The Age of Capitalism. 1848-1875.

1. The consolidation of the political map of Europe.

After the revolutionary movements of 1848, there were no longer major social revolutions in
Europe. They consolidated more or less authoritarian regimes, with parliaments elected by census
votes and granting some political and civil rights. These regimes had the support of a liberal
bourgeoisie enriched by the economic expansion of the industrial revolution. A bourgeoisie that
feared that democracy would bring the working classes to power and put an end to their
comfortable position. However, triumphant nationalism led to two significant transformations of the
continent's political map: the unifications of Germany and Italy.

1. In GERMANY, the unification process was led by PRUSSIA, promoter of the Zollverein.
Starting in 1860, Chancellor (Prime Minister) Otto von Bismarck, with skillful diplomatic and
military maneuvers, managed to get Prussia to take control of the German Confederation. In
1866 he defeated Austria in a war and annexed most of the North German states. The process
culminated with the victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, which led to
the creation of the Second Reich German (Empire) and proclamation of William II as kaiser
(emperor). Germany incorporated the French territories of Alsace and Lorraine. It was the
result of a policy of modernization, industrial investment and administrative organization
that allowed it to create the most powerful army in Europe.

2. In ITALY, divided into multiple states, there was a national affirmation movement, the
Risorgimento, which gained strength in the revolutions of 1848 in cities like Milan, before
being defeated by Austria. Starting in 1859,the king of Piedmont VictorEmmanuel II, and his
minister Cavour They managed to unify northern Italy by defeating Austria and creating the
kingdom of Italy. In the south, the revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi managed to conquer
militarily the kingdom of Naples and the Two Sicilies, but gave it up to achieve the
unification of Italy, which was completed with the conquest of Rome and its proclamation as
capital of the Kingdom in 1871.

Other important notes regarding the main European powers were:

In BRITAIN, this period is known as the "Victorian Era", marked by the long reign of Queen
Victoria (1837-1901). Politically they were the most advanced country and various reforms were
made that significantly expanded the right to vote, as well as laws to improve education and working
conditions. He was still the main industrial and economic center, but was focused on the Expansion
of the British Empire in India, China, South Africa and Oceania. Social and political
transformations allowed changes in customs and daily life with great influence. In a sense, it was the
most advanced country in all aspects.

FRANCE had proclaimed the Second Republic in 1848 and the population elected as
president Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the great Empereur. In 1852 he carried out a coup
d'état and proclaimed himself emperor of the Second French Empire. reigned as Napoleon III and
carried out an expansionist policy to increase the prestige of France, through:

1. Great scientific and engineering works to show the world the French grandeur. Napoleon III
was the promoter of the construction of the Suez Canal, the work of the French engineer
Ferdinand de Lesseps.
2. Imperial military interventions: in Algeria, Indochina (Vietnam-Laos) and in Mexico.
 Napoleon III wanted to be the hegemonic power in Europe: On the scientific and cultural
level, it competed with Great Britain in the modernity of its inventions and customs. From a military
point of view, French troops were always mobilized in defense of national interests, but they were
completely defeated by Germany in 1871 in the Franco-Prussian War. In the chaos that followed,
the PARIS COMMUNE, social revolution that established the first government of the working class
in history but was harshly repressed by the army.

In Central and Eastern Europe, separatist nationalist movements spread in AUSTRIA, which
in 1867 granted political power to Hungary after a revolution in Budapest. Thus was established the
EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. In the Balkans, controlled by the Ottoman Empire, nationalist
movements were reinforced in Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria, Ottoman vassal states, but with
growing influence from Austria-Hungary and Russia.

RUSSIA was the most absolutist country in Europe, the only one that did not guarantee any
type of political representation to its citizens.
1. In 1853 Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire to gain control of the Black Sea, but France and
Great Britain allied themselves with the Ottoman Empire and Russia lost. This was the
CRIMEAN WAR, the first modern war, in which there were also war reporters, photographs
and the British nurse Florence Nightingale developed Modern Nursing.
2. After the humiliating Russian defeat, some reforms were attempted, but they fell apart. The
result was tight control of the population by the autocratic authorities. Still, some of the
most important writers and musicians of the century flourished in these years, giving Russia
great cultural influence.

2. Political effects of the Industrial Revolution. The triumph of

capitalism and the consolidation of the labor movement.
In economic terms CAPITAL refers to the resources and assets that a person, company or society
uses to produce goods or services with the objective of generating income. These resources can
include money, tools, machinery, buildings, and anything else used to carry out economic activities.

As we saw when analyzing the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution, a fundamental step was the
development of a new ideology, economic liberalism, by Adam Smith. It was based on the idea that
the individual pursuit of self-interest in a free market leads to the benefit of all of society (invisible
hand). It is based on three principles:

1. Free initiative to seek personal benefit is the engine of economic growth. Profits can be
reinvested (thus becoming capital, not simple wealth) and, with this, the general interest is
favored.
2. A free market, without state intervention, regulates itself thanks to the Law of supply and
demand, which regulates prices by balancing the interests of buyers and sellers.
3. Free Competence stimulates innovation and improves productivity.

That is, Adam Smith advocated an economic system in which capital (resources, money, machinery,
etc.) could move freely, without government intervention, since a free market would allow people
and companies to use their capital in the most efficient way possible to produce goods and services.
The Industrial Revolution gave great importance to CAPITAL and put it at the forefront of the
economy, since industrialization (construction of factories, railways, ships, infrastructure, etc.)
required a large investment in means of production (facilities, machinery, etc.). The problem with
the theory was social, because capital became the private property of a minority of the population,
the high bourgeoisie, which was the one that obtained the benefits. The rest of the population
worked for a salary, without sharing property or benefits. This gave rise, as we saw in the previous
period, to a new social hierarchy in which Capitalist Bourgeoisie controlled the lives of the
population.

Besides, as industrialization progressed and the industries reached great dimensions and
complexity, they needed increasing capital to finance the new means of production. To collect these
large investments, two means were used: banks that used the savings of many clients; and
Anonymous Societies, companies whose capital is divided into shares distributed among
shareholders according to the amount of money that one invests, then distributing the profits
proportionally. Although they also run the risk of losing their investment if the company fails.

Between 1848 and 1875 there were failures that ruined many investors, small and large, but the trend
was the rapid expansion of the Industrial Revolution and, with it, THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM
TRIUMPHED AND REACHED A POINT OF NO RETURN. This increased the social inequalities
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. With census suffrage, the owners were also the only
ones with political rights and the conditions of the proletariat depended entirely on the will of the
owners.

The result was DEFINITIVE ORGANIZATION OF THE WORKERS MOVEMENT, with the expansion
of unions and movements that sought to protect workers' rights and improve their conditions.

There were those who just sought to improve the conditions of the lower classes; but far more
influential were political theories that saw impossible to improve the condition of the working
classes within the existing capitalist society. There were two great political theories. Both agreed
on the need to end capitalist society, but they had differences about how to achieve it:

1. MARXISM-COMMUNISM. Developed by Karl Marx in his Communist Manifesto of 1848. In

1867 Marx published his most influential work, The Capital in which he critically analyzes
the capitalist system in its entirety and accused it of being based on the exploitation and
dehumanization of the worker, in addition to predicting that it would collapse due to its
contradictions. They sought to achieve power in the State to end capitalist society from
above, taking the power of the state to implement a dictatorship of the proletariat,
expropriate the bourgeoisie and reach communism, the dreamed classless society.

2. ANARCHISM. With thinkers like Bakunin and Kropotkin, they believed in individual
freedom, collective property and rejection of all authority. They wanted to end the State and
establish a society without hierarchies. Unlike the Marxists, they could not create political
parties and hoped to achieve revolution through the creation of revolutionary unions
(anarcho - syndicalism) or direct actions: general strikes, attacks and assassinations of
authorities, etc.

Socialists and anarchists were internationalists, in the sense that for both of them, the conflict was
not between nations but between classes, between rich and poor, that is why they intended to unite
the workers of the World. With the participation of Marx and Bakunin, in 1864 the First
International Workers Association was created, but it was dissolved due to the differences between
communism and anarchism. However, the growing strength of the labor movement led to improved
working conditions, with laws that, for example, reduced the number of hours, although the
conditions were, in general, very unfavorable.
 3. The Expansion of the Industrial Revolution between 1848 and
1875.

Between 1848 and 1875 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM
TRIUMPHED AND REACHED A POINT OF NO RETURN.

During this period, the UK continued to lead industrialization and capitalism. However, Beginning
in 1850, the Industrial Revolution expanded rapidly to other European nations such as France and
Germany, as well as the USA. These countries adapted British innovations, creating their own
industrial centers and experienced rapid economic growth. The rapid expansion of railways In
these years is perhaps the clearest example of this trend. By 1880, almost 250,000 kilometers of
railway tracks had been laid in Europe alone.

Furthermore, in the middle of the Century Important changes contributed to the unstoppable
effect of the industrial revolution, consolidating itself as a global phenomenon and laying the
foundations for the configuration of the modern world

1. The industrial revolution coincided with an expansion in Science and led to a change in the
nature of scientific research, with a greater emphasis on applied science to solve practical
problems. Beginning in the second half of the century, new scientific disciplines were
established and there were rapid advances in knowledge.
a. As science became an engine of progress, there was a growing demand for engineers
and scientists to drive industrial technology. This meant a greater concern for
education: Educational systems expanded and science and mathematics were
incorporated into teaching. Also, modern technical and research universities were
created, an aspect in which Germany took the lead, allowing it to soon become the
greatest scientific power in the World.
b. The new scientific mentality also allowed the development of theories that would
change the way we see the world. One of the most influential was the THEORY OF
EVOLUTION by Charles Darwin, formulated in 1859. Darwinism revolutionized the
understanding of biology and the diversity of life and had a profound impact on the
perception of nature and the position of human beings in the world, influencing
various fields, including politics, for example, by providing a theoretical anchor to
racial theories.

2. STEEL. MASS PRODUCTION: In 1856, the British Henry Bessemer developed a process that
allowed the manufacture of steel (alloy of iron and carbon) on a large scale. Stronger and
more versatile than simple iron, steel immediately dominated railroad construction. Over
time, thanks to improvements in the production process, it had a significant impact on
architecture and engineering.

3. CHEMICAL INDUSTRY: The advance in knowledge of chemical compositions allowed the

development of numerous materials and products from dyes, rubbers and tires to solvents,
fertilizers, explosives or medicines. Germany was the leading country in the sector.

4. The development of long distance transportation and communication had a series of

important milestones that made the society of the time feel that the world was increasingly
connected and becoming smaller.
a. The introduction of propeller steamships allowed ocean steamboats
b. Construction of the SUEZ CANAL in 1869. One of the most important works of the
century. It shortened the journey between Europe and India.
 c. Also in 1869, America's "transcontinental railroad" connected Eastern and Western
coasts, accelerating migration, trade and economic integration in the country.
d. Transcontinental Telegraph thanks to the laying of submarine cables.

4. Intellectual and social effects of the Industrial Revolution.

Spectacular scientific and technical advances consolidated the FAITH IN PROGRESS. There
was general confidence that scientific and material progress would help build a better future, in
which the main problems of humanity could be solved and the scourges of plague, famines, wars and
other calamities that had affected humanity in other times could be definitively left behind. This
progress achieved by the West was shown in all its splendor in the sumptuous UNIVERSAL
EXHIBITIONS that were held in the main cities of the world and in which the participating nations
showed their most outstanding products and achievements.

The first of these exhibitions took place in London in 1851 and was promoted by Albert,
Queen Victoria's husband. For its celebration, a grand iron and glass pavilion, the Crystal Palace, was
built and in the months that it was open it received millions of visitors from all over the world. Given
the success, Napoleon III held his own universal exhibition in Paris in 1855 to consolidate the prestige
of his Empire and, to this end, in addition to industry, he also dedicated the exhibition to the fine
arts. Since then, each celebration was more lavish than the previous and the exhibitions became the
best showcase for the new world created by the industry, in which countries showed their economic,
colonial and cultural power. In addition to being a resource of inspiration and entertainment for its
millions of attendees, it was also in these exhibitions where modern “amusement parks” were born.

The accelerated growth of Industrial CITIES was also a feature of this period. To address this
phenomenon, urban improvements and planned expansions were built, often with a checkerboard
plan, like the famous Eixample in Barcelona or New York. There were also health improvements,
since rapid growth had made the cities unhealthy, as shown by the “great stench” of London in 1858,
an event that motivated the construction of the sewage system.

Cities were also elements of prestige, to show everyone who visited the greatness of the
country. A notable example was the Paris transformation with Napoleon III, under the direction of
Haussmann, who modernized the city by creating wide avenues and public spaces. New
construction techniques were also used and new materials such as iron and glass allowed buildings
never seen until that moment.

Unlike what happened decades ago, in the 1850s all these novelties could be easily
disseminated thanks to the invention of technology, PHOTOGRAPHY that documented everyday life
and allowed a more accessible and faster representation of reality.

Furthermore, because the industrial revolution and the capitalist system brought with them
the production of all types of goods to an increasingly large and varied market, it was necessary for
these goods to stand out to attract the attention of buyers. Advertising and the CONSUMER
SOCIETY began to develop, which in turn resulted in the emergence of fashion as a cultural
phenomenon. Advertising and advertisements multiplied: advertisements on the streets, in the
press, specialized magazines, etc., influencing purchasing habits and creating a visual and aesthetic
culture in constant evolution.

Finally, the emerging bourgeoisie, in addition to getting rich, redefined customs and created
new trends:

1. New forms of entertainment, such as concerts, theaters, varieties, etc. The OPERA was the
 great bourgeois show. It motivated the construction of spectacular buildings.
2. Because pollution from factories and city life produced a loss of connection with nature,
enjoy the outdoors took a new value. Strolls along the newly built boulevards and urban
parks became a popular custom and tourism outside the city, even internationally, was
made easier thanks to the railway. Also, especially in Great Britain and the United States,
sport practice. And exercise and outdoor activity began to be value in education.
3. The new social reality had a direct influence on literature with the emergence of trends
such as realism, which sought the exact reproduction of the society and world of the
moment; or naturalism, which sought to study human behavior.
4. The fascination with science and the search for imaginary worlds also allowed the
development of Science fiction, with authors like Jules Verne. Also, there was an increase in
interest for the supernatural and the occult. Monsters, spirits, ghosts, and fairies populated
Gothic literature, art, and even daily news and conversations.
5. The purchasing power of the bourgeoisie also allowed it to influence the artistic tastes of the
moment, with the development of new forms of expression. In paint, the central decades of
the 19th century were the years of Realism, which sought to end romantic idealization and
capture the reality of the time, with its achievements and miseries.

5. SPAIN IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 19TH CENTURY. LIBERAL

CONSOLIDATION AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND.
In Spain, after the triumph of Isabel II (1833-1868), the liberal political system was divided
into two groups:

1. Moderates or “people of order”: who supported the queen's right to intervene in politics,
they wanted a very limited census suffrage, centralize the powers of the State, restrict
individual rights and stop reforms. They favor the privileged.
2. Progressives or “defenders of freedom”: they did not accept the intervention of the crown in
politics, they wanted to expand the suffrage (the democrats defended universal suffrage),
decentralize the state, expand individual rights, reforms, etc.

During her reign, Isabel clearly favored the most conservative sectors, which gave rise to a lot of
conflict, with numerous “pronunciamientos”.

1. Between 1844 and 1854, MODERATE DECADE conservative government was led by Narváez.
One of the creations of those years is the Civil Guard, to maintain order in the countryside.
The construction of railways also began. The first had been built in Cuba in 1837. On the
peninsula, the Barcelona-Mataró line was drawn in 1848, Madrid-Aranjuez in 1851 and
Valencia - Játiva in 1854.

2. In 1854 a progressive statement triumphed and they remained in power for two years. It was
called the PROGRESSIVE BIENNIUM (1854-1856). His most important works were a new
desamortización carried out by Pascual Madoz from Pamplona, ​and the Railway law that
promoted the construction of the road network.
a. The development of the railway had a series of problems that affected the
long-term economic development of Spain, such as a poorly planned route, without
connection between the industrial centers or with Europe, with a track width
different from that of Europe. Furthermore, the lack of technicians forced them to
depend on foreign companies that were authorized to import all the material they
wanted free of tariffs, which harmed the development of the national industry. As if
that were not enough, lack of passengers led to the bankruptcy of many companies.
 3. The last stage, between 1856 and 1868, was of alternation of governments between
moderates and the Liberal Union, a centrist party, without giving progressives an option. It
was a stage corruption and electoral falsification but also of demographic and economic
expansion, thanks to the development of the railway, the export of minerals to Great Britain
and the first industrial centers around Bilbao (steel industry) and Barcelona (textile
industry), which favored the growth and enrichment of the bourgeoisie (It was then when
the Eixample in Barcelona and the Salamanca neighborhood in Madrid were built). This also
allowed Spain to try to recover the lost prestige with imperialist interventions:
a. In Asia (where Spain still controlled the Philippines), he supported a French
campaign in Cochinchina (Vietnam-Laos) between 1858 and 1862.
b. In Morocco, Spain won the “African War” between 1859 and 1860, which gave it
commercial and territorial advantages around Ceuta, in addition to the emotional
impact of seeing a “winning Spain” again.
c. In America, Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) was incorporated into Spain
between 1861 and 1865; and Spain faced Chile, Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia between
1865 and 1866 in a war around the Chincha Islands, rich in guano, an extremely
valuable natural fertilizer that generated enormous financial resources for Peru.

However, given the continuous excesses of the regime and the attitude of the Queen, the
progressives, marginalized from power, opted for conspiracy and armed revolt. In this context, new
groups opposed to the regime emerged, such as the democrats, who defended universal male
suffrage, and the republicans, which directly wanted the abolition of the monarchy.

Finally, the political crisis of the monarchy broke out and members of the Liberal Union joined the
progressive conspiracy. In 1868, the“GLORIOUS REVOLUTION” , a military insurrection led by
Generals Serrano and Prim triumphed and forced Isabel II to go into exile.

Thus began the so-called “DEMOCRATIC SEXENIUM” whose first objective was to democratize the
political system. For this, a new constitution democratic, approved in 1869.

1. National sovereignty was recovered without intervention of the Monarch. It incorporated

universal male suffrage, rights and freedoms were expanded and the Church was separated
from the State.

2. The problem was that it established constitutional monarchy as a form of State, but there
was no king, so they had to look for one. After many negotiations that even led to
international wars (Franco-Prussian War), a Italian finally agreed to occupy the throne;
Amadeo of Savoy, son of the King of Italy Vittorio Emanuelle II.

3. Amadeo was a true democratic king, honest and hardworking, just what progressive
politicians wanted, but the majority of the population did not accept him for being a
foreigner, and the moderate and conservative sectors rejected him for his measures. In this
context, in 1872 the Carlists proclaimed Charles VII king and began the Third Carlist War.
The Carlists became strong in Catalonia, the Basque Country and Navarra and came to
proclaim a Carlist state with its capital in Estella.

4. There was also a war in Cuba for the independence of the island, which had begun in 1868
with the so-called Grito de Yara, after the exile of Isabel II.

5. In addition, General Prim, the new monarch's main defender, was assassinated. Faced with
this situation, the Republicans also conspired to end the Monarchy and Amadeo renounced
the crown in 1873, returning to his country.

6. Then the Cortes proclaimed the First Spanish Republic, which, despite its good intentions,
 had a very difficult journey. In just 2 years it had 4 presidents and the Republican
governments were divided between very diverse options: supporters of authoritarian
reforms; supporters of a “social revolution” that would give power to the proletarians;
centralists versus federalists, etc. There was even a“cantonal insurrection” in various cities
in Spain, which declared themselves independent cantons or Republics.

Faced with this situation, moderate pronouncements were made and in 1874 the Republican Cortes
were dissolved and Alfonso XII, the son of Isabel II,was proclaimed king. It was the beginning of a
new stage in the History of Spain, the MONARCHIC OR BOURBON RESTORATION (1875-1898).

6. THE REST OF THE WORLD IN THE MIDDLE OF THE 19TH

CENTURY

6.1. THE WORLD “FREE” OF EUROPE: AMERICA

In the USA, tensions over slavery and states' rights caused by westward expansion erupted in a
bloody civil war following the election of the abolitionist Abraham Lincoln. In the AMERICAN CIVIL
WAR (1861-1865) the northern states (the Union) fought against the southern slaveholders (the
Confederacy) and marked the end of slavery in the United States and the strengthening of the federal
government over the states. It was the first capitalist industrial war, which the North won thanks to
its greater industrial power.

After the war, the United States experienced rapid industrial and economic growth.. The
construction of railways, the expansion of industry and the modernization of agriculture
contributed to the economic development of the country. In 1869 a railroad line linked the Atlantic
(East) and Pacific (West) coasts, accelerating westward expansion. Previously, the territory of the
United States had increased considerably with the Alaska acquisition in 1867.

MEXICO: in 1861 the republican government suspended the payment of the debt to the European
powers and Napoleon III of France intervened militarily, establishing a Second Mexican Empire
under the rule of Emperor Maximilian I, an Austrian noble. The empire faced opposition from
Mexican republican forces led by Benito Juarez, which ended up triumphing in 1867, the year in
which Maximilian was executed.

In South America, in addition to the “Spanish-American War” for the Chincha Islands between
Spain and Chile, Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia, there were various armed conflicts. The most
destructive was the War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870) in which Paraguay lost half of its
population against the Triple Alliance formed by Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. The Brazilian
Empire was the most powerful state.

Furthermore, after the discovery of Gold in California and the famine in Ireland, with
Industrialization and expansion towards the West, the European migration to North America
Multiplied. Also to South America, although to a lesser extent. Furthermore, due to the growing
need for labor, countries were opening up to Asian immigration, mainly from China and Japan,
although in a more limited way.
 6.2. THE WORLD COLONIZED BY EUROPE: ASIA and AFRICA

INDIA. The British East India Company had political and economic control, but its policy of reckless
exploitation led in 1857 to the Sepoy Rebellion (Indian soldiers collaborating with the British who
rebelled because they were forced to open with the mouth gunpowder cartridges that had been
treated with pork or cow fat and the soldiers were Muslims or Hindus). After a disastrous war, the
administration of India was transferred directly to Great Britain, marking the beginning of the
period known as the RAJ, in which lIndia became a British colony, governed by representatives of
the crown.

CHINA continued to suffer pressure from European imperial powers, particularly Great Britain and
Russia, which forced the signing of the so-called “unequal treaties”, in which European powers
acquired commercial and financial benefits or land. Thus, for example, Russia acquired the region of
Outer Manchuria, where it founded the city of Vladivostok, its main port on the Pacific. Along with
this, internal conflicts broke out and between 1850 and 1864 China was immersed in a terrible civil
war, the Taiping rebellion, which, with more than 20 million estimated deaths, was the deadliest
conflict of the entire 19th century.

OPENING OF JAPAN TO THE WORLD. It was the greatest novelty of these decades. For just over
two centuries, the Japanese Empire was a feudal regime ruled by shoguns and samurais who, by
their own decision, had isolated themselves from the rest of the world, limiting commercial
contacts. In 1856 the intervention of Great Britain and the United States forced its opening, but its
response was unexpected. In 1868, theMeiji Restoration, marked the end of shogunate and the
return of power to the emperor who carried out a radical policy of reforms: Japan experienced the
most rapid industrialization and modernization of any nation in history, adopting Western
technologies and reforming its political, economic and social system. This allowed Japan to emerge
in a few years as a great industrial and military power on the world stage.

In Africa Colonization by European powers slowly began. In the North, France expanded inAlgeria
and began to settle in Senegal. After the construction of the Suez Canal, the French and British
increased their presence in Egypt. In the south, Portugal consolidated its dominance on the coasts
of Angola and Mozambique. In South Africa, Great Britain came into conflict with the Boers, Dutch
settlers, and penetrated into the interior attracted by the agricultural and mining wealth. Little by
little, the interior was becoming known and prepared for conquest thanks to the action of explorers
who wanted to be the first to reach mythical places like the Sources of the Nile, or missionaries,
who, in their eagerness to spread Christianity to the ends of the Earth, began to participate in the
imperial project.