AP Bio Notes Full

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Cell Structure & Organisation

An organelle is a tiny cellular structure within the cytoplasm that performs specific functions
within a cell
Cell Component Identification and Function

a) Name: chloroplast
Function:
● Traps light energy and convert it to
chemical energy (ATP) – site of
photosynthesis
● Stores starch
● Has double membrane
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b) Name: nucleus
Function:
● Controls the activities of the cell
such as cell growth and repair
● Essential for cell division as it
contains genetic material in the
nucleolus
c) Name: mitochondrion
Function:
● Releases energy during aerobic
respiration
● Glucose is oxidised (by oxygen) to
release chemical energy for cell to
perform activities
● Has double membrane
d) Name: rough endoplasmic reticulum

Function:
● Transports proteins from the
ribosomes via vesicles to the Golgi
apparatus for secretion out of the
cell
● Ribosomes are involved in protein
synthesis
● Has vesicles that transport
substances within the cell
● Often continuous with Nuclear
envelope

e) Name: smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Function:
● More tubular, may not be
connected to the RER
● Does not have ribosomes attached
to the surface
● Synthesizes fats and steroids;
● Detoxifies harmful substances into
harmless materials
f) Name: golgi apparatus

Function:
● Stack of flattened,
membrane bound sacs
● Chemically modifies
substances made by the ER;
● Stores and packages
substances in vesicles for
secretion out of cell
g) Name: vacuole
Function:
● Contains food substances and water
● Large, sap filled (plants)
● Small, usually temporary (animals)

h) Name: lysosome
Function:
● Small membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the RER containing
digestive enzymes
● Break down unwanted chemicals
and toxins so that the materials may
be recycled
Specialised Cells
Differentiation – process by which a cell becomes specialised for a specific function
1. RED BLOOD CELL

Function: Transport oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body

Adaptation Function
Contains haemoglobin Combines with oxygen to form

oxy-haemoglobin which transport oxygen
from lungs to all parts of body
Has no nucleus Has more space to carry more haemoglobin

and thus more oxygen
Circular biconcave shape Increases surface area to volume ratio of

the cell for diffusion of oxygen into and out
at a faster rate
2. ROOT HAIR CELL

Function: Absorbs water and mineral salts from the surrounding salt solution
Adaptation Function
Long and narrow protrusion Increases surface area to volume ratio of

cell so that water and mineral salts can be
efficiently absorbed from the soil
Presence of sap vacuole Lowers its water potential so that water

can be absorbed by osmosis
3. XYLEM VESSEL
Functions:
a. Provides mechanical support for the plant

b. Transports water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves & all other parts of
the plant
Adaptation Function
Absence of cross walls or protoplasm Enables water to move easily through

the lumen
Lignin deposited on the walls of xylem Strengthens wall and prevents vessels
vessels from collapsing
Long, hollow tubes formed from xylem Allows water and mineral salts to be
cells laid end to end conducted from roots to stem and
leaves
Xylem vessels bundled together Provides mechanical support to plant
CELLULAR ORGANISATION
1. Cells - basic unit of living things (muscle cell)
2. Tissues - A group of similar or different cells work together for a specific function
(cardiac muscle)
3. Organs - Different tissues work together for a specific function. There is a division of
labour among organs (heart)
4. Systems - Different organs work together to support the whole system (circulatory
system)
5. Organism - Different systems work together to support the whole organism (human)

Organelles w internal membranes:

- Chloroplasts
- Mitochondria
Organelles w double membrane:

- Mitochondria
- Nucleus
Cell supplied w radioactive amino acids, RER will show signs of radioactivity first, golgi would
detect radioactive enzymes first as it is where protein (from RER) is converted into enzymes
Main constituent of cytoplasm: water
How glucose is prevented from leaving cells: it is converted into starch & stored in chloroplasts;
starch is a large molecule & is unable to pass through the PPM of cells
Advantage of food reserves in plants: starch can be converted back to glucose to provide
energy for cellular activities when photosynthesis stops
Magnification = IMAGE/ACTUAL

Movement of Substances
Structure of plasma membrane (fluid mosaic model)
- Fluid: phospholipid bilayer is viscous & individual phospholipids can move in position
- Mosaic: phospholipid bilayer is scattered with proteins, resulting in a mosaic of
components
Phosphate head made out of glycerol & phosphate - attracted to water (soluble)
Fatty acid tail - repels water (insoluble)

Components of plasma membrane:
1. Phospholipids: form a bilayer with

hydrophilic phosphate heads facing
outwards & hydrophobic fatty acid tails
facing inwards; forming a hydrophobic
boundary in an aqueous medium between
interior & exterior of a cell
2. Cholesterol: found in animal cell membranes, improves stability, reduces fluidity
3. Proteins: either integral or peripheral

- Channel proteins: form pores that
are not alw open, work on the basis
of extracellular signals
- Carrier proteins: bind to specific

molecules that need to be
transported, and undergo
conformational changes that help in
the passage of molecules
- Peripheral: superficially attached to

the membrane surface
4. Glycoprotein: involved in cell recognition as receptor sites for chemical signals, and
cell-to-cell adhesion to form tissues.
Type of movement Examples
Simple diffusion – through lipid bilayer down a Non polar molecules - oxygen,
concentration gradient carbon dioxide, fatty acids,
fat-soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K)
(passive transport)

Facilitated diffusion – may involve nonspecific Large polar molecule - amino

or specific protein transporter down a acid, ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+ ), which
concentration gradient cannot directly diffuse across the
cell membrane by simple
(passive transport) diffusion as they are repelled by
the hydrophobic region of the
membrane, require transport
protein to cross
Osmosis – involves aquaporins / water Water molecule

channels or lipid bilayer down a water
potential gradient
(passive transport)
Active transport – involves protein channel Glucose molecule

against a concentration gradient
Passive transport: no energy needed to be carried out
Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion
Similarities ● The net movement of particles is always along / down a

concentration gradient. Dynamic equilibrium is reached when the
concentration is equal
● Energy from ATP is not required (passive transport)
Difference ● Occurs directly across the ● Transport proteins

s plasma membrane. embedded in the plasma
● Substances to be transported membrane are needed to
are hydrophobic and carry particles of a
uncharged. substance across.
● Substances are large and
hydrophilic.

Osmosis: the net movement of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane,
from a region of higher water potential (or lower solute conc.), to a region of lower water
potential (or higher solute conc.)
Functions of the Cell Membrane:

1. Formation of a boundary
- Boundary between contents of the cell & external environment
- Ensures maintenance of constant internal environment inside cell
2. Regulation of passage of substances into and out of the cell
- Cell membrane is partially permeable - prevents entry of certain substances
while permitting/facilitating passage of useful substances
- Allows entry of glucose, lipids, AA & exit of waste materials produced by cells
(CO2)
3. Communication with the external environment

-Cell membrane equipped with receptor proteins that receive messenger

molecules from other cells (hormones, neurotransmitters)
4. Compartmentalisation within the cell
- Eukaryotic cells have numerous intercellular membrane systems that form
compartments for specific metabolic pathways to take place
- Prevents intermediates of one pathway from interfering with those of another
pathway
- Maintains high conc of reactants at specific sites
5. Attachment of membrane-bound enzymes
- Sequence of chemical reactions can be more efficient when enzymes involved
are organised & localised in a sequential manner on the cell membrane
Hypertonic: surrounding solution has lower w.p. (water moves OUT of cell)
Hypotonic: surrounding solution has higher w.p. (water moves INTO cell)
Isotonic: w.p. In and out of cell is the same

Biological Molecules: Nutrients
Elements in living things

● Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen: 4 most common elements found in living
organisms
● C, H, O found in all key organic molecules - proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids
● proteins & nucleic acids also contain N
● Any compound that does not contain carbon = inorganic
● Organic compounds = complex compounds of carbon found in living things
● Living things contain a variety of inorganic substances that are vital to the structure &
functioning of different organisms
● Carbon skeletons: chains of carbon atoms that make organic compounds
Water
➔ A polar molecule, positive charge from H atoms, negative

charge from O atom
➔ Hydrogen bonds are formed between negative charge of
one water mol and the positive charge of another water
mol
➔ Hydrogen bonds between water molecules hold them
together in a network - resulting in cohesion. Cohesive
forces give water many of its biologically important
properties
➔ Water is a universal solvent
property reason consequence
cohesion Hydrogen bonds hold water molecules Water can travel in continuous columns e.g. in
together stems of plants, and act as a transport medium
solvent The polar molecules of water can Ions dissolve easily. Large molecules with polar
interact with other polar molecules side groups, such as carbohydrates and proteins,
(its polarity makes it an excellent can also dissolve. Hence water acts as an
solvent for other polar molecules; excellent transport medium and as a medium for
positive/negative charges are attracted metabolic reactions
to the charges of water molecules)

thermal High heat capacity → Large amounts The temperature of organisms tends to change
of energy are needed to break slowly. Fluids like blood can transport head
hydrogen bonds and change its around their bodies
temperature
Water has a high b.p. as compared to Water is a liquid at most temps at which life
other solvents bc hydrogen bonds exists, so it is a useful medium for metabolic
need large amts of energy to break reactions
them
Water evaporates as hydrogen bonds Sweating and transpiration enable animals and
are broken and heat from water is plants to lose heat, water acts as a coolant
used
Building blocks of organic molecules

● Small simple subunits called monomers
● Monomers are built into complex polymers
Carbohydrates
● Chemical formula: C6H12O6, contain only C H O, ratio of H:O = 2:1
● Source of energy for plants & animals, also have structural function in plants (cellulose
cell wall)
Form of carbohydrate examples Example of use in plants Example of use in animals
Monosaccharide Glucose, galactose, Fructose makes fruits Glucose is the source of

(contain 1 subunit) fructose sweet, attracting animals & energy for cell respiration,
enabling seed dispersal obtained from digestion of
carbs
Disaccharide (contain Maltose, lactose, Glucose made by plants Lactose is found in milk,
2 subunits) sucrose converted to sucrose & provides energy for young
transported from leaves to animals
the rest of the plant as an
energy source
Polysaccharide (long Starch, glycogen, Cellulose is a structural Glycogen - storage

chains of mono) cellulose component of cell walls carbohydrate of animals,
Starch is a food store found in liver & muscles
Condensation
● 2 molecules joined to form a larger molecule, held tgt by strong covalent bonds

● Reaction requires an enzyme to catalyse the process & produces 1 mol of water
Condensation reaction between carbohydrates
diagram shows condensation reaction between 2 glucose molecules (monomers/monosaccharides), the 2 mols lose 1 O & 2 H
forming 1 mol of water which is released, a glycosidic bond is formed between the 2 molecules
● A glycosidic bond is formed between 2 adjacent monomers
● The condensation of 2 monosaccharides produces a disaccharide
● Glycogen (found in liver & muscles), is a poly, formed from long chains of
glucose molecules
Glucose + glucose → maltose + water

Glucose + fructose → sucrose + water
Glucose + galactose → lactose + water
Condensation reaction between amino acids
● 2 amino acids undergo condensation to form a

dipeptide
● When more than 2 amino acids are joined in this way,
a polypeptide is formed, polypeptide chains form
protein molecules
● Peptide bond is formed between 2 AA
Amino acid + amino acid → dipeptide + water

Condensation reaction between fatty acids &

glycerol
● Glycerol links to fatty acids to form

triglyceride lipid molecules
● An ester bond is formed between the
glycerol and a fatty acid molecule
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids → triglyceride lipid + water
Hydrolysis
● Reverse of condensation, involve breaking down polysaccharides, polypeptides,
triglycerides into smaller units (monomers)
● In hydrolysis reactions, molecules are heated with acids, water, or enzymes
● Hydrolysis of starch (poly) uses water, produces many molecules of glucose
● Hydrolysis of protein (chains of polypeptides) uses water, produces many AA
● Hydrolysis of triglyceride uses water, produces fatty acids & glycerol molecules
➔ Sucrose is not a reducing sugar, hydrolyse it to split it into glucose (monosaccharide),

then conduct Benedict’s test for reducing sugars
Fats
● Organic compounds made up of C H O, but contain less Oxygen in proportion to
Hydrogen
● Hydrolysis of 1 fat mol = 1 mol of glycerol & 3 fatty acid molecules
Protein
● Complex organic substances made up of C H O N, sulphur and phosphorus are also
present
● Basic units: Amino acids
Fats contain 2 times the amount of energy per gram as compared to carbs & protein →
fats/triglycerides are more efficient energy reserves

BMI = weight (kg)/height2 (m) → high BMI = high body fat → at risk of developing heart
diseases
test method observation conclusion
Benedict’s test 1. Prepare a boiling water A blue Reducing sugars are

for reducing bath green/yellow/orange/bro present
sugars 2. Add 2cm3 of Benedict’s wn/red/brick red
solution to 2cm3 of food precipitate is formed
solution in a test tube
3. Shake the test tube to mix The mixture remained Reducing sugars are
the contents blue in colour absent
4. Place the test tube in
boiling water bath for 5
min
Iodine test for 1. Place substance on a white Iodine changes from Starch is present
starch tile yellow-brown to blue
2. Add 2-3 drops of iodine to black
the substance
Iodine remains Starch is absent
yellow-brown
Biuret test for 1. Add 2cm3 of sodium Mixture turned from light Protein is present
protein hydroxide to 2cm3 of the blue to violet
substance in a test tube
2. Shake the test tube to mix
3. Add 1% copper sulphate Mixture remained light Protein is absent
solution drop by drop into blue
the test tube, shaking the
test tube after each drop
Ethanol For liquid sample: Clear, colourless solution Fat is present

emulsion test 1. Add 2cm3of ethanol to 2cm3 turns into a Cloudy white
for fats of the substance in a test emulsion
tube, shake to mix well
2. Add 2cm3 of water to the
mixture and shake to mix
well
The solution remained Fat is absent
For solid sample: clear and colourless upon
1. cut/crush the solid into mixing with water
small pieces, add 2cm3 of
ethanol in a test tube

2. Decant the ethanol into

another test tube, add 2cm3
of water, shake to mix well
Organic molecules in the human body: (in order of most to least)
1. Water
2. Protein
3. Fats
What is starch composed of?

- Six-carbon sugars
Health risks of being obese:

- High risks of developing heart diseases and diabetes
Water is suitable to be used in a blood transport system bc it is used as a solvent for many
chemicals

Enzymes
An enzyme is a biological catalyst made up of proteins. It alters the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself being changed at the end of the reaction
Characteristics:
1. Speeds up the rate of chemical reactions
2. Required in minute amounts
3. Can be used over and over again
4. Can catalyse reversible reactions
5. Enzyme acts as a lock and substrate as a key
6. Active site is highly specific & has a 3D shape
The Lock-and-Key Hypothesis

● States that the shape of the active sites
of enzymes is exactly complementary to
the shape of the substrate
● When a substrate molecule collides with
an enzyme whose active site is
complementary to it, the substrate will fit
into the active site and an
enzyme-substrate complex will form, a
reaction will then take place and
products will be released while the
enzyme remains unchanged and is now
free to bind with more substrates

Activation energy
● Energy required for a reaction to start
● Most reactions in a cell require very high
temps to get going, which could destroy
the cell.
● Enzymes provide an alternate reaction
pathway which has a lower activation
energy than the original reaction,
speeding up the reaction
● less energy required to start with
enzyme → can occur more readily
Effect of temperature on the rate

of Enzyme-based Reactions
● Inactive at low temps

● Increasing temperature
increases kinetic energy
that molecules possess →
there are more random
collisions between enzymes
and substrates per unit
time
● Increasing temp → increase
the formation of E-S
complexes → consequently
more products are formed
● Optimum temp: enzyme is
the most active → the rate
of E-S complex formation highest → amt of product formed is the highest
● As temp increases beyond the optimum temp, the weaker bonds in the enzyme will
break, this causes the enzymes active site to be altered
● The active site is no longer complementary to the shape of the substrate, so no E-S
complexes are formed. The rate of reaction will sharply decrease as temp increases,
eventually, the enzyme will become completely denatured & will no longer function as a
biological catalyst

● Different enzymes have different optimum

temperatures depending on the environment
in which they usually catalyse reactions
Effect of pH on enzyme based reactions
● Different enzymes have different optimum pH

values, & usually occupy a narrow pH range of
activity
● Pepsin in the stomach (highly acidic due to HCl) → optimum pH 2
● Trypsin in the duodenum → optimum pH 8 (alkaline due to bile, pancreatic, intestinal
juice)
● Small changes in pH: do not cause permanent change to the enzyme, since bonds can be
reformed
● Extreme changes: can cause enzymes to denature and permanently lose their function
Effect of substrate concentration on the rate of

enzyme based reaction
● When substrate conc is fixed, the rate of

reaction increases with increasing substrate
concentration up to a point, above which any
further increase in substrate conc produces
no significant change in reaction rate
○ Active sites of the enzyme molecules
at any given moment are virtually
saturated with substrate. The E-S
complexes have to dissociate before
the active sites are free to
accommodate more substrate

Effect of enzyme concentration on the rate of enzyme

based-reactions
● As enzyme conc increases, the rate of reaction

increases as there are more active sites available,
until the substrate concentration becomes a
limiting factor - rate stops increasing
● Provided that the substrate conc is high and that
temp & pH are kept constant, the rate of reaction
is proportional to the enzyme conc
Pectinase added for extraction of apple juice:

- Larger volume of juice
- Clarity of the juice
(rate of reaction & substrate conc.)

- Without enzymes:
The rate of reaction constant as there are no enzymes to catalyse the reaction
Enzyme specificity:
- when the enzyme’s name is of a more specific organic compound (e.g. sucrase has
higher enzyme specificity than carbohydrases)
Lipase binds w fat molecules, releasing 3 fatty acid chains & glycerol. Fatty acids lower pH of
solution (which eventually affects rate of E-S complexes forming as enzyme activity is affected
by pH level)

Nutrition in Man
Accessory Organs:
- Liver, pancreas, gall bladder
- Aids in digestion - not part of the digestive system
- Makes digestion more effective
Physical digestion Chemical digestion
● Mechanical break-up of food into ● Break-down of large molecules of

smaller pieces food into small soluble molecules that
● By chewing/peristalsis can be absorbed
● Reactions catalysed by digestive
enzymes
Peristalsis
- Series of wave-like muscular contractions that move food along the digestive tract
- Muscular gut wall constricts, circular muscles contract & longitudinal muscles relax,
making the lumen narrower & longer to push the bolus downward
Carbohydrate Digestion
In the mouth:
starch ( salivary amylase) → maltose
In the small intestine:

starch (pancreatic amylase) → maltose (maltase) → glucose
Lactose ( lactase) → Glucose + galactose
Sucrose ( sucrase) → glucose + fructose
Protein digestion
In the stomach:
Proteins ( pepsin) → polypeptides

Trypsinogen (activated by enterokinase) → trypsin
Proteins ( trypsin) → polypeptides ( peptidases) → amino acids

Fat digestion
- Bile salts (which enters the duodenum
from being stored in the gall bladder)
the emulsify fats
- They break the fats down into small fat
droplets that are suspended in water
- This is followed by the digestion of fats
Fats ( pancreatic and intestinal lipase) → fatty acids +
glycerol
Hepatic portal vein

- A blood vessel that transports nutrients (sugars and amino acids from villi in small
intestine) to the liver from the gastrointestinal tract
- Experiences the greatest change in blood sugar conc as the blood from the
gastrointestinal tract contains glucose from digested food
- Hepatic vein then transports glucose & AA around the body
Structure of a villus
The surface area of the small intestine is

increased by:
1. Shape of small intestine is coiled
2. The inner surface of the small intestine is
folded
3. The folds bear minute finger-like
projections called villi (singular - villus)

4. Single layer epithelium of villus allows digested food substances to take a shorter time
to pass through & enter the bloodstream
5. Each epithelial cell has numerous microvilli on its surface to increase surface area
further
- The lacteal transports fats (broken down by bile, digested by pancreatic and intestinal
lipase into fatty acids & glycerol which diffuse into epithelium & combine to form fat
globules bef entering lymphatic capillary) away from the intestine
- Rich capillary network within each villus transports glucose and amino acids away from
the intestine & to the rest of the body (glucose & AA are absorbed into villi by active
transport, and diffuse into capillaries)
- There is continuous transport of food molecules which maintains the concentration
gradient for the absorption of more food molecules
- Many mitochondria in the villus so that more energy is released → higher rate of
absorption of nutrients & active transport
● Fatty acids & glycerol are not transported through hepatic portal vein or bloodstream, it
is absorbed by the lacteal & transported around the lymphatic system
● Rate of absorption depends on:
1. Surface area to vol ratio (large)
2. Thickness of separating membrane (thin)
3. Concentration gradient (steep)
Functions of the Liver
Function Explanation
1. Carbohydrate metabolism/blood ● When there is too little glucose in the

sugar regulation blood, insulin is secreted & the liver
uses it to convert glucose into
glycogen (insoluble; can be stored in
liver) → lowering blood glucose levels
● When there is too much glucose in
the blood, glucagon is secreted & the
liver uses it to convert glycogen into
glucose (soluble; cannot be stored) →
increasing blood glucose levels
2. Fat metabolism/production of bile Liver produces bile, which emulsifies fats,

which is later stored in the gall bladder

3. Breakdown of RBC/storage of iron ● Worn out RBC are broken down in the
spleen
● Haemoglobin sent to the liver &
broken down
● Iron from the haemoglobin is stored
in the liver & used to synthesise new
RBC, breaking down haemoglobin also
produces bile pigments
4. Metabolism of AA & formation of ● Breaks down AA, which releases

urea ammonia (can be toxic to cells)
● Ammonia is converted into Urea
through deamination, urea is
removed from the body by
deamination
● Carbon residue of the AA is converted
into glucose & when in excess, stored
as glycogen
5. Detoxification Breaks down alcohol by producing an enzyme

called alcohol dehydrogenase, which breaks
down alcohol into acetaldehyde, which is
further broken down and used in respiration
Effects of excess alcohol consumption

- Digestive system: gastric ulcers & liver cirrhosis
- Nervous system: slows down brain function, reduces self control, slower reaction
due to effects of intoxication (slurred speech, blurred vision, poor muscular
coordination)
- Social implications: addiction, violence towards family, committing crimes
➔ Peristalsis does not affect starch digestion bc the stomach doesn’t digest starch
➔ The liver does not secrete/manufacture digestive ENZYMES (bile is not an enzyme)
Organs involved in digestion of polypeptides:

- Duodenum only

- Stomach (1st site of protein digestion NOT polypeptides), pancreas excretes

trypsinogen which digests PROTEIN not polypeptides
If pancreas is removed from body, protein in duodenum will remain undigested (bc it excretes
trypsinogen into duodenum which becomes trypsin- digests protein)
minerals/vitamins/water/glucose - absorbed by body w/o digestion
fibre/indigestible cellulose - never absorbed by body
Describe how polysaccharides are completely digested by enzymes in the small intestine:
- Polysaccharides are broken down by pancreatic amylase into maltose, which is broken
down into the monosaccharide, glucose, by the enzyme maltase. Glucose can be
absorbed by the villi into the capillaries & transported around the body
TAKE NOTE: if the arrow in question is pointing at singular/multiple organelles/villi
Goblet cells secrete mucus
Formation of gall stones in gall bladder affects amt of bile entering duodenum → affecting fat
digestion as fats will not be emulsified into smaller droplets bef being digested by enzymes
Ileum has the greatest internal surface area in alimentary canal
1st site of protein digestion → stomach / 1st carb → mouth / 1st fat → small intestine

Nutrition in Plants
Photosynthesis: process whereby light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll & transformed into
chemical energy used in the synthesis of glucose from water & Carbon Dioxide
Chloroplasts
*DOUBLE MEMBRANE
Granum (singular), grana (plural)

Stages of Photosynthesis
NADPH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate - a coenzyme in plant cells that aids in
electron transfer during photosynthesis
ATP: Adenosine triphosphate - energy-carrying
molecule found in all cells, aka “molecular unit of
currency” of intercellular energy transfer
Light dependent stage

● Takes place across thylakoid membranes
● Through the process of photolysis, light
energy absorbed by chlorophyll splits water
molecules into 1 H ion & 1 Oxygen molecule
(O2) - which is the by-product of the reaction
& diffuses out of chloroplast
● Hydrogen is added to NADP- to make it
NADPH
● Energy is produced in the form of ATP (light energy is converted into chemical energy)
Light independent stage

● Takes place in the stroma

● Hydrogen ion produced by photolysis is used to reduce carbon dioxide (taken in from
surroundings) into glucose through the process of carbon fixation
● The energy required for this reaction comes from the light-dep reaction (ATP & NADPH)
Limiting factors
Factors that directly affects the rate of a reaction when its quantity is changed
1. Light intensity
- Before point X (or bef it plateaus), light
intensity is the limiting factor bc as light
intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis
also increases (assuming other physical
conditions are kept constant), hence, LI
directly affects ROP
- Beyond point X, LI is no longer a limiting factor
as the increase in LI does not affect ROP
anymore & another factor is the limiting factor
2. Carbon dioxide concentration

3. Temperature
- Increasing LI at low light intensities increases

the rate of reaction, bef point X, it is the
limiting factor
- ROP remains constant as LI increases, CO2
conc is now limiting factor
- Low CO2 conc. Often limits ROP (hence
greenhouse growers often enrich atmosphere
w CO2 to enable faster growth of crops)

● As reactions in photosynthesis are enzyme dependent, low temps → enzymes inactive,

photosynthesis rate low, high temps → enzymes denature, photosynthesis rate low
Movement of carbon dioxide in and out of leaves
● CO2 diffuses down a concentration

gradient through the stomata into the
intercellular air spaces of the leaf
● Carbon dioxide dissolves in a thin film
of water on the surface of mesophyll
cells, the dissolved CO2 then dissolves
into the plant cells
● In the day: guard cells are turgid,
stomata opens
● At night: guard cells become flaccid,
stomata closes
Fates of glucose
1. Broken down during respiration to release energy for vital activities of plant
2. Used to synthesis cellulose cell wall
3. Converted into amino acids when nitrates are available (from soil)
4. Converted into oils (olive oil) & fats (cocoa butter in seeds)
5. Excess are stored temporarily as starch
6. Converted to sucrose and transported to other plants via phloem
Maximising the growth of plants

- Using artificial light so photosynthesis can continue even after daylight hours
- Using paraffin lamps which produces CO2 & light
If CO2 is limiting factor, adding potassium hydrogen carbonate to the water (for aquatic plants
only) will cause an increase in the ROP
Photosynthesis starts once light is present (even simultaneously w respiration)

Transport in Plants
Tissues in Root, Stem & Leaf
Transverse/cross section of a stem

- Xylem in centre as water is more important
- In a leaf, the xylem is nearer to the upper epidermis

Xylem
Functions:
● Conduct water & mineral salts
from the roots to the rest of the
plant
● Provides mechanical support for
the plant
Structural adaptations
adaptation function
Xylem walls are hollow, lumen does not Reduces resistance to flow of water so that
contain protoplasm water & MS can be transported at a higher
rate
Cross walls/end walls are absent
Walls are thickened with lignin Provides mechanical support to the plant
Pits Allows sideways movement of water & MS so

cells surrounding xylem can get water
Movement of water
1. In the roots
- Water is absorbed by the root hairs and moves from the root hair towards the xylem
down a concentration gradient
- Each cell from A to the xylem must have
lower water potential than the one
before it in order for water to diffuse
from one cell to the other & move
towards the xylem (so xylem should have
the lowest W.P.)
2. Up the stem against gravity
- Root pressure: pressure resulting from
the constant entry of water into the roots
- Capillary action: tendency of water to
move up inside very narrow tubes & depends on the forces of cohesion and adhesion

- Transpirational pull: suction force caused by transpiration resulting in water moving up

the xylem
- These allow water to move up the xylem from the roots to the rest of the plant
- The sap in the root hair cell is a relatively concentrated solution of sugars & various
salts. Thus, sap has lower w.p. than the soil solution, allowing water to diffuse into the
root hair cells. These 2 solutions are separated by the ppm of the root hair cell.
- Water enters the root hair by osmosis
- Minerals enter the root hair by diffusion & active transport
- Entry of water diluted the sap. The sap of the root hair cell now has a higher w.p. Than
that of the next cell. Hence, water passes by osmosis from the root hair cell to the inner
cells (towards the xylem)
- Similarly, water passes from one cell into the next cell of the root cortex, this process
continues until the water enters the xylem in the root

3. Out the stomata
Transpiration = loss of water from the aerial parts of the plant, mainly through the stomata of
the leaves
- Water continuously moves out of the palisade & spongy mesophyll cells to form a thin
film of moisture over their surfaces
- Water evaporated from this thin film of moisture & moves into the intercellular air
spaces
- W.V. accumulates in the air spaces near the stomata then diffuses through the stomata
& into the air outside the leaf (down a conc gradient)
- As water is lost from the mesophyll cells, water potential of the cell sap decreases, this
causes water mols to be drawn from the xylem into the mesophyll cells by osmosis
- This results in a sucking force called the transpiration pull that pulls an entire column of
water up the stem
- The water is able to move up the xylem as a continuous column due to the force of
attraction btwn molecules (cohesion) & the tendency of water molecules to stick to a
surface (adhesion)
- Stomata: for gaseous exchange & create transpirational pull due to loss of WV

Factors affecting transpiration
factor effect
Humidity Increasing humidity of air → water vapour

conc gradient btwn the leaf & the
atmosphere → less steep
∴as humidity increases, the rate of

transpiration decreases
Wind speed Increasing wind speed → WV conc gradient

btwn the leaf & the atmosphere → more
steep
∴as wind speed increases, the rate of

transpiration increases
Temperature (of air) An increase in surrounding temp → rate of

evap increases
∴as temp increases, the rate of

light intensity In presence of light, stomatal aperture

increases → ROT increases
In darkness, stomata closes → ROT decreases
∴as light intensity increases, the rate of

Wilting
When the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of absorption of water by the roots, plant cells
lose their turgor

- Excessive loss of water causes guard cells to become flaccid & the stomata to close.
Thus, the rate of transpiration is reduced
- The rate of photosynthesis is also reduced as water is now a limiting factor
- As the stomata are closed, the amt of CO2 entering the leaf is also reduced, CO2
becomes a limiting factor → decreasing the rate of photosynthesis
- The folding of the leaf → reduces SA exposed to sunlight → reducing the rate of
photosynthesis
Translocation: the transport of manufactured food substances e.g. sucrose & AA from the
leaves (sources) to other parts of the plant (sinks - which store starch) via phloem
- When there is a sink (e.g. fruits etc..) source (leaves) will continuously photosynthesise
to supply sugars to the sinks
- Without a sink, the ROP decreases
Structure of the phloem

adaptation function
Sieve tube cells have degenerative Reduces resistance to flow of sucrose & AA
protoplasm so that they can be transported @ a higher
rate
The cross walls - which are called sieve
plates, have large pores
Companion cells have abundant Provides energy for companion cell to load
mitochondria sucrose & AA into sieve tubes by active
transport
Flow of sucrose in phloem is bidirectional, unlike the xylem.

Translocation studies to demonstrate translocation occurring through the phloem
study purpose
The use of aphids Demonstrate the presence of sucrose in the

phloem
The use of radioactive isotopes To demonstrate the conversion of glucose

into sucrose
“Ringing” experiment To demonstrate the translocation of sucrose

from source to sink in the phloem
1. The use of aphids
1. Anaesthetise the aphid w CO2 while its feeding on a stem

2. Cut off its body such that the proboscis remains in the plant tissue
3. Analyse the liquid that exudes from cut end of proboscis
4. Section the portion of the stem that contains the proboscis & examin it under a
microscope
Why anaesthetise aphid while its feeding?

- To enable the body of the aphid to be cut off while it is feeding. This ensures that the
proboscis remains in the phloem sieve tube
What tests can be used to analyse the contents of the liquid that exudes from the cut end of
the proboscis?
- Benedict’s test for reducing sugars (should be negative as phloem contains sucrose),
biuret’s test for proteins (AAs in phloem), ethanol emulsion test for fats

Why is the stem sectioned at the region where the proboscis is for examination under the
microscope?
- To determine which tissue the proboscis was inserted into
2. Use of radioactive isotopes
1. C to an intact leaf enclosed in a sealed chamber

Supply radioactive carbon 14
2. Allow photosynthesis to take place
3. Cut a cross section of the stem & expose it onto an X-ray photographic film
- Providing a leaf using Carbon-14 (14C) radioactive isotope
14
- C incorporated into sugar (glucose) formed during photosynthesis
- Only phloem shows radioactivity on X-ray photographic film
3. The ‘ringing’ experiment
- Cut off a ring of bark including the phloem & cambium, leaving the xylem exposed
- Immerse in water with cut ring above water level

- Swelling observed above cut

- Swelling is due to the accumulation of organic solutes that came from higher up the tree
& cld no longer continue downward
- Later, the bark below the girdle dies bc it no longer receives nutrients from the leaves
- Eventually, the roots & even the entire tree dies
● Q: What changes occur to the W.P. & the vol of liquid in the phloem when sucrose is
moved into a sink?
● A: W.P. lowers & vol of liquid decreases
● Having no cross walls btwn vessel elements allows xylem to have reduces resistance
to water
● Different substances e.g. sucrose & AA can move in diff directions in the phloem from
sieve tubes as translocation occurs in diff directions in diff phloem sieve tubes @ the
same time
Spongy mesophyll wld have lowest CO2 conc on a warm sunny day (higher ROT), for optimum
gaseous exchange
Transport in Humans

Double Circulation
Human body = double circulation = pulmonary circulation + systemic circulation
● Pulmonary circulation: heart → lungs → heart

● Systemic circulation: heart → body → heart
Advantages of double circulation:

- Blood enters pulmonary circulation at low pressure, ensuring sufficient time for blood to
be fully oxygenated before returning to the heart
- Blood is pumped into systemic circulation at a high pressure, ensuring oxygenated blood
is quickly distributed to all tissues in the body
Functions & constituents of blood
plasma - 55%, majority water, medium in which cellular components are suspended in, can
leave closed circulatory system into open system, diffuses out & causes swelling
WBC, Platelets, RBC - 45%

Blood acts as a transport medium carrying:

- Digested food substances (small intestine → all body cells)
- Excretory products (urea from liver → kidneys, CO2 from cells → lungs)
- Hormones (endocrine cells → target cells)
- Heat (liver & muscles → all body cells)
- Oxygen (lungs → all body cells)

feature RBC WBC platelet
shape biconcave variable Tiny cytoplasm fragments

which are membrane bound
(not true cells)
content Contains haemoglobin; absence Might contain lobed nucleus Contain dense granules
of nucleus
Life span Abt 120 days 3 - 20 days 8-9 days
function - Constitute 99% of cells Lymphocytes Important for the clotting of

in blood - Large rounded nucleus blood
- Destroyed in the spleen - Small amt of non-granular
- Transport of oxygen cytoplasm
from lungs to cells in the - Produce antibodies
body against microorganisms
Phagocytes
- Lobed nucleus
- Granular cytoplasm
- Able to ingest foreign
particles
origin Bone marrow
Feature adaptation
Contains haemoglobin - Contains iron to bind to reversibly w

oxygen
- Enabled RBC to transport oxygen from
the lungs to the rest of the body
Biconcave shape - Increases SA to vol ratio for rapid

absorption and release of oxygen
Elastic - Allows RBC to squeeze through

narrow capillaries
No nucleus - Provides more space to contain more

haemoglobin → more oxygen

Transport of Oxygen to body cells

1. Blood passes through lungs, oxygen diffuses from the air sacs in the lungs into the
blood.
2. Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
3. Blood transports oxygen to all the tissues of the body.
4. At tissue cells, oxyhaemoglobin releases oxygen
Blood clotting
- Blood clots when exposed to air, sealing the wound & preventing entry of bacteria &
further loss of blood
Hemophilia - lack of natural clotting factor, only weak platelet plug can form →
incomplete fibrin mesh, bleeding continues
Phagocytosis: process of engulfing & ingesting foreign particles (bacteria) by phagocytes

(type of WBC)
Blood also produces antibodies (carried out by lymphocytes - type of WBC), which cause
bacteria to clump together by rupturing their surface membranes & neutralise toxins
produced by bacteria
Organ transplant & tissue rejection

- The recipient of the organ may produce antibodies to destroy the transplant
(tissue rejection)

- Tissue match & immunosuppressive drugs can be used to reduce risk of tissue
rejection
Blood groups
A B AB O
Compatible A&O B&O A, B, AB, O O (universal

blood types (universal donor)
recipient)
● During blood transfusion, the effect of recipient’s plasma on donor’s RBC is considered
● O → universal donor, there are no antigens on donor’s RBC, so antibodies in recipient’s
plasma will not react w the RBC
● AB → Universal recipient, no antibodies in plasma → no agglutination of RBC in donor’s
blood will occur
● If theres Anti-A & antibody a → clumping will occur
● When an Antigen corresponds w the antibody, the antibodies will attack the antigens &
cause agglutination/clumping
Serum of blood (of a certain group) = plasma, antibodies ONLY

Blood vessels
Flow of blood:
Heart → artery → arteriole → capillary → venule → vein → heart
Arteries
- Transport oxygenated blood from the heart to other organs in the body
- Have thick, muscular walls to support blood coming from the heart, which is higher in
pressure
- Elastic wall (withstand high pressure of blood & stretch & recoil to push blood along in
spurts)
- The muscles contract & relax to cause constriction & dilation of the artery respectively
this controls the flow of blood
Veins
- Transport deoxygenated blood back to the heart
- have relatively thin walls w less elastic tissue as the flow of blood is slower (& lower
pressure) & hence blood pressure is lower compared to arteries
- Veins hv valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards as blood is flowing slowly
udner low pressure (semi-lunar valves)

Capillaries
- Endothelium consists of a single layer of flattened cells (one cell thick - more efficient
diffusion) and the walls are partially permeable (allows diffusion btwn blood & tissue
fluid)
- Capillary network that branches repeatedly increases SA & total cross sectional area
(lowers BP, lowers rate of blood flow, more time for exchange of substances) for more
efficient exchange of substances btwn blood & cells
Transfer of materials btwn capillaries & tissue fluid
● Tissue fluid = plasma w/o its proteins

● Dissolved food substances & diffuse from the blood in the blood capillary into tissue
fluid & then into body cells
● RBC, Platelets & large molecules e.g. proteins remain in blood capillary
● WBC may squeeze out through capillary wall into tissue fluid

● Metabolic waste proteins e.g. urea, CO2 will diffuse from body cells into tissue fluid &
then through the capillary cells into the blood
Structure & function of heart
- Left ventricle: thicker muscular walls than right ventricle as it has to pump the

blood into the systemic circulation

- Right ventricle: relatively thick muscular walls to move blood into pulmonary
circulation
- Atria: have relatively thinner walls to force blood into ventricles
Pathway of blood through the heart

1. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via the vena cava
2. Right atrium contracts & blood flows into the right ventricle
3. Right ventricle contracts & blood leaves through pulmonary arch
4. Blood leaves the heart & enters via pulmonary arteries
5. Oxygenated blood from the lungs flows into the left atrium via pulmonary veins
6. Left ventricle contracts & blood flows towards the aortic arch
Left side Right side
Blood pressure higher lower
Change in circulation From pulmonary to systemic From systemic to pulmonary

circulation
valves Bicuspid (mitral) to semi-lunar Tricuspid to semi-lunar valves in

valves in aorta (aortic valves) pulmonary arteries (pulmonary
valves)

Blood content oxygenated Deoxygenated
The Cardiac Cycle
Systole = contraction
Diastole = relaxation
1. Atrial systole
- The muscular walls of the atria contract, forcing blood into the relaxed muscles
2. Ventricular systole
- The muscular walls of the ventricles contract, causing the pressure to increase. This
causes the bicuspid & tricuspid valves to close [lub sound], to prevent backflow of blood
into the atria. The semi-lunar valves are forced open. Blood flows from the left & right
ventricles into the aortic arch & the pulmonary arch respectively
3. Atrial diastole
- As the ventricles contract, the atria relaxes & receives blood from the vena cavae &
pulmonary veins
4. Ventricular diastole
- The decrease in pressure causes the semi-lunar valves to close to prevent backflow into
the ventricles [dub sound]
- The bicuspid & tricuspid valves open & blood flows from the atria into the ventricles
5. Atrial systole
- The muscular walls of the atria contract again & the cardiac cycle repeats

Volume of blood determines pressure
● Pressure in the aorta is always high as it receives blood to be transported to all

parts of the body & high pressure is needed to transport oxygenated blood to all
parts of the body
● Pressure in the aorta is particularly high & continues to increase for a while (aft
semilunar valves open) before decreasing as a lot of blood rushes through the
valves
● The pressure of the left ventricle must exceed that of the aorta to open the
semilunar valves & allow blood to flow out
Coronary heart disease

- Build up of fatty substances on inner surfaces of coronary arteries (atherosclerosis)
- Lumen of arteries is narrowed
- Blood clot forms in artery (thrombosis)
- reduced blood flow to heart
- Heart muscle cells receive reduced oxygen supply
- May lead to heart attack (myocardial infarction)

Atherosclerosis
● Fatty substances such as cholesterol & saturated fats may be deposited on the inner
surface of the coronary arteries
● This narrows the lumen & increases blood pressure, resulting in a rough inner surface
Thrombosis
● A blood clot in the artery
● If it occurs in a coronary artery, glucose & oxygen in blood will not be able to reach the
muscle cells of the heart
● Cells will become damaged & a heart attack will eventually occur

Effects of blockage of coronary artery:

1. Chest pain
2. Shortness of breath
3. Heart attack (as decreased oxygen & glucose in blood is sent to cardiac muscle cells,
cells die → heart attack)
Factors that increase the risk of atherosclerosis & coronary heart disease:
1. Genetics
2. Poor diet - high fat diet rich in cholesterol, saturated animal fats, high sodium content
3. Emotional stress
4. Smoking
5. Sedentary lifestyle
6. Lack of regular exercise
7. Diabetes
8. Excessive alcohol consumption
Preventative measures against coronary heart disease:

1. A healthy diet
- w reduced intake of animal fats which can be replaced w polyunsaturated plant fats
- Rich in veg & fruits
2. Manage & reduce stress in an appropriate way
3. Avoid smoking
4. Exercise regularly, stay physically active
5. Manage weight
6. Control high BP, cholesterol, diabetes

Treatment: angioplasty
- Using a balloon to place a stent in the blocked area of the artery, inflate balloon &
remove it → artery held open by extended stent
Why is bypass surgery better than whole heart transplant?

- Lesser risk of tissue rejection & lesser complications in bypass
Why does a blockage in an artery have more serious consequences than a blockage in a
capillary?
- artery is (usually) upstream of the capillary & delivers blood to a greater part of the
body than a capillary → larger area affected
Explain the difference in pressure generated during atrial systole & ventricular systole.
- Pressure generated during atrial systole is lower as atria only forces blood into ventricles
which is a short distance. The thicker & more muscular walls in the left ventricle
generate a higher pressure in the left ventricle so that blood can be pushed to all parts
of the body.
Explain the difference in the colour of RBC in renal artery vs renal vein.
- Oxygen content of RBC in renal artery is higher than in renal vein. It is red in renal artery
as the blood carried by artery is oxygenated. It is blue/purplish in the vein due to
deoxygenated blood/higher amt of CO2.
State the function of WBC

- Produces antibodies that protect the bodies against microorganisms & resulting in
agglutination, allowing microorganisms to be easily ingested & engulfed by phagocytes

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Cell Structure & Organisation

Cell Component Identification and Function

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d) Name: ​rough endoplasmic reticulum

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e) Name: ​smooth endoplasmic reticulum

f) Name: ​golgi apparatus

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1. RED BLOOD CELL

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Contains haemoglobin Combines with oxygen to form

Has no nucleus Has more space to carry more haemoglobin

Circular biconcave shape Increases surface area to volume ratio of

2. ROOT HAIR CELL

Long and narrow protrusion Increases surface area to volume ratio of

Presence of sap vacuole Lowers its water potential so that water

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Absence of cross walls or protoplasm Enables water to move easily through

Xylem vessels bundled together Provides mechanical support to plant

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Organelles w ​internal​ membranes:

Organelles w ​double​ membrane:

Main constituent of cytoplasm: water

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Components of plasma membrane:

1. Phospholipids: ​form a bilayer with

2. Cholesterol:​ found in animal cell membranes, improves stability, reduces fluidity

3. Proteins: either integral or peripheral

- Carrier proteins: ​bind to specific

- Peripheral:​ superficially attached to

Type of movement Examples

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Facilitated diffusion​ – may involve nonspecific Large polar molecule - amino

Osmosis​ – involves aquaporins / water Water molecule

Active transport​ – involves protein channel Glucose molecule

Passive transport: no energy needed to be carried out

Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion

Similarities ● The net movement of particles is always along / down a

Difference ● Occurs directly across the ● Transport proteins

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Functions of the Cell Membrane:

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-Cell membrane equipped with receptor proteins that receive messenger

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Biological Molecules: Nutrients

Elements in living things

➔ A polar molecule, positive charge from H atoms, negative

property reason consequence

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Building blocks of organic molecules

Form of carbohydrate examples Example of use in plants Example of use in animals

Monosaccharide Glucose, galactose, Fructose makes fruits Glucose is the source of

Polysaccharide​ (long Starch, glycogen, Cellulose is a structural Glycogen - storage

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Condensation reaction between carbohydrates

Glucose + glucose → maltose + water

Condensation reaction between amino acids

● 2 amino acids undergo condensation to form a

Amino acid + amino acid → dipeptide + water

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Condensation reaction between fatty acids &

d) Name: rough endoplasmic reticulum

e) Name: smooth endoplasmic reticulum

f) Name: golgi apparatus

Organelles w internal membranes:

Organelles w double membrane:

1. Phospholipids: form a bilayer with

2. Cholesterol: found in animal cell membranes, improves stability, reduces fluidity

- Carrier proteins: bind to specific

- Peripheral: superficially attached to

Facilitated diffusion – may involve nonspecific Large polar molecule - amino

Osmosis – involves aquaporins / water Water molecule

Active transport – involves protein channel Glucose molecule

Polysaccharide (long Starch, glycogen, Cellulose is a structural Glycogen - storage

Organs involved in digestion of polypeptides:

- Stomach (1st site of protein digestion NOT polypeptides), pancreas excretes

- Transpirational pull: suction force caused by transpiration resulting in water moving up