. Fallopian tube - The tube which the ova travel through to reach the uterus.
- The oviduct is lined with cilliated cells which move the ova across.
Uterus : Commonly called the womb, is where the baby develops until birth
Uterus Lining : The soft inner wall of the uterus which hold the ova, and break down during menstruation.
Uterus Wall : The muscular wall of the womb which contract to push the baby out during birth.
Cervix : Separation between the vagina and the uterus. The cervix dilates when a baby is due to be delivered.
Vagina : Passage leading to the cervix which the penis can enter during sexual intercourse
Gametes and Fertilisation
You need to know what the human gametes are, and be able to compare them.
A gamete is a sex cell.

- They are haploid cells - meaning they have half the number of chromosomes in the DNA (more in Unit B9)
- Normal functioning cells in the body are diploid, meaning they have full DNA.
- They are haploid, so that they contain only half the DNA information from each of the parent.
- They two gametes fuse, each half DNA fuses, creating a new, genetically different offspring
- This is the case for sexual reproduction (Unit B8.1)
Male gametes are called sperm cells.

Female gametes are called ova - or ovum for singular (egg cells)
Sperm Ova
size Very small (smallest human cell) Very large (largest human cell)
shape
A pointy head contains the nucleus, A large circular cell with the nucleus in the middle
and a long tail for movement with a jelly-like outer coating
mobility Uses the tail to propel itself Cannot move on its own - only by the oviduct’s cilia
numbers A lot - 15 - 300 million sperm cells per ml of semen Very few - one or two released per month
production Can be produced until a certain age in the testes Finite numbers - egg cells cannot be created
All women are born with a fixed number of ova
You need to know what fertilisation is, and how it works in humans
- same with plant reproduction, fertilisation is the fusion of the two haploid nuclei of two gametes.
Every month, during the menstrual cycle, the female ovulates.

- This is when an ovum is released from an ovary.
- Usually only one egg is released, but sometimes it can be two.
- This is what leads to non-identical twins.
- The ovum reaches the uterus, and sticks to the inner lining.
- If a sperm reaches the ovum in time,
- The sperm head penetrates the ovum and the two nuclei fuse.
- The new fused cell now is diploid (contains full DNA) and is called the zygote
The Menstrual Cycle
You need to know the menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle is a monthly cycle that starts during puberty of females.
- Monthly changes in the uterus and the ovaries.
- During the ovulation period, the egg will be released from the ovary
- The egg embeds itself into the lining.
- The uterus lining begin to thicken in anticipation for the growth of a baby
- If the egg is not fertilised, the lining will break apart
- This is passed away along with blood during the menstruation period.
- Two days before and after the ovulation period (11th to 17th on the diagram)
- Is called the fertile window.
- This is where there is highest chance of fertilisation
- Since an ovum only lives about 36 hours after ovulation,
- And the sperm up to 3 days in the uterus.
- Fertilisation is rarer outside this period.
- When an egg is fertilised and the zygote starts to grow, the menstrual cycle stops.
Pregnancy
You need to know what stages during pregnancy.

- usually lasts 40 weeks, and is divided into three trimesters.
- After fertilisation, when the two cells nuclei fuse, and the egg cell becomes a zygote
- The single egg cell divides to form a ball of cells with identical DNA.
- The zygote then implants itself on the uterus wall and starts to grow into an embryo.
- The embryo start to grow, showing human features like limbs and face.
- As the embryo grows, eventually into a fetus, structures come into place that aid the growth of the baby.
- You need to know these structures and their functions
- Fetus : the baby - grown from the embryo

- usually called fetus from the 8th week after fertilisation.
- Uterus : the womb keeping the fetus
- Amniotic Fluid : Liquid that suspends the baby and prevents damage
- Amniotic Sac : The sac that contains the amniotic fluid.
- The sac bursts shortly before the birth of the baby.
- Umbilical Cord : The cord that connects the fetus to the placenta
- Placenta : The organ that facilitates the exchange of nutrients between
the fetus and the mother.
The Placenta
The placenta is a very important organ

It allows movement of nutrients from the mother to the fetus, and vice versa.
- this is done without their bloods physically mixing.
The umbilical cord joins the fetus to the placenta.

In the placenta, the fetus’s blood vessels and the mother’s vessels are placed
close enough so that nutrients can diffuse across.
You need to know which characteristics of placenta allow this function:

- Very thin permeable membrane
- Large surface area
- Very good blood supply
- Short distance between the vessels
You need to know which nutrients can be passed from and to the fetus.
Useful chemicals Harmful chemicals Waste chemicals
mother -> fetus mother -> fetus fetus -> mother
Glucose Viruses Urea
Amino acids Alcohol Carbon dioxide
Water Carbon monoxide Water
Minerals Nicotine
Oxygen Prescription Drugs

Breast Feeding
You need to know advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding and formula milk.
Breast Feeding Formula Milk
Advantages - Contains antibodies from the mother - Less painful

- Correct proportions of nutrients - Anyone can feed the baby
- Correct temperature (body temp.) - May contain supplementary nutrients
- No risk of allergic reaction to the baby
- No additional chemicals
- No cost
- Builds mother-child bond
Disadvantages - Can be painful - More likely to develop illnesses

- Mother needs to be present - Expensive
- Damage beauty
HIV and AIDS
You need to know what HIV and AIDS is.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and this virus causes AIDS. ( -> )
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
HIV virus attacks the immune system (the defense system), disabling lymphocytes (white blood cells).
- This prevents them from making antibodies
- Which means the body is now prone to attack by many diseases.
- This is how AIDS kills. Not by attacking the body, but by extremely weakening the body to attacks.
Transmission of HIV
HIV travels in the body through body fluids (including blood and sexual fluids)
Methods of transmission includes:
- unprotected sexual intercourse with infected person
- drug use involving sharing unsterilised needle used by infected person
- transfusion of infected blood
- infected mother to fetus (virus can travel through the placenta)
- feeding a baby with milk from an infected mother
- unsterilised surgical instruments
Prevention of HIV and its transmission

- Protected (using condom) during sexual intercourse
- refuse sexual intercourse (abstinence)
- screen blood (for transfusion)
- use sterilised needles
- feed baby with bottled powdered milk (if mom has HIV)
- use sterilised surgical instruments.
- Identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system: the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and
- penis, and state the functions of these parts.
- Identify on diagrams of the female reproductive system: the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina, and state the
- functions of these parts.
- Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, numbers and mobility.
- Describe fertilisation in terms of the joining of the nuclei of male gamete (sperm) and the female gamete (egg).
- Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the uterus and ovaries.
- Outline early development of the zygote simply in terms of the formation of a ball of cells that becomes implanted in the
wall of the uterus.
- Indicate the functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.
- Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and
excretory products (no structural details are required).
- Describe the advantages and disadvantages of breast-feeding compared with bottle-feeding using formula milk.
- Describe the methods of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the ways in which HIV/AIDS can be
prevented from spreading.
- Outline how HIV affects the immune system in a person with HIV/AIDS.
Biology 9.1 & 9.2 & 9.3 - Genetics and Inheritance
Genetic Information and Inheritance
You need to know that inheritance is:

- Transmission (passing down) of genetic information through generations
You need to know the following terms relating to genetics:
Nucleus : the area in the cell where all the genetic material is stored
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) : the chemical material containing genetic information
- DNA itself is double-helix shaped
Chromosome : a coil, or thread of DNA (made up of strings of genes)
- Number of chromosomes differ in the type of organism : humans have 23 pairs (46 total)
Gene (jean) : small section of DNA that codes for one specific protein (one gene -> one protein)
Diploid: containing full pairs of chromosomes

Haploid: containing half pairs of chromosomes
- e.g. in a human cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes)
- Diploid cells have all 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes)
- Haploid cells have half of each pair of chromosomes (23 total chromosomes)
Cell Division
You need to know how genetic material is maintained during cell division
There are two types of cell division:
Mitosis
Every time a cell divides, it creates a clone

- Meaning all the genetic information is duplicated into the new cell
Cell division forming genetically identical cells is called mitosis (my-toe-sis)
Mitosis is carried out by all of the body cells
- First, a cell that is about to clone itself makes copies of all of its chromosomes ( DNA replication)
- All the chromosomes are copied now (now it looks like an X rather than a single line)
- During division, the cell splits in half, and each new cell takes one half of the paired chromosome
- In the end, both cells have the same chromosomes as the initial cell.
- Mitosis makes two diploid cells from one diploid cell
Meiosis
Meiosis (my-oh-sis) is a special type of cell division that creates haploid cells
Haploid cells are basically gametes (sex cells) which contain h

alf the full chromosome set
- So that they can combine with another gamete to form a diploid cell
- First, like mitosis, the cell copies all of its chromosomes (DNA replication),
- But the new sets are jumbled up
- The cell first splits in half to give two cells, and each of those cells then divide once more
- This makes four haploid cells which all have different genes (because it was jumbled up)
- The different genes ensure a genetic variation in the offspring
Genetic Variation
You need to know the following terms relating to genetic variation
Allele (ah-leel): different form of a gene (pl. alleles)

- For example, let’s say a specific gene codes for a protein that determines your eye colour:
- The gene might have a
- Blue colour allele (one form)
- Brown colour allele (another form)
- And the colour of your eye will be determined by what allele you have.
- (eye colour is actually determined by a combination of multiple genes but this is an example)
There are two types of alleles:
Dominant allele: an allele that is always expressed when present
- Denoted by a uppercase letter (B, G, T)
Recessive allele: an allele that is only expressed when a dominant allele is not present
- Denoted by a lowercase letter (b, g, t)
- (More on this in Mendelian Genetics later)
Homozygous - when a gene has two identical alleles (either both dominant or both recessive)
- (BB) or (bb) or (GG) etc.
Heterozygous - when a gene has two different alleles (one dominant and one recessive)
- (Bb) or (Tt) etc.
Genotype : Genetic makeup of an organism in terms of alleles (basically what alleles you have)
- Heterozygous or homozygous?
- If homozygous, dominant or recessive? (BB or bb)?
Phenotype : the physical characteristic of an organism due to its genotype and its environment
- For example,
- a genotype of homozygous dominant (BB) might mean that it will have:
- a phenotype of blue eyes
Mendelian Genetics
(named after Gregory Mendel - who proposed this idea of inheritance)
You need to know how the genotypes affect the phenotype:
Genotypes can be classified into three:

- Heterozygous (Bb)
- Homozygous dominant (BB)
- Homozygous recessive (bb)
The phenotype depends on the genotype
For example: we have a flower, with a gene that codes for its petal colour.
It has two alleles of that same gene (let’s call this gene “c” for colour)
- One which makes it blue, which happens to be the dominant allele (C)
- One which makes it red, which happens to be the recessive allele (c)
A genotype will always have two alleles, and there are only three possibilities: (Cc) (CC) (cc)
We said before a dominant allele is “always expressed when present“
- It basically means the dominant allele will overpower the recessive allele
- In this case, because the C(blue) overpowers the c(red),
- When we have the heterozygous genotype (Cc), the phenotype will be b lue
It is the same for the case of homozygous dominant(CC), since they are both dominant(blue):
- the phenotype will be blue.
However for a homozygous recessive(cc), since they are both recessive(red), there is no dominant to overpower it.
- phenotype will be red.
Homozygous recessive genotype is the only time where the recessive phenotype can show, which is why we said
- Recessive alleles are only expressed when a dominant allele is not present
In summary:
Genotype Phenotype
Heterozygous (Bb) Phenotype of dominant allele
Homozygous Dominant (BB) Phenotype of dominant allele
Homozygous Recessive (bb) Phenotype of recessive allele
(you should be able to explain why)

You need to know how to predict results of inheritance of offsprings between the three genotypes
Taking the example from the flower above with:

- dominant allele (C) - phenotype : blue
- recessive allele (c) - phenotype : red
What would happen if you have two parents,

- one heterozygous (Cc) - phenotype : blue
- one homozygous recessive (cc) - phenotype : red
What would the offspring be?

You can use a monohybrid cross to find this - which looks like this:
This is how you use it:
1. Look at the genotypes of the two parents, (in this case Cc and cc)
- And put each allele on the outside of the main box
2. In each of the main box, write down the two alleles that correspond
- (from the parent boxes)
- Each “main” box is a possible genotype of an offspring
3. Complete the boxes and you can see the four potential genotypes
4. You can calculate the probability of a genotype occurring:

- 2/4 = ½ chance of a heterozygous (Cc) offspring
- 2/4 = ½ chance of a homozygous recessive (cc) offspring
5. From that you can calculate the probability of a phenotype occurring:
- ½ chance of a dominant phenotype, blue (from heterozygous)
- ½ chance of a recessive phenotype, red (from homozygous recessive)
We say this has a phenotype ratio of 1:1 - because there is 50:50 chance of getting either phenotype.
If you tried it with a different parents (which you should : try [Bb and Bb] and [Tt and tt]) you get different ratios.
If you try you will see that :
Homozygous dominant with any other genotype will give 100% dominant phenotype
Two heterozygous parents will give 3:1 ratio of phenotypes (3 dominant : 1 recessive)
- Define inheritance as the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.
- Define the terms:
- chromosome as a thread of DNA, made up of a string of genes
- gene as a length of DNA that is the unit of heredity and codes for a specific protein;
- a gene may be copied and passed on to the next generation
- allele as any of two or more alternative forms of a gene.
- Describe the inheritance of sex in humans (XX and XY chromosomes).
- Define the terms:
- haploid nucleus as a nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes (e.g. sperm and egg)
- diploid nucleus as a nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes (e.g. in body cells).
- Define mitosis as nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells in which the chromosome number is
maintained by the exact duplication of chromosomes (details of stages are not required).
- State the role of mitosis in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of worn out cells and asexual reproduction.
- Define meiosis as reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved from diploid to haploid (details of
stages are not required).
- State that gametes are the result of meiosis.
- State that meiosis results in genetic variation so the cells produced are not all genetically identical.
- Define the terms:

- genotype as the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
- phenotype as the physical or other features of an organism due to both its genotype and its environment (e.g.
tall plant or green seed)
- homozygous as having two identical alleles of a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg).
- Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
- heterozygous as having two different alleles of a particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
- dominant as an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. T or G)
- recessive as an allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g).
- Calculate and predict the results of monohybrid crosses involving 1 : 1 and 3 : 1 ratios.
Biology 9.4 - Variation and Selection
Data Types
You need to know the two types of data (and relate them to phenotypic variation)
- Discrete data (discontinuous) and continuous data
Discrete, or discontinuous data is data that has a limited number of distinct groups
- This means when you graph it, it will be a bar chart or a pie chart
Discrete data in phenotypes include:

- Blood types
- (there are 4 distinct groups : A, B, AB, and O)
- Eye colour
- (limited number of distinct groups : brown, blue, grey etc.)
Note that all discrete phenotypes are purely genetic factors

- Blood type and eye colour are only determined by your DNA
- Environment cannot change it
Continuous data is data that has range (infinite number) of data between two extremes
- Infinite number of data points means basically the data can be measured in decimals
- Meaning that it will be graphed by a line graph or a scatter graph
Continuous data in phenotypes include:

- Height
- You can have any value of height between extremes
- Weight
- Just like height, any value between extremes
- Skin tone
- You cannot divide skintone into exact groups
For continuous data, notice that these phenotypes can be a c
ombination of genetic and environmental factors.
Weight for example, can be determined by both genetic and environmental:
- Genetic factors can include low metabolic rates etc.
- Environmental factors can include diet and exercise.
However some data are purely environmental too, like:

- Accent
- Language etc.
These differences in phenotypes are called variation.

Mutation
You need to know what mutation is and how it can be caused
Mutation can also be a source of variation,
Usually variation occurs as a result of sexual reproduction or environmental change
A variation by mutation is caused by a change in gene or a chromosome.
Mutation can be caused by:

- Chemicals
- An error in cell division
- Ionising radiation
Ionising radiation includes the three most energetic electromagnetic waves ( more in unit P9)
- Gamma radiation [most ionising]
- X-radiation (X-ray)
- Ultraviolet (UV) radiation [least ionising]
- They have enough energy to ionise (remove, or strip off, electrons) atoms - to become ions
- When atoms becomes ions they change their behaviour
- When a DNA molecule is hit by ionising radiations, it changes its genes (mutates) and the outcomes can be:
- Positive change
- Maybe a gene chances to produce a more useful version of a protein
- No change
- This is what happens most of the time
- Negative mutation
- A gene might be changed to start producing a malfunctioning protein
- e.g. sickle cell anaemia (produces malfunctioning red blood cells)
- Or a very extreme negative mutation, cancer
- Cancer cells are essentially mutated cells that no longer function properly
- All it does is infinitely divide and use up all the resources
- When a gamete (a sex cell) is mutated, the mutation is inherited.
Natural Selection
You need to know how natural selection works
Natural selection, or “survival of the fittest” is a theory proposed by Charles Darwin,
- “The different survival and reproduction of individuals due to their different phenotypes”
The most “fit” individuals will survive and have the highest chances of reproducing and passing on their “fit” genes.
- “Fit” here means most adapted to the environment
- Taking giraffes as an example:

1. At first there are many different giraffe individuals, of varying neck lengths
- Meaning some have the genes for long necks and some have the genes for short necks
2. After time the leaves (food) in the lower trees have been depleted (change in environment)
- This means only the giraffes with longer necks can eat food
3. The giraffes with short necks will die and will not be able to reproduce
4. Only the giraffes with long necks (better adapted for the environment - more “fit”) will survive
- Meaning they can reproduce and pass on their “long neck” genes
- Produces “fitter” offsprings
5. Over long periods of time, this process will repeat
- Only the giraffes with the longest of the longest necks will survive
6. In the end, the whole population of giraffes will have the gene for long necks
Natural selection is the key to evolution:

- The change in heritable traits of a population overtime
- Only the best “genes” survive and overtime all of the population will have that gene
- Because all the individuals without the gene did not survive to reproduce.
- The resulting species will have better genes and hence e volved to better suit their habitats
If this process happens with a single species which is subjects to two different environments:
- e.g. starting with the same “bear”, one is taken to the arctic and one is taken to the jungles
- By natural selection, they will start to evolve differently due to the environment
- If the species have separately evolved and can n o longer reproduce with each other (cannot interbreed)
- They have evolved into two different species
- This is called speciation
You need to know how natural selection can be harmful to humans
Natural selection works to allow the species to survive further and become stronger
- What if natural selection happened with bacteria?
- This means only the strongest bacteria will survive (which is bad for us)
For example, humans use antibiotics to kill bacteria

- This will kill off most of the bacteria
- BUT some bacteria that have different genes can survive the antibiotic
- (maybe producing a protein that somehow destroys the antibiotic molecule)
- This means the only surviving bacteria will have a
ntibiotic resistant genes
- They will proceed to reproduce and soon:
- The specific antibiotic will no longer work on the whole of the bacteria population
- Meaning humans have to find a new cure etc.
Artificial Selection
You need to know what artificial selection is and how it is useful to humans
Artificial selection works in the same way as natural selection
- But instead of the environment killing off the weaker genes and leaving the stronger genes to reproduce,
- Humans “pick out” the stronger genes and breed them
For example, if farmers wanted to grow tomatoes, at first there will be many different tomatoes
- After growing them, some will have grown taller, or have grown larger tomatoes
- The farmer “selects” those tomatoes and breeds them
- The offsprings of the larger tomatoes will have the genes for larger products
- And cycle continues
Artificial selection is useful for humans as it maximises the product output (more economically efficient)
- e.g. same no. of tomato plants but larger fruits
Same theory works with animals

- Chickens are artificially bred to give larger chickens with more meat etc.
- Modern chickens are almost 4 times as large as older chickens
- State that continuous variation is influenced by genes and environment, resulting in a range of phenotypes between two
- extremes, e.g. height in humans.
- State that discontinuous variation is caused by genes alone and results in a limited number of distinct phenotypes with
no intermediates, e.g. A, B, AB and O blood groups in humans.
- Define mutation as a change in a gene or chromosome.
- Outline the effects of ionising radiation on the rate of mutation.
- Describe variation, and state that competition leads to differential survival of, and reproduction by, those organisms best
- fitted to the environment.
- Define natural selection as the greater chance of passing on of genes by the best-adapted organisms.
- Explain the importance of natural selection as a possible mechanism for evolution.
- Describe the development of strains of antibiotic resistant bacteria as an example of natural selection.
- Describe the role of artificial selection in the production of varieties of animals and plants with increased economic
importance.

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IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science

Biology 1 - Characteristics of Living Organisms

The Seven Characteristics of Living Organisms

You need to know​ the 7 life processes listed below:

M​ovement : ​action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.

- List and describe the characteristics of living organisms.

But even if its not in millimetres

The Animal Cell

Comparison of the Two Types of Cells

Animal Cell Plant Cell Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell Membrane Yes Yes Temp. Vacuole Yes Yes

Nucleus Yes Yes Sap​ Vacuole No Yes

Cytoplasm Yes Yes Chloroplast No Yes

Mitochondrion Yes Yes Respiration Yes Yes

Cell Wall No Yes Photosynthesis No Yes

Root Hair Cell

Red Blood Cell

- Red blood cells ​don’t have nuclei​.

- Red blood cells are very ​small and flexible

- State that living organisms are made of cells.

These terms are all used to ​compare​ solutions to one another.

- Hypertonic​: More solute concentration (low water potential)

- Isotonic​: Equal solute concentration

- Hypotonic​: Less solute concentration (high water potential)

You need to know ​that if an animal cell is placed in a:

You need to know ​that if a plant cell is placed in a:

You need to know​ how an enzyme works.

- It is called ​lock and key,

- pH also affects and denatures enzymes.

- Like optimum temperatures, enzymes also have an optimum pH

- Enzymes control a lot of vital processes in an organism, like

- Protease​ works on proteins (e.g. ​pepsin​)

- Maltase​ works on maltose molecules

The Food Groups

You need to know​ the definition of nutrition:

Food Group Use and importance Source

Starch Slow release of energy Pasta, rice, bread, potatoes

Strong blood vessels and skin Citrus fruits, average fruits

- Calcium strengthens bones and teeth, so calcium deficiency will cause:

Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms Extreme Symptoms

Vitamin C Swollen gums, frequent nose bleeds Scurvy

Vitamin D Weakening of bones and teeth Rickets

Calcium Weakening of bones and teeth Osteoporosis and rickets

Iron Tiredness (fatigue) Anaemia

Food Molecule Elements Basic Units Structure Digestive Enzyme

Glycerol and fatty acids

Polysaccharide Test (Iodine Solution Test)

- ​ sing ​Benedict’s solution​, which is ​light blue​.

1. Put a small amount of sample in the test tube

Protein Test (Biuret’s Test)

1. Place a small amount of sample in a test tube

- Lipids​ are the group that includes fats and oils.

1. If solid, place a small sample in a mortar.

Photosynthesis is the reaction that happens in​ chlorophylls​ in plant cells

Carbon Dioxide​ + ​Water​ ==​light and chlorophyll​=> ​ Glucose​ + ​Oxygen

6 CO​2​ + ​6 H​2​O​ ​==​light and chlorophyll​=> ​ ​ C​6​H​12​O​6​ + ​6 O​2

- Epidermis (Upper and Lower)

- Stoma (pl. stomata)

Effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis

- As light energy is crucial for photosynthesis,

- This result can be investigated with the following experiment:

Effect of carbon dioxide levels on rate of photosynthesis

- As carbon dioxide is one of the ​reactants​ of photosynthesis,

- However, after a certain point, the graph levels out

You need to know the 7 life processes listed below:

Movement : action by an organism or part of an organism causing a change of position or place.

Nucleus Yes Yes Sap Vacuole No Yes

- Red blood cells don’t have nuclei.

- Red blood cells are very small and flexible

These terms are all used to compare solutions to one another.

- Hypertonic: More solute concentration (low water potential)

- Isotonic: Equal solute concentration

- Hypotonic: Less solute concentration (high water potential)

You need to know that if an animal cell is placed in a:

You need to know that if a plant cell is placed in a:

You need to know how an enzyme works.

- It is called lock and key,

- Protease works on proteins (e.g. pepsin)

- Maltase works on maltose molecules

You need to know the definition of nutrition:

- sing Benedict’s solution, which is light blue.

- Lipids are the group that includes fats and oils.

Photosynthesis is the reaction that happens in chlorophylls in plant cells

Carbon Dioxide + Water ==light and chlorophyll=> Glucose + Oxygen

6 CO2 + 6 H2O ==light and chlorophyll=> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

- As carbon dioxide is one of the reactants of photosynthesis,

- Nitrate ions (NO3-)

- Magnesium ions (Mg2+)

- Salivary glands : produces saliva containing amylase for carbohydrate digestion.

- Pancreas : The organ producing pancreatic juice and other hormones.

You need to know the definitions of the words:

- Ingestion : taking substances into the body through the mouth

You need to know structure of the teeth.

You also need to know how teeth decay.

You need to know the definition of translocation:

You need to know the definition of transpiration:

- Cohesion: water molecules like to stick together to each other

- Adhesion: water molecules like to stick to other molecules

You need to know the different types of blood vessels

- Veins : The vessels that lead blood into the heart

- Each half is separated by the wall of muscle called the septum,

- Hepatic vessels : hepatic means relating to the liver.

- Renal vessels : renal means relating to the kidneys.

- Coronary means surrounding the heart.

You need to know that a coronary heart disease is:

The most common coronary disease is called atherosclerosis

- When the coronary arteries are blocked by plaque (which

You need to know the components of blood and their functions

- Lymphocytes : have big, solid nucleus

- Phagocytes : have lobed, weirdly shaped nucleus

You need to know how to define respiration:

You need to know how to define aerobic respiration:

Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + Water

Larynx - the voice box

Ribs - the bones which protect the organs in the chest.

CO2 Lower Higher

You need to know THAT YOU SHOULDN’T SMOKE

You need to know how the human nervous system works.

You need to know the structure of the eye, a sensory organ.